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148-638: The Brigades were mostly made up of communists , but also included members of other parties of the National Liberation Committee (CLN), in particular the Italian Socialist Party . Led by Luigi Longo and Pietro Secchia , they were the largest of the partisan groups and suffered the highest number of losses. Members wore a red handkerchief around the neck with red stars on their hats. On 20 September 1943 in Milano ,

296-540: A communist revolution would put the working class in power, and in turn establish common ownership of property, the primary element in the transformation of society towards a communist mode of production . Communism in its modern form grew out of the socialist movement in 18th-century France , in the aftermath of the French Revolution . Criticism of the idea of private property in the Age of Enlightenment of

444-643: A semi-colony to a leading world power, with greatly advanced literacy, women's rights, basic healthcare, primary education, and life expectancy. Its leading role in World War II saw the emergence of the industrialized Soviet Union as a superpower . Marxist–Leninist governments modeled on the Soviet Union took power with Soviet assistance in Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , East Germany , Poland , Hungary, and Romania . A Marxist–Leninist government

592-436: A command member with wide decisional powers. After the war declaration to Germany by Badoglio I Cabinet on 13 October 1943, the general command of BG issued a document ( Direttive d'attacco , "Attack Directives") in line with the political directives of PCI in favour of the organization and intensification of the partisan war, characterized by a claim for legality and a call to a resolute fight against Germans and militants of

740-473: A distinct stage between capitalism and communism. This intermediate stage was a concept introduced by Vladimir Lenin as a means to defend the Bolshevik seizure of power against traditional Marxist criticism that Russia's productive forces were not sufficiently developed for socialist revolution . A distinction between communist and socialist as descriptors of political ideologies arose in 1918 after

888-463: A form of state capitalism . Public memory of 20th-century Communist states has been described as a battleground between anti anti-communism and anti-communism . Many authors have written about mass killings under communist regimes and mortality rates , such as excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin , which remain controversial, polarized, and debated topics in academia, historiography, and politics when discussing communism and

1036-526: A form of communism. In their words, the Hutterites "established in their communities a rigorous system of Ordnungen, which were codes of rules and regulations that governed all aspects of life and ensured a unified perspective. As an economic system, communism was attractive to many of the peasants who supported social revolution in sixteenth century central Europe." This link was highlighted in one of Karl Marx 's early writings; Marx stated that "[a]s Christ

1184-455: A greater emphasis on certain aspects of classical Marxism while rejecting or modifying other aspects. Many schools of thought have sought to combine Marxian concepts and non-Marxian concepts, which has then led to contradictory conclusions. There is a movement toward the recognition that historical materialism and dialectical materialism remain the fundamental aspects of all Marxist schools of thought . Marxism–Leninism and its offshoots are

1332-556: A hierarchical basis, with active cells of members as the broad base. They were made up only of elite cadres approved by higher members of the party as being reliable and completely subject to party discipline . The Great Purge of 1936–1938 was Joseph Stalin 's attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . In the Moscow trials , many old Bolsheviks who had played prominent roles during

1480-540: A matter of debate, but the distinction rests largely on the communists' adherence to the revolutionary socialism of Karl Marx." In the United States, communism is widely used as a pejorative term as part of a Red Scare , much like socialism , and mainly in reference to authoritarian socialism and Communist states . The emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally Communist state led to

1628-629: A more libertarian socialist approach of communization , revolutionary spontaneity , and workers' self-management , and a more authoritarian vanguardist or communist party -driven approach through the development of a socialist state , followed by the withering away of the state . As one of the main ideologies on the political spectrum , communist parties and movements have been described as radical left or far-left. Variants of communism have been developed throughout history, including anarchist communism , Marxist schools of thought , and religious communism , among others. Communism encompasses

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1776-425: A particular type of communism. One of the first uses of the word in its modern sense is in a letter sent by Victor d'Hupay to Nicolas Restif de la Bretonne around 1785, in which d'Hupay describes himself as an auteur communiste ("communist author"). In 1793, Restif first used communisme to describe a social order based on egalitarianism and the common ownership of property. Restif would go on to use

1924-529: A possible communist or socialist theorist, or as the first author to give communism a serious consideration. The 5th-century Mazdak movement in Persia (modern-day Iran) has been described as communistic for challenging the enormous privileges of the noble classes and the clergy , criticizing the institution of private property , and striving to create an egalitarian society. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, generally under

2072-531: A post-capitalist society – positive humanism, socialism, Communism, realm of free individuality, free association of producers, etc. He used these terms completely interchangeably. The notion that 'socialism' and 'Communism' are distinct historical stages is alien to his work and only entered the lexicon of Marxism after his death." According to the Encyclopædia Britannica , "Exactly how communism differs from socialism has long been

2220-617: A prerequisite to socialism , were critical of the Bolsheviks from the beginning due to Russia being seen as too backward for a socialist revolution . Council communism and left communism , inspired by the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the wide proletarian revolutionary wave, arose in response to developments in Russia and are critical of self-declared constitutionally socialist states . Some left-wing parties, such as

2368-490: A roundup. The Garibaldini distinguished by their political symbols of their uniforms: red handkerchiefs around the neck, red stars on hats, emblems with hammer and sickle . Despite the directives of CVL command aimed to unite all the combatant formations and to promote the use of national badges and the military salute, militants of the brigades continued to be indifferent towards those directives, remaining faithful to their traditions, and most of them continued to salute with

2516-458: A socialist principle of " to each according to his contribution ". Socialism has been described as a philosophy seeking distributive justice, and communism as a subset of socialism that prefers economic equality as its form of distributive justice. In 19th century Europe, the use of the terms communism and socialism eventually accorded with the cultural attitude of adherents and opponents towards religion . In European Christendom , communism

2664-546: A socialist state that is in the process of constructing communism. Terms used by Communist states include national-democratic , people's democratic , socialist-oriented , and workers and peasants' states. According to Richard Pipes , the idea of a classless , egalitarian society first emerged in ancient Greece . Since the 20th century, ancient Rome has been examined in this context, as well as thinkers such as Aristotle , Cicero , Demosthenes , Plato , and Tacitus . Plato, in particular, has been considered as

2812-439: A variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism , Leninism , and libertarian communism, as well as the political ideologies grouped around those. All of these different ideologies generally share the analysis that the current order of society stems from capitalism , its economic system , and mode of production , that in this system there are two major social classes, that the relationship between these two classes

