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111-683: The Shackleton Glacier originates in the East Antarctic Ice Sheet and flows northeast between Dismal Buttress to the northwest and Roberts Massif to the southeast. It is joined from the right (east) by Zaneveld Glacier, which also originates in the ice sheet. Further north it is joined from the right by the Logie Glacier, which flows west through the Cumulus Hills . Flowing north, the Shackleton Glacier

222-575: A median of 1.46 m (4 ft 9 in) ( confidence interval between 60 cm (2.0 ft) and 2.89 m (9 ft 6 in)) by 2300, which would involve some loss from the EAIS in addition to the erosion of the WAIS. This Antarctica-only sea level rise would be in addition to ice losses from the Greenland ice sheet and mountain glaciers , as well as the thermal expansion of ocean water. If

333-468: A 'merit review' process, the current version of which was introduced in 1997. Reviews are carried out by ad hoc reviewers and panels of independent scientists, engineers, and educators who are experts in the relevant fields of study, and who are selected by the NSF with particular attention to avoiding conflicts of interest. For example, reviewers cannot work at the NSF itself, nor for the institution that employs

444-707: A chemical spill that contaminated the drinking water of about 300,000 West Virginia residents. In early 2018, it was announced that Trump would cut NSF Research Funding by 30% but quickly rescinded this due to backlash. As of May 2018, Heather Wilson, the secretary of the Air Force, signed that letter of intent with the director of NSF initiating partnership for the research related to space operations and Geosciences , advanced material sciences , information and data sciences , and workforce and processes. The NSF seeks to fulfill its mission chiefly by issuing competitive, limited-term grants in response to specific proposals from

555-604: A foundation for a lifetime of integrated contributions. The NSF is broadly organized into four offices, seven directorates, and the National Science Board . It employs about 2,100 people in permanent, temporary and contractual positions at its headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia . Prior to 2017, its headquarters were located in Arlington, Virginia . In addition to around 1,400 permanent employees and

666-465: A funding rate of 26.6%. According to FY 2020 numbers, the median annualized award size is $ 153,800 and the average duration of an award is 2.9 years. In 2022 the NSF has started funding open source software as part of their Pathways to Enable Open-Source Ecosystems (POSE) program. Although the federal government had established nearly 40 scientific organizations between 1910 and 1940, the US relied upon

777-526: A large icefalls at the escarpment west of Mount Rosenwald and entering Shackleton Glacier south of Mount Heekin . Discovered and photographed by United States Navy Operation Highjump (OpHjp) (1946–47) on the flights of Feb. 16, 1947. Named by US-ACAN for Sgt. George E. Baldwin, United States Marine Corps (USMC), photographer on Flight 8A. 84°57′S 177°30′W  /  84.950°S 177.500°W  / -84.950; -177.500 . A glacier, 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) long, draining

888-406: A more integrated approach than did most academic departments at the time, encouraging physicists, chemists, engineers, and metallurgists to cross departmental boundaries and use systems approaches to attack complex problems of materials synthesis or processing. The NSF expanded these laboratories into a nationwide network of Materials Research Science and Engineering Centers . In 1972 the NSF launched

999-575: A number of programs that support institution-wide research during this decade including the Graduate Science Facilities program (started in 1960), Institutional Grants for Science (started in 1961), and Science Development Grants, better known as Centers of Excellence program (started in 1964). Notable projects conducted during this decade include creation of the National Center for Atmospheric Research (1960), creation of

1110-535: A portion (sometimes overlapping) as their own territory. While relatively small glaciers and ice caps are known to have been present in Antarctica since at least the time of Late Palaeocene , 60 million years ago , a proper ice sheet did not begin to form until the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event about 34 million years ago, when the atmospheric CO 2 levels fell to below 750 parts per million . It

1221-525: A primarily laissez-faire approach to scientific research and development. Academic research in science and engineering occasionally received federal funding. Within University laboratories, almost all support came from private contributions and charitable foundations. In industrial laboratories, the concentration of workers and funding (some through military and government programs as a result of Roosevelt 's New Deal ) would eventually raise concern during

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1332-567: A prominent position near the west wall of Shackleton Glacier, just southeast of Mount Cole . Named by F. Alton Wade, leader of the Texas Tech Shackleton Glacier Party (1962–63), after the constellation Gemini, which contains the twin stars Castor and Pollux. East Antarctic Ice Sheet 80°S 60°E  /  80°S 60°E  / -80; 60 The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) lies between 45° west and 168° east longitudinally. It

1443-431: A proposal to reduce the NSF social sciences directorate's budget by 75%. Economist Robert A. Moffit suggests a connection between this proposal and Democratic Senator William Proxmire's Golden Fleece Award series criticizing "frivolous" government spending — Proxmire's first Golden Fleece had been awarded to the NSF in 1975 for granting $ 84,000 to a social science project investigating why people fall in love. Ultimately,

1554-539: A range between 5 °C (9.0 °F) and 10 °C (18 °F), and a minimum of 10,000 years for the entire ice sheet to be lost. East Antarctic Ice Sheet is located directly above the East Antarctic Shield – a craton (stable area of the Earth's crust ) with the area of 10,200,000 km (3,900,000 sq mi), which accounts for around 73% of the entire Antarctic landmass. East Antarctica

1665-412: A search engine that used the links between Web pages as a ranking method, which they later commercialized under the name Google . In 1996 NSF-funded research established beyond doubt that the chemistry of the atmosphere above Antarctica was grossly abnormal and that levels of key chlorine compounds are greatly elevated. During two months of intense work, NSF researchers learned most of what is known about

1776-402: A variety of perspectives. Themes include disagreements over administrative structure, patents and inclusion of social sciences, a populist -versus-scientist dispute, as well as the roles of political parties, Congress, and President Truman . Commonly, this debate is characterized by the conflict between New Deal Senator Harley M. Kilgore and OSRD head Vannevar Bush . Narratives about

1887-506: A whole has low sensitivity to climate change because it is surrounded by the Southern Ocean , which is more effective at absorbing heat than any other ocean due to the currents of the Southern Ocean overturning circulation , very low amounts of water vapor (which conducts heat through the atmosphere) and because of the high albedo (reflectivity) of its icy surface and of the surrounding sea ice . These factors make Antarctica

1998-736: A whole. Examples of national facilities include the NSF's national observatories, with their giant optical and radio telescopes; its Antarctic research sites; its high-end computer facilities and ultra-high-speed network connections; the ships and submersibles used for ocean research; and its gravitational wave observatories. In addition to researchers and research facilities, NSF grants also support science, engineering and mathematics education from pre-K through graduate school. Undergraduates can receive funding through Research Experiences for Undergraduates summer programs. Graduate students are supported through Integrative Graduate Education Research Traineeships (IGERT) and Alliance for Graduate Education and

2109-634: Is an independent agency of the United States federal government that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health. With an annual budget of about $ 9.9 billion (fiscal year 2023), the NSF funds approximately 25% of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States' colleges and universities. In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics, and

2220-453: Is believed that once the warming reaches around 3 °C (5.4 °F), then they would start to collapse over a period of around 2,000 years, This collapse would ultimately add between 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in) and 6.4 m (21 ft 0 in) to sea levels, depending on the ice sheet model used. The EAIS as a whole holds enough ice to raise global sea levels by 53.3 m (175 ft). However, it would take global warming in

2331-453: Is essential for the nation's economic health and global competitiveness, and for national defense. This support has manifested in an expanding National Science Foundation budget from $ 1 billion in 1983 to $ 8.28 billion in 2020. NSF has published annual reports since 1950, which since the new millennium have been two reports, variously called "Performance Report" and "Accountability Report" or "Performance Highlights" and "Financial Highlights";

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2442-948: Is joined by the Massam Glacier at its mouth. The Barrett Glacier enters the Ross Ice Shelf just east of the Shackleton Glacier. Download coordinates as: Tributaries from the left (west) of the glacier are: 85°09′S 177°50′W  /  85.150°S 177.833°W  / -85.150; -177.833 . A broad glacier, about 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) long, flowing east between Mount Rosenwald and Mount Black to enter Shackleton Glacier just north of Matador Mountain . Named by US-ACAN after Commander F.S. Gallup, Jr., United States Navy. Commanding Officer of Squadron VX-6 during Operation Deep Freeze (OpDFrz) 1965. 85°06′S 177°10′W  /  85.100°S 177.167°W  / -85.100; -177.167 . A broad glacier, flowing generally eastward from