2960-710: A work about More, whose ideas could be regarded as "the foregleam of Modern Socialism" according to Kautsky. During the October Revolution in Russia, Vladimir Lenin suggested that a monument be dedicated to More, alongside other important Western thinkers. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, where a Puritan religious group known as the Diggers advocated the abolition of private ownership of land. In his 1895 Cromwell and Communism , Eduard Bernstein stated that several groups during

3108-466: Is a non- idealist attempt at the understanding of material history and society, whereby communism is the expression of a real movement, with parameters that are derived from actual life. According to Marxist theory, class conflict arises in capitalist societies due to contradictions between the material interests of the oppressed and exploited proletariat  – a class of wage laborers employed to produce goods and services – and

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3256-424: Is exploitative, and that this situation can only ultimately be resolved through a social revolution . The two classes are the proletariat , who make up the majority of the population within society and must sell their labor power to survive, and the bourgeoisie , a small minority that derives profit from employing the working class through private ownership of the means of production. According to this analysis,

3404-480: Is that of educating voters in what are deemed their true interests rather than in response to the expression of interest by voters themselves. When they have gained control of the state, Leninist communists' main task was preventing other political parties from deceiving the proletariat, such as by running their own independent candidates. This vanguardist approach comes from their commitments to democratic centralism in which communists can only be cadres, i.e. members of

3552-542: Is the intermediary unto whom man unburdens all his divinity, all his religious bonds, so the state is the mediator unto which he transfers all his Godlessness, all his human liberty." Thomas Müntzer led a large Anabaptist communist movement during the German Peasants' War , which Friedrich Engels analyzed in his 1850 work The Peasant War in Germany . The Marxist communist ethos that aims for unity reflects

3700-680: Is viewed overwhelmingly negatively as a mass murderer ; for significant numbers of Russians and Georgians, he is regarded as a great statesman and state-builder. After the Chinese Civil War , Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party came to power in 1949 as the Nationalist government headed by the Kuomintang fled to the island of Taiwan. In 1950–1953, China engaged in a large-scale, undeclared war with

3848-614: The 1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election , socialist parties totaled well over 70% of the vote. The Bolsheviks were clear winners in the urban centres, and took around two-thirds of the votes of soldiers on the Western Front, obtaining 23.3% of the vote; the Socialist Revolutionaries finished first on the strength of support from the country's rural peasantry, who were for the most part single issue voters , that issue being land reform, obtaining 37.6%, while

3996-490: The 1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union . War communism was the first system adopted by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War as a result of the many challenges. Despite communism in the name, it had nothing to do with communism, with strict discipline for workers, strike actions forbidden, obligatory labor duty, and military-style control, and has been described as simple authoritarian control by

4144-660: The 4th Alpine Division "Monterosa" , the "Vestone", to defect to the Resistance. A fervent Catholic and firmly nonpartisan, Gastaldi, together with the Communist Giovanni Serbandini, established strict rules of behavior for the men of the Division, known as the "Cichero Code", which all members swore to follow: "During actions and operations the orders of the commanders are to be followed, there will always be an assembly to discuss their conduct;

4292-1038: The 88ª Brigata "Casotti" and later the entire " Antonio Gramsci " division in the Oltrepò Pavese . Those situations led sometimes to diatribes and contrasts that did not reduced the common will of antifascist struggle and the related application in fight. The most famous groups of Garibaldi Brigades were those of Vincenzo Moscatelli "Cino" and Eraldo Gastone "Ciro" in the Partisan Republic of Valsesia , Pompeo Colajanni "Barbato", Vincenzo Modica "Petralia" and Giovanni Latilla "Nanni" in Valle Po and Langhe , Francesco Moranino "Gemisto" in Biella , Mario Ricci "Armando" in Modena and Arrigo Boldrini "Bulow" in Romagna . Together with BGs, there were

4440-884: The Armistice of Cassibile he hid his weapons from the Germans near the Chiavari Castle , and in the following weeks he was contacted by members of the Italian Communist Party (despite him being a Catholic ), who proposed him to create a partisan group. Thus, in the winter of 1943 the first nucleus of what would become the "Cichero" Partisan Division was born in the mountains around Genoa; Gastaldi, with nom de guerre "Bisagno", became one of its leaders, leading successful raids on German and Fascist garrisons and sabotage actions on Axis fortifications. In November 1944 he managed to persuade an entire battalion of

4588-807: The Brigata Partigiana Stella Rossa killed by Germans during the roundup of Marzabotto , the anarchic Emilio Canzi , the sole commander of the 13th operative zone of Tuscan Emilian Apennines. Moreover, Aldo Aniasi remained at the command of the 2ª Divisione Garibaldi "Redi" in Ossola despite he had left the PCI in order to join the PSI, while Luigi Pierobon , one of the leaders of the Italian Catholic Federation of University Students of Veneto , had an important part in

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4736-665: The Cheget , to Russian president Boris Yeltsin . That evening at 7:32, the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag . Previously, from August to December 1991, all the individual republics, including Russia itself, had seceded from the union. The week before the union's formal dissolution, eleven republics signed the Alma-Ata Protocol , formally establishing

4884-735: The Christian universalist teaching that humankind is one and that there is only one god who does not discriminate among people. Communist thought has also been traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More . In his 1516 treatise titled Utopia , More portrayed a society based on common ownership of property, whose rulers administered it through the application of reason and virtue . Marxist communist theoretician Karl Kautsky , who popularized Marxist communism in Western Europe more than any other thinker apart from Engels, published Thomas More and His Utopia ,

5032-558: The Cold War had begun. Stalin himself believed that capitalism was a hollow shell and would crumble under increased non-military pressure exerted through proxies in countries like Italy. He greatly underestimated the economic strength of the West and instead of triumph saw the West build up alliances that were designed to permanently stop or contain Soviet expansion. In early 1950, Stalin gave

5180-841: The Commonwealth of Independent States , and declared that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist. As of 2023, states controlled by Communist parties under a single-party system include the People's Republic of China, the Republic of Cuba , the Democratic People's Republic of Korea , the Lao People's Democratic Republic , and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam . Communist parties, or their descendant parties, remain politically important in several other countries. With

5328-621: The English Civil War (especially the Diggers) espoused clear communistic, agrarianist ideals and that Oliver Cromwell 's attitude towards these groups was at best ambivalent and often hostile. Criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century through such thinkers as Gabriel Bonnot de Mably , Jean Meslier , Étienne-Gabriel Morelly , and Jean-Jacques Rousseau in France. During

5476-452: The Gruppi di azione patriottica (GAP, "Groups of Patriotic Action"), specialised in sabotages and attempts against nazi-fascist occupants. GAPs and BGs represented almost 50% of the forces of the partisan Resistance. At the final insurrection of April 1945, the active garibaldini combatants were about 51,000 divided in 23 "divisions" on a total of about 100,000 partisans. On 15 April 1945,

5624-524: The Russian Revolution or in Lenin's Soviet government afterwards, including Lev Kamenev , Grigory Zinoviev , Alexei Rykov , and Nikolai Bukharin , were accused, pleaded guilty of conspiracy against the Soviet Union, and were executed. The devastation of World War II resulted in a massive recovery program involving the rebuilding of industrial plants, housing, and transportation as well as

5772-611: The Russian Social Democratic Labour Party renamed itself as the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , which resulted in the adjective Communist being used to refer to socialists who supported the politics and theories of Bolshevism, Leninism , and later in the 1920s those of Marxism–Leninism . In spite of this common usage, Communist parties also continued to describe themselves as socialists dedicated to socialism. According to The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx , "Marx used many terms to refer to

5920-731: The Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies in the October Revolution; after a few weeks of deliberation, the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries formed a coalition government with the Bolsheviks from November 1917 to July 1918, while the right-wing faction of the Socialist Revolutionary Party boycotted the soviets and denounced the October Revolution as an illegal coup . In

6068-595: The Socialist Party of Great Britain , boasted of having called the Bolsheviks, and by extension those Communist states which either followed or were inspired by the Soviet Bolshevik model of development, establishing state capitalism in late 1917, as would be described during the 20th century by several academics, economists, and other scholars, or a command economy . Before the Soviet path of development became known as socialism , in reference to

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6216-687: The University of Genoa . During World War II he was called up for military service at age twenty, assigned to the 15th Engineers Regiment with the rank of second lieutenant and stationed in Chiavari as a radio operator. On 25 July 1943, while on public order service with his platoon on the day of the fall of the Fascist regime , he destroyed the symbols of the Casa del Fascio in Chiavari. After

6364-427: The bourgeoisie  – the ruling class that owns the means of production and extracts its wealth through appropriation of the surplus product produced by the proletariat in the form of profit . This class struggle that is commonly expressed as the revolt of a society's productive forces against its relations of production , results in a period of short-term crises as the bourgeoisie struggle to manage

6512-400: The common ownership of the means of production, therefore abolishing the bourgeoisie, ultimately abolishing the proletariat itself and ushering the world into communism as a new mode of production . In between capitalism and communism, there is the dictatorship of the proletariat ; it is the defeat of the bourgeois state but not yet of the capitalist mode of production, and at the same time

6660-652: The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Fall of Communism , there was a split between those hardline Communists, sometimes referred to in the media as neo-Stalinists , who remained committed to orthodox Marxism–Leninism , and those, such as The Left in Germany, who work within the liberal-democratic process for a democratic road to socialism; other ruling Communist parties became closer to democratic socialist and social-democratic parties. Outside Communist states, reformed Communist parties have led or been part of left-leaning government or regional coalitions, including in

6808-450: The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, several previously Communist governments repudiated or abolished Communist rule altogether. Afterwards, only a small number of nominally Communist governments remained, such as China , Cuba , Laos , North Korea , and Vietnam . With the exception of North Korea, all of these states have started allowing more economic competition while maintaining one-party rule. The decline of communism in

6956-548: The materialist conception of history which holds that the key characteristic of economic systems through history has been the mode of production and that the change between modes of production has been triggered by class struggle. According to this analysis, the Industrial Revolution ushered the world into the new capitalist mode of production . Before capitalism, certain working classes had ownership of instruments used in production; however, because machinery

7104-413: The means of production , distribution, and exchange that allocates products to everyone in the society based on need. A communist society would entail the absence of private property and social classes , and ultimately money and the state (or nation state ). Communists often seek a voluntary state of self-governance but disagree on the means to this end. This reflects a distinction between

7252-445: The means of production , earning profit via the surplus value generated by the proletariat, who have no ownership of the means of production and therefore no option but to sell its labor to the bourgeoisie. According to the materialist conception of history, it is through the furtherance of its own material interests that the rising bourgeoisie within feudalism captured power and abolished, of all relations of private property, only

7400-401: The productive forces ) is the primary agent of change in the structure of society and of human social relations and that social systems and their relations (e.g. feudalism , capitalism , and so on) become contradictory and inefficient as the productive forces develop, which results in some form of social revolution arising in response to the mounting contradictions. This revolutionary change is

7548-532: The raised fist . Generally, Garibaldi Brigades received orders from the PCI representative among the Corpo Volontari della Libertà , who was Luigi Longo (battle name "Italo"), and from the National Liberation Committee . However, all the BGs depended directly on the general command, formed by general commander Longo, Pietro Secchia (battle name "Botte" or "Vineis"), who was also the political commissar of

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7696-435: The two-stage theory , communists made no major distinction between the socialist mode of production and communism; it is consistent with, and helped to inform, early concepts of socialism in which the law of value no longer directs economic activity. Monetary relations in the form of exchange-value , profit , interest , and wage labor would not operate and apply to Marxist socialism. While Joseph Stalin stated that

7844-658: The "Garemi", "Nannetti" and "Ortigara" Divisions stopped the German retreat and freed Padova , Valdagno and Belluno . Severe problems of collaboration between the Italian partisans and the Slovenian formations of the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia arose on the eastern border, where the strong Slavic chauvinism, difficulties of Italian communist leaders and the contradictory aspects of their policy fostered divisions and anti-Slavic resentments within non-communist forces of

7992-636: The "military work" given to commanders of BGs on the field and to regional delegates with full powers. Despite the direct link with PCI, the Garibaldi Brigades had notable leaders who were not communist militants, like the Catholic and apolitical Aldo Gastaldi (with the battle name "Bisagno", after the homonymous torrent stream ), one of the most important partisan commanders in Genoa , the apolitical Mario Musolesi (battle name "Lupo"), leader of

8140-531: The 18th century through such thinkers as Gabriel Bonnot de Mably , Jean Meslier , Étienne-Gabriel Morelly , Henri de Saint-Simon and Jean-Jacques Rousseau in France. During the upheaval of the French Revolution , communism emerged as a political doctrine under the auspices of François-Noël Babeuf , Nicolas Restif de la Bretonne , and Sylvain Maréchal , all of whom can be considered the progenitors of modern communism, according to James H. Billington . In