2553-670: Is joined from the left (west) by the Gallup Glacier and the Baldwin Glacier and from the right (east) by McGregor Glacier just past Eckins Nunatak. The Swithinbank Moraine extends north from Matador Mountain along the west side of the Shackleton Glacier to the Gemini Nunataks. It crosses the mouths of the Gallup, Baldwin, Mincey and Field glaciers, left tributaries of the Shackleton Glacier. Past Lockhart Ridge

2664-499: Is one of the principal U.S. statistical agencies . It is a part of the NSF's Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences Directorate (SBE). In May 2011, Republican Senator Tom Coburn released a 73-page report, " National Science Foundation: Under the Microscope ", receiving immediate attention from such media outlets as The New York Times , Fox News , and MSNBC . The report found fault with various research projects and

2775-528: Is separate from West Antarctica due to the presence of Transantarctic Mountains , which span nearly 3,500 km (2,200 mi) from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea , and have a width of 100–300 km (62–186 mi). The ice sheet has an average thickness of around 2.2 km (1.4 mi). The thickest ice in Antarctica is located near Adélie Land close to the ice sheet's southeast coast, at

2886-605: Is too little annual precipitation to form an ice layer, which is the case in the so-called McMurdo Dry Valleys of the Southern Victoria Land . Another exception are the subglacial lakes , which occur so deep beneath the ice that the pressure melting point is well below 0 °C (32 °F). Many countries have made territorial claims in Antarctica . Within EAIS, the United Kingdom , France , Norway , Australia , Chile and Argentina all claim

2997-727: The Antarctic Treaty reserving Antarctica for peaceful and scientific research, and a presidential directive gave the NSF responsibility for virtually all U.S. Antarctic operations and research in form of the United States Antarctic Program . In 1963, President John F. Kennedy appointed Leland John Haworth as the second director of the NSF. During the 1960s, the impact of the Sputnik Crisis spurred international competition in science and technology and accelerated NSF growth. The NSF initiated

3108-560: The Astrolabe Subglacial Basin , where it measured 4,897 m (16,066 ft) around 2013. Much of the ice sheet is already located at a high elevation: in particular, Dome Argus Plateau has an average height of around 4 km (2.5 mi), and yet it is underlain by the Gamburtsev Mountain Range , which has the average height of 2.7 km (1.7 mi) and is about equivalent in size to

3219-586: The Cumulus Hills and Red Raider Rampart to enter the south side of McGregor Glacier. Named by US-ACAN for Harold C. Gatlin, USARP meteorologist at the South Pole Station, winter 1964. 85°01′S 175°00′W  /  85.017°S 175.000°W  / -85.017; -175.000 . A tributary glacier about 8 nautical miles (15 km; 9.2 mi) long, flowing west from the north side of Mount Finley to enter Shackleton Glacier just north of Lockhart Ridge . Named by F. Alton Wade, leader of

3330-763: The Fimbulisen ice shelf in the Queen Maud Land . If global warming were to reach higher levels, then the EAIS would play an increasingly larger role in sea level rise occurring after 2100. According to the most recent reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( SROCC and the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report ), the most intense climate change scenario , where the anthropogenic emissions increase continuously, RCP8.5 , would result in Antarctica alone losing

3441-556: The Gemini Observatory and the Arecibo Observatory , all of which are funded in whole or in part by NSF. The NSF's astronomy program forged a close working relationship with NASA , also founded in 1958, in that the NSF provides virtually all the U.S. federal support for ground-based astronomy, while NASA's responsibility is the U.S. effort in space-based astronomy. In 1959 the U.S. and other nations concluded

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3552-559: The National Defense Research Committee and the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) both from 1941 to 1947. Despite broad agreement over the principle of federal support for science, working out a consensus on how to organize and manage it required five years. The five-year political debate over the creation of a national scientific agency has been a topic for academic study, understood from

3663-511: The National Nanotechnology Initiative , dedicated to the understanding and control of matter at the atomic and molecular scale. NSF's roughly $ 300 million annual investment in nanotechnology research was still one of the largest in the 23-agency initiative. In 2001, NSF's appropriation passed $ 4 billion. The NSF's "Survey of Public Attitudes Toward and Understanding of Science and Technology" revealed that

3774-489: The atmosphere is typically warmest near the surface and becomes cooler at greater elevation, atmosphere during the Antarctic winter is cooler at the surface than in its middle layers. Consequently, greenhouse gases actually trap heat in the middle atmosphere and reduce its flow