8288-414: The 20th century, several ostensibly Communist governments espousing Marxism–Leninism and its variants came into power, first in the Soviet Union with the Russian Revolution of 1917, and then in portions of Eastern Europe, Asia, and a few other regions after World War II . As one of the many types of socialism , communism became the dominant political tendency, along with social democracy , within

8436-615: The 20th century. In Western Europe, communist parties were part of several post-war governments, and even when the Cold War forced many of those countries to remove them from government, such as in Italy, they remained part of the liberal-democratic process. There were also many developments in libertarian Marxism, especially during the 1960s with the New Left . By the 1960s and 1970s, many Western communist parties had criticized many of

8584-452: The 50% of militants had to be assigned to the military activity. A body of inspectors was assigned to the various regions with the task to control the partisan activity of brigades and to develop their political-military activity. Members of the general command were later decentralised, the main leadership was located in Milan and detached delegations were formed in each region under the guide by

8732-447: The 50s, there were expectations of a return of war in mountains against the bourgeois state firmly placed in the capitalist field. Communist Communism (from Latin communis , 'common, universal') is a sociopolitical , philosophical , and economic ideology within the socialist movement , whose goal is the creation of a communist society , a socioeconomic order centered around common ownership of

8880-696: The Bolsheviks to maintain power and control in the Soviet regions, rather than any coherent political ideology . The Soviet Union was established in 1922. Before the broad ban in 1921, there were several factions in the Communist party, more prominently among them the Left Opposition , the Right Opposition , and the Workers' Opposition , which debated on the path of development to follow. The Left and Workers' oppositions were more critical of

9028-422: The Communist ideal. Mao charged that Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was the leader of a "revisionist clique" which had turned against Marxism and Leninism and was now setting the stage for the restoration of capitalism. The two nations were at sword's point by 1960. Both began forging alliances with communist supporters around the globe, thereby splitting the worldwide movement into two hostile camps. Rejecting

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9176-429: The Constituent Assembly in January 1918. The Draft Decree on the Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly was issued by the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union , a committee dominated by Lenin, who had previously supported a multi-party system of free elections. After the Bolshevik defeat, Lenin started referring to the assembly as a "deceptive form of bourgeois-democratic parliamentarianism." Some argued this

9324-409: The Fourierists in France were considered respectable socialists, while working-class movements that "proclaimed the necessity of total social change" denoted themselves communists . This latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany. While liberal democrats looked to the Revolutions of 1848 as a democratic revolution , which in

9472-411: The Garibaldi Brigades was the contrast attempt to transform the partisan formations into an avant-garde and constitutive element of the process of involving the populations in the active anti-fascism, with a continuous effort of integration between the armed fight and the civil mobilisation through their representatives. With a further organizational effort, communist leaders of Milan created in June 1944

9620-428: The Garibaldi partisans, there were distrust and fear of the return of reactionary forces, and only about 60% of the weapons were actually given, while communist partisans kept a conspicuous number of light weapons, caps, jackets, red handkerchiefs, backpacks and cartridge boxes. The hiding of weapons was partially allowed by some Garibaldi leaders of the north in sight of a possible reprise of the liberation war; during all

9768-416: The Great Leap was a very expensive disaster." Put in charge of rescuing the economy, Deng adopted pragmatic policies that the idealistic Mao disliked. For a while, Mao was in the shadows but returned to center stage and purged Deng and his allies in the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). The Cultural Revolution was an upheaval that targeted intellectuals and party leaders from 1966 through 1976. Mao's goal

9916-439: The October Revolution which involved the assault on Petrograd occurred largely without any human casualties . By November 1917, the Russian Provisional Government had been widely discredited by its failure to withdraw from World War I, implement land reform, or convene the Russian Constituent Assembly to draft a constitution, leaving the soviets in de facto control of the country. The Bolsheviks moved to hand power to

10064-410: The Resistance. On 20 September 1944, the general command of Slovenian PLA abolished unilaterally the agreements with the NLC done in April of the same year, which provided an Italian-Slovenian "equal command" on the formations. Consequently, most of the Italian units fell under the control of the Slovenian PLA and ceased to be formations of the Corpo Volontari della Libertà d'Italia . The commander and

10212-536: The Russian Federation has some supporters, but is reformist rather than revolutionary, aiming to lessen the inequalities of Russia's market economy. Chinese economic reforms were started in 1978 under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping , and since then China has managed to bring down the poverty rate from 53% in the Mao era to just 8% in 2001. After losing Soviet subsidies and support, Vietnam and Cuba have attracted more foreign investment to their countries, with their economies becoming more market-oriented. North Korea,

10360-431: The Soviet Union . The declaration acknowledged the independence of the former Soviet republics and created the Commonwealth of Independent States , although five of the signatories ratified it much later or did not do it at all. On the previous day, Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev (the eighth and final leader of the Soviet Union ) resigned, declared his office extinct, and handed over its powers, including control of

10508-423: The Soviet government of Nikita Khrushchev , who enacted a period of de-Stalinization and re-approached diplomatic relations with Yugoslavia in 1976. The Communist Party of China, led by Mao Zedong, established the People's Republic of China , which would follow its own ideological path of development following the Sino-Soviet split . Communism was seen as a rival of and a threat to Western capitalism for most of

10656-524: The Soviet model of rapid urbanization, Mao Zedong and his top aide Deng Xiaoping launched the Great Leap Forward in 1957–1961 with the goal of industrializing China overnight, using the peasant villages as the base rather than large cities. Private ownership of land ended and the peasants worked in large collective farms that were now ordered to start up heavy industry operations, such as steel mills. Plants were built in remote locations, due to

10804-555: The Soviets, built the hydrogen bomb , and strengthened the NATO alliance that covered Western Europe . According to Gorlizki and Khlevniuk, Stalin's consistent and overriding goal after 1945 was to consolidate the nation's superpower status and in the face of his growing physical decrepitude, to maintain his own hold on total power. Stalin created a leadership system that reflected historic czarist styles of paternalism and repression yet

10952-778: The Ukrainian Socialist Bloc finished a distant third at 12.7%, and the Mensheviks obtained a disappointing fourth place at 3.0%. Most of the Socialist Revolutionary Party's seats went to the right-wing faction. Citing outdated voter-rolls, which did not acknowledge the party split, and the assembly's conflicts with the Congress of Soviets, the Bolshevik–Left Socialist-Revolutionaries government moved to dissolve

11100-628: The United States, South Korea, and United Nations forces in the Korean War . While the war ended in a military stalemate, it gave Mao the opportunity to identify and purge elements in China that seemed supportive of capitalism. At first, there was close cooperation with Stalin, who sent in technical experts to aid the industrialization process along the line of the Soviet model of the 1930s. After Stalin's death in 1953, relations with Moscow soured – Mao thought Stalin's successors had betrayed

11248-479: The abolition of capitalism. For Leninist communism, such goals, including short-term proletarian interests to improve their political and material conditions, can only be achieved through vanguardism , an elitist form of socialism from above that relies on theoretical analysis to identify proletarian interests rather than consulting the proletarians themselves, as is advocated by libertarian communists. When they engage in elections, Leninist communists' main task

11396-516: The action of partisans. Detailed plans were designed in order to enter into the cities, protect factories and plants and to prevent the run of nazi-fascist forces. The insurrection began then on 24 and 25 April in the main cities of the north, after that the regional commands spread the codified message "Aldo dice 26x1" ("Aldo says 26x1"). During this final phase, the Garibaldini formations, organized in "Divisions" and "Groups of Divisions" (like

11544-499: The actions of communist states, distanced from them, and developed a democratic road to socialism , which became known as Eurocommunism . This development was criticized by more orthodox supporters of the Soviet Union as amounting to social democracy . Since 1957, communists have been frequently voted into power in the Indian state of Kerala . In 1959, Cuban communist revolutionaries overthrew Cuba's previous government under

11692-431: The agitation of peasants in some zones and the infiltration among schools and universities, supporting also the recruitment and the flow of volunteers to combatant formations on mountains. During the Resistance, the separation between the two sides had never been irreversible and militants switched from an activity to another one, also if in some provinces a separation occurred between the "political work" of local leaders and

11840-462: The army and Mao's wife Jiang Qing . China's youth responded to Mao's appeal by forming Red Guard groups around the country. The movement spread into the military, urban workers, and the Communist party leadership itself. It resulted in widespread factional struggles in all walks of life. In the top leadership, it led to a mass purge of senior officials who were accused of taking a " capitalist road ", most notably Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping . During

11988-731: The biggest division was engaged in Ljubljana and entered into the city on 20 May, because an order of the Slovenian Communist Party hindered the participation of Italian partisan formations to the liberation of Trieste. After the end of the military operations during the first days of May in 1945, Allies and NLC ordered the consignment of weapons and the dismantle of partisan units. Garibaldi Brigades, as other partisan formations, were formally disbanded and gave to Allies 215,000 rifles, 12,000 submachine guns, 5,000 machine guns, 5 000 handguns and 760 bazookas. However, among

12136-515: The brigades, Giancarlo Pajetta ("Luca", deputy commander); Giorgio Amendola ("Palmieri"), Antonio Carini ("Orsi", killed in March 1944), Francesco Leone, Umberto Massola, Antonio Roasio, Francesco Scotti and Eugenio Curiel (killed on 24 February 1945). Those leaders developed the Garibaldi resistance movements and spread the communist influence in northern Italy. Along with Longo, Secchia and

12284-540: The combatants to prepare themselves for the general insurrection in all the northern Italy in order to precede the Allied troops and cooperate for the defeat of nazi-fascist forces. The general command of the brigades and the Communist Party emphasized to the maximum the importance of the insurrection which had to be done at any costs, without accepting any agreements, proposals, truces with the enemy that could limit

12432-485: The community"; this semantic constitution has led to numerous usages of the word in its evolution. Prior to becoming associated with its more modern conception of an economic and political organization, it was initially used to designate various social situations. After 1848, communism came to be primarily associated with Marxism , most specifically embodied in The Communist Manifesto , which proposed

12580-549: The creation of the Divisione Garibaldi "Ateo Garemi" . Some monarchical officers also joined the BGs and obtained the command of detachments, battalions or even entire brigades, for their military preparation, like captain Ugo Ricci (among the first promoters of the resistance in the province of Como , killed in action during the battle of Lenno ) and lieutenant count Luchino Dal Verme , who commanded as "Maino"

12728-557: The demobilization and migration of millions of soldiers and civilians. In the midst of this turmoil during the winter of 1946–1947, the Soviet Union experienced the worst natural famine in the 20th century. There was no serious opposition to Stalin as the secret police continued to send possible suspects to the gulag . Relations with the United States and Britain went from friendly to hostile, as they denounced Stalin's political controls over eastern Europe and his Berlin Blockade . By 1947,

12876-713: The dictator Fulgencio Batista . The leader of the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro , ruled Cuba from 1959 until 2008. With the fall of the Warsaw Pact after the Revolutions of 1989 , which led to the fall of most of the former Eastern Bloc , the Soviet Union was dissolved on 26 December 1991. It was a result of the declaration number 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of

13024-446: The fascist RSI. In November 1943, Pietro Secchia wrote an article on PCI journal La nostra lotta defining the political-military project adopted by BGs: he claimed the importance of the immediate military action in order to "shorten the war" and reduce the period of the German occupation, saving people and villages; in order to demonstrate to Allies the will of the Italian people to fight for their own freedom and democracy; to contrast

13172-452: The feudal privilege, thereby taking the feudal ruling class out of existence. This was another key element behind the consolidation of capitalism as the new mode of production, the final expression of class and property relations that has led to a massive expansion of production. It is only in capitalism that private property in itself can be abolished. Similarly, the proletariat would capture political power, abolish bourgeois property through

13320-477: The former Eastern Bloc. In Nepal, Communists ( CPN UML and Nepal Communist Party ) were part of the 1st Nepalese Constituent Assembly , which abolished the monarchy in 2008 and turned the country into a federal liberal-democratic republic, and have democratically shared power with other communists, Marxist–Leninists, and Maoists ( CPN Maoist ), social democrats ( Nepali Congress ), and others as part of their People's Multiparty Democracy . The Communist Party of

13468-715: The general command of Garibaldi Brigades was formed by nine divisions in Piedmont (15,000 members), three in Lombardy (4,000 members), four in Veneto (10,000), three in Emilia (12,000) and four divisions (10,000) in Liguria. As a military force, the BGs were the most numerous group which was organized with 575 formations; they took part to most of fights and suffered the most number of losses, with over 42,000 killed in action or after

13616-548: The general command, had relations with the Yugoslav partisans supporting the need to postpone the territorial revendications until the end of the war, in order to fight together against the common enemy. Frausin and Gigante were captured by the German Sicherheitsdienst on 28 August and 15 November 1944 respectively, interned and killed in the camp of Risiera di San Sabba . A typical characteristic of

13764-535: The go-ahead for North Korea 's invasion of South Korea , expecting a short war. He was stunned when the Americans entered and defeated the North Koreans, putting them almost on the Soviet border. Stalin supported China 's entry into the Korean War , which drove the Americans back to the prewar boundaries, but which escalated tensions. The United States decided to mobilize its economy for a long contest with

13912-462: The grouping of Valsesia, Verbano and Ossola led by Moscatelli and Gastone), had a central role in fights among the various cities of northern Italy. Mountain partisan brigades went to the plains and marched on the main centres, while the insurrection strike was proclaimed in the urban nuclei and GAP and SAP divisions began to fight. In Liguria , the Divisions of "Chichero" played an important role in

14060-507: The historic circumstances in which it finds itself", and stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule through the Obshchina . The moderate Mensheviks (minority) opposed Lenin's Bolsheviks (majority) plan for socialist revolution before the capitalist mode of production was more fully developed. The Bolsheviks' successful rise to power was based upon the slogans such as "Peace, Bread, and Land", which tapped into

14208-418: The idea to group together different countries, such as Afghanistan and Hungary , has no adequate explanation. While the term Communist state is used by Western historians, political scientists, and news media to refer to countries ruled by Communist parties, these socialist states themselves did not describe themselves as communist or claim to have achieved communism; they referred to themselves as being

14356-546: The inspiration of religious text . In the medieval Christian Church , some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Sects deemed heretical such as the Waldensians preached an early form of Christian communism . As summarized by historians Janzen Rod and Max Stanton, the Hutterites believed in strict adherence to biblical principles, church discipline, and practised

14504-442: The intensifying alienation of labor experienced by the proletariat, albeit with varying degrees of class consciousness . In periods of deep crisis, the resistance of the oppressed can culminate in a proletarian revolution which, if victorious, leads to the establishment of the socialist mode of production based on social ownership of the means of production, " To each according to his contribution ", and production for use . As

14652-442: The international socialist movement by the early 1920s. During most of the 20th century, around one-third of the world's population lived under Communist governments. These governments were characterized by one-party rule by a communist party, the rejection of private property and capitalism, state control of economic activity and mass media , restrictions on freedom of religion , and suppression of opposition and dissent. With

14800-630: The lack of technical experts, managers, transportation, or needed facilities. Industrialization failed, and the main result was a sharp unexpected decline in agricultural output, which led to mass famine and millions of deaths. The years of the Great Leap Forward in fact saw economic regression, with 1958 through 1961 being the only years between 1953 and 1983 in which China's economy saw negative growth. Political economist Dwight Perkins argues: "Enormous amounts of investment produced only modest increases in production or none at all. ... In short,

14948-660: The last Communist country that still practices Soviet-style Communism, is both repressive and isolationist. Communist political thought and theory are diverse but share several core elements. The dominant forms of communism are based on Marxism or Leninism but non-Marxist versions of communism also exist, such as anarcho-communism and Christian communism , which remain partly influenced by Marxist theories, such as libertarian Marxism and humanist Marxism in particular. Common elements include being theoretical rather than ideological, identifying political parties not by ideology but by class and economic interest, and identifying with

15096-422: The late 20th century has been attributed to the inherent inefficiencies of communist economies and the general trend of communist governments towards authoritarianism and bureaucracy . While the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally Communist state led to communism's widespread association with the Soviet economic model , several scholars posit that in practice the model functioned as

15244-430: The law of value would still apply to socialism and that the Soviet Union was socialist under this new definition, which was followed by other Communist leaders, many other communists maintain the original definition and state that Communist states never established socialism in this sense. Lenin described his policies as state capitalism but saw them as necessary for the development of socialism, which left-wing critics say

15392-443: The leader is elected by his companions, he is the first in the most dangerous actions, the last in receiving food and clothing, he has the most tiring guard shift; the peasant population is asked, not forced to give, and possibly paid or reciprocated for what is received; women are not bothered; no blasphemy is allowed". He always opposed the politicization of the Division and of partisan formations, which he saw as divisive and weakening

15540-607: The legacy of Communist states. Communism derives from the French word communisme , a combination of the Latin -rooted word communis (which literally means common ) and the suffix isme ( an act, practice, or process of doing something ) . Semantically, communis can be translated to "of or for the community", while isme is a suffix that indicates the abstraction into a state, condition, action, or doctrine . Communism may be interpreted as "the state of being of or for

15688-517: The liberation of Genoa and impede the destruction of the harbour, accepting the surrender of German forces led by general Günther Meinhold . In Piedmont, Garibaldi Divisions of Pompeo Colajanni "Barbato", Vincenzo Modica and Giovanni Latilla "Nanni" entered in Turin together with the autonomous of "Mauri", while the Divisions "Pajetta" and "Fratelli Varalli" of Gastone and Moscatelli, after liberating Novara , entered in Milan on 28 April, already reached in

15836-446: The long run ensured liberty, equality, and fraternity , Marxists denounced 1848 as a betrayal of working-class ideals by a bourgeoisie indifferent to the legitimate demands of the proletariat . By 1888, Marxists employed the term socialism in place of communism , which had come to be considered an old-fashioned synonym for the former. It was not until 1917, with the October Revolution , that socialism came to be used to refer to

15984-489: The massive public desire for an end to Russian involvement in World War I , the peasants' demand for land reform , and popular support for the soviets . 50,000 workers had passed a resolution in favour of Bolshevik demand for transfer of power to the soviets Lenin's government also instituted a number of progressive measures such as universal education , healthcare and equal rights for women . The initial stage of

16132-520: The military committee of PCI was formed and in October it became in the general command of the Brigate d'assalto Garibaldi (Garibaldi Assault Brigades) under the leadership of Longo and Secchia. This early management structure, initially equipped with poor means, began immediately its activity in order to overcome every "wait and see" attitudes and constantly potentiate of the military activities against

16280-408: The misery of the proletariat  – a new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Engels. In 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto . In 1917, the October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for

16428-533: The most advanced capitalist development; however, the Russian Empire was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry, and a minority of industrial workers. Marx warned against attempts "to transform my historical sketch of the genesis of capitalism in Western Europe into a historico-philosophy theory of the arche générale imposed by fate upon every people, whatever

16576-482: The most well-known of these and have been a driving force in international relations during most of the 20th century. Classical Marxism is the economic, philosophical, and sociological theories expounded by Marx and Engels as contrasted with later developments in Marxism, especially Leninism and Marxism–Leninism. Orthodox Marxism is the body of Marxist thought that emerged after the death of Marx and which became

16724-590: The nazi-fascist policy of terror, to make the occupation unstable and to stimulate, through the actual action, the development of the partisan organization and struggle. The organization was structured by PCI direction. The use of the name "brigade" indicated the overcoming of the "band" and the traditional military-like organization. It was also a reference to the International Brigades of the Spanish Civil War . The partisan organization

16872-552: The occupying power (the Nazi Germany ) and the fascist structures of the Italian Social Republic . The general command of the brigades ordered the formation of a relay system from the communist cells already active in the cities, in order to link militant units among the various zones, the strengthen of connections and the actual carrying out of the partisan struggle. For this purpose, it was established that

17020-473: The official philosophy of the socialist movement as represented in the Second International until World War I in 1914. Orthodox Marxism aims to simplify, codify, and systematize Marxist method and theory by clarifying the perceived ambiguities and contradictions of classical Marxism. The philosophy of orthodox Marxism includes the understanding that material development (advances in technology in

17168-514: The only element which places into the realm of possibility moving on from this mode of production. This dictatorship , based on the Paris Commune 's model, is to be the most democratic state where the whole of the public authority is elected and recallable under the basis of universal suffrage . Aldo Gastaldi Aldo Gastaldi (17 September 1921 – 21 May 1945) was an Italian Resistance leader during World War II . Gastaldi

17316-860: The organization; since the beginning, structures of the party had decided that at least the 10% of the cadres and the 15% of the subscribers had to be sent to the mountains in order to create the fundamental nucleus of aggregation and cohesion around which the units had to be developed. Moreover, Brigate Garibaldi had their representatives in the regional commands of CVL, who were Giordano Pratolongo and then Francesco Scotti (Piedmont); Pietro Vergani (Lombardy), Liguria Luigi Pieragostini and Carlo Farini (Liguria) after his arrest on 27 December 1944, Ilio Barontini (Emilia-Romagna), Pratolongo and then Aldo Lampredi (Veneto), Luigi Gaiami and then Francesco Leone and Antonio Roasio (Tuscany), Alessandro Vaia (Marche) and Celso Ghini (Umbria). In Trieste there were Luigi Frausin and Vincenzo Gigante who, in connection with

17464-410: The other members of the general command, other important figures were active in the regional coordination like Antonio Roasio ("Paolo"), who controlled the brigades in Veneto and Emilia, Francesco Scotti ("Fausto" or "Grossi"), who led the formations in Piedmont and Liguria, and Pietro Vergani ("Fabio"), responsible in Lombardy. The Italian Communist Party had a decisive role in the strengthening and

17612-469: The party as being reliable and completely subject to party discipline . Trotskyism overtook the left communists as the main dissident communist current, while more libertarian communisms , dating back to the libertarian Marxist current of council communism, remained important dissident communisms outside the Soviet Union. Following Lenin's democratic centralism , the Leninist parties were organized on

17760-401: The party who are full-time professional revolutionaries, as was conceived by Vladimir Lenin . Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism , to understand social class relations and social conflict and a dialectical perspective to view social transformation . It originates from

17908-464: The political commissar adhered to the political and national solution of Yugoslavia and the political office of PCI supported that choice which involved only the communist militants. A the moment of the final insurrection, the "Trieste" formation, aggregated to the Divisione Garibaldi "Natisone" since 27 February 1945, participated to the fights and one group of it entered in Trieste on 7 May, while

18056-582: The previous day by the Garibaldini of Oltrepò pavese led by Italo Pietra and Luchino Dal Verme . In Lombardy, the 2ª Divisione Garibaldi "Redi" (commanded by Aldo Aniasi "Comandante Iso") and the Divisioni "Lombardia" , coordinated by Pietro Vergani ("Fabio", deputy commander of CVL) blocked the Alpine passes and occupied the Valtellina , preventing the run of fascist hierarchs . Benito Mussolini

18204-468: The productive forces continued to advance, the communist society , i.e. a classless, stateless, humane society based on common ownership , follows the maxim " From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs ." While it originates from the works of Marx and Engels, Marxism has developed into many different branches and schools of thought, with the result that there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Different Marxian schools place

18352-440: The proletariat. According to communists, the proletariat can avoid mass unemployment only if capitalism is overthrown; in the short run, state-oriented communists favor state ownership of the commanding heights of the economy as a means to defend the proletariat from capitalist pressure. Some communists are distinguished by other Marxists in seeing peasants and smallholders of property as possible allies in their goal of shortening

18500-407: The regime. In autumn 1943, the general command defined the command structure of brigades with the political commissar and the officers for the military command and chief of staff. While the 50% of PCI militants was directly involved in the military activity with the brigades, the other half was dedicated to conspiracy in the cities, organizing and developing the struggle of workers among factories, to

18648-440: The religious emphasis with a rational and philanthropic basis. Notable among them were Robert Owen , who founded New Harmony, Indiana , in 1825, and Charles Fourier , whose followers organized other settlements in the United States, such as Brook Farm in 1841. In its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for

18796-561: The rise to state power of Vladimir Lenin 's Bolsheviks , which was the first time any avowedly communist party reached that position. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets in which the Bolsheviks had a majority. The event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement, as Marx stated that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by

18944-404: The same period, Mao's personality cult grew to immense proportions. After Mao's death in 1976, the survivors were rehabilitated and many returned to power. Mao's government was responsible for vast numbers of deaths with estimates ranging from 40 to 80 million victims through starvation, persecution, prison labour , and mass executions. Mao has also been praised for transforming China from

19092-405: The so-called "insurrection triumvirates" ( triumvirati insurrezionali ) at regional level, in order to coordinate the political struggle of the party among the occupied cities and in the workplaces through the concrete action of partisan mountain groups in view of a general insurrection. On 10 April 1945, the general command of Brigate Garibaldi issued the "directive no. 16" which warned all

19240-663: The state-capitalist development and the Workers' in particular was critical of bureaucratization and development from above, while the Right Opposition was more supporting of state-capitalist development and advocated the New Economic Policy . Following Lenin's democratic centralism , the Leninist parties were organized on a hierarchical basis, with active cells of members as the broad base. They were made up only of elite cadres approved by higher members of

19388-516: The term communism fell out of use during this period. An early distinction between communism and socialism was that the latter aimed to only socialize production , whereas the former aimed to socialize both production and consumption (in the form of common access to final goods ). This distinction can be observed in Marx's communism, where the distribution of products is based on the principle of " to each according to his needs ", in contrast to

19536-600: The term frequently in his writing and was the first to describe communism as a form of government . John Goodwyn Barmby is credited with the first use of communism in English, around 1840. Since the 1840s, the term communism has usually been distinguished from socialism . The modern definition and usage of the term socialism was settled by the 1860s, becoming predominant over alternative terms such as associationism ( Fourierism ), mutualism , or co-operative , which had previously been used as synonyms. Meanwhile,

19684-623: The term's widespread association with Marxism–Leninism and the Soviet-type economic planning model. In his essay "Judging Nazism and Communism", Martin Malia defines a "generic Communism" category as any Communist political party movement led by intellectuals ; this umbrella term allows grouping together such different regimes as radical Soviet industrialism and the Khmer Rouge 's anti-urbanism. According to Alexander Dallin ,

19832-591: The unity of the partisan struggle against the Germans and Fascists. He died on May 21, 1945, falling from the roof of the cabin of a truck near Bardolino , on the Veronese shore of Lake Garda , while he was accompanying home some former Alpini of the "Vestone" Battalion, to keep the promise he had made to them in November 1944. He was posthumously awarded the Gold Medal of Military Valor . In 2019 he

19980-448: The upheaval of the French Revolution , communism emerged as a political doctrine under the auspices of François-Noël Babeuf , Nicolas Restif de la Bretonne , and Sylvain Maréchal , all of whom can be considered the progenitors of modern communism, according to James H. Billington . In the early 19th century, various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. Unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced

20128-416: The vehicle for fundamental society-wide changes and ultimately leads to the emergence of new economic systems . As a term, orthodox Marxism represents the methods of historical materialism and of dialectical materialism, and not the normative aspects inherent to classical Marxism, without implying dogmatic adherence to the results of Marx's investigations. At the root of Marxism is historical materialism,

20276-472: The works of 19th-century German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels . As Marxism has developed over time into various branches and schools of thought , no single, definitive Marxist theory exists. Marxism considers itself to be the embodiment of scientific socialism but does not model an ideal society based on the design of intellectuals , whereby communism is seen as a state of affairs to be established based on any intelligent design; rather, it

20424-487: Was a political choice which aimed to remove uncertainties regarding the possibility of fight and to overcome doubts in the struggle against fascists. Therefore, it was also a reference to the "assault units" of World War I . The establishment of brigades was based on the harshness conspiracy, discipline and motivation of communist cadres but mostly on the openness and availability in recruiting volunteers, including youth, former soldiers or members of organization dismantled by

20572-629: Was also created under Josip Broz Tito in Yugoslavia ; Tito's independent policies led to the Tito–Stalin split and expulsion of Yugoslavia from the Cominform in 1948, and Titoism was branded deviationist . Albania also became an independent Marxist–Leninist state following the Albanian–Soviet split in 1960, resulting from an ideological fallout between Enver Hoxha , a Stalinist, and

20720-427: Was also quite modern. At the top, personal loyalty to Stalin counted for everything. Stalin also created powerful committees, elevated younger specialists, and began major institutional innovations. In the teeth of persecution, Stalin's deputies cultivated informal norms and mutual understandings which provided the foundations for collective rule after his death. For most Westerners and anti-communist Russians, Stalin

20868-535: Was believed to be the atheist way of life. In Protestant England , communism was too phonetically similar to the Roman Catholic communion rite , hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Friedrich Engels stated that in 1848, at the time when The Communist Manifesto was first published, socialism was respectable on the continent, while communism was not; the Owenites in England and

21016-776: Was born in the Granarolo district of Genoa on September 17, 1921. A passionate hiker and hunter, at the age of 13 he hiked alone to the summit of Monte Antola with a 12-hour walk. In his youth he played in the rugby team of his high school and was a rower in the Società Canottieri Genovesi Elpis. After graduating from the Galileo Galilei Institute in Genoa, he worked at Ansaldo in Sestri Ponente and studied economics at

21164-503: Was captured by the 52ª Brigata Garibaldi "Luigi Clerici" of commander "Pedro" ( Pier Luigi Bellini delle Stelle ), subordinate to the 1ª Divisione Garibaldi Lombardia , and shot by envoys of the Garibaldi command of Milan, Walter Audisio and Aldo Lampredi ; other hierarchs were instead captured and killed in Dongo by partisans of the 3ª Divisione Garibaldi Lombardia , under the orders of Alfredo Mordini "Riccardo". In Veneto,

21312-415: Was much more efficient, this property became worthless and the mass majority of workers could only survive by selling their labor to make use of someone else's machinery, and making someone else profit. Accordingly, capitalism divided the world between two major classes, namely that of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie . These classes are directly antagonistic as the latter possesses private ownership of

21460-508: Was named after general Giuseppe Garibaldi , one of the main contributors to the Italian unification . Size of brigades was different for each operative context. The structure set by PCI provided, beside a military commander, a political commissar with equal military powers but involved also in propaganda and formation of partisans; this structure was replicated also within squads, battalions and other subgroups. The word assalto ("assault")

21608-472: Was never established, while some Marxist–Leninists state that it was established only during the Stalin era and Mao era , and then became capitalist states ruled by revisionists ; others state that Maoist China was always state capitalist, and uphold People's Socialist Republic of Albania as the only socialist state after the Soviet Union under Stalin, who first stated to have achieved socialism with

21756-407: Was the beginning of the development of vanguardism as an hierarchical party–elite that controls society, which resulted in a split between anarchism and Marxism , and Leninist communism assuming the dominant position for most of the 20th century, excluding rival socialist currents. Other communists and Marxists, especially social democrats who favored the development of liberal democracy as

21904-611: Was to purify communism by removing pro-capitalists and traditionalists by imposing Maoist orthodoxy within the Chinese Communist Party . The movement paralyzed China politically and weakened the country economically, culturally, and intellectually for years. Millions of people were accused, humiliated, stripped of power, and either imprisoned, killed, or most often, sent to work as farm laborers. Mao insisted that those he labelled revisionists be removed through violent class struggle . The two most prominent militants were Marshall Lin Biao of

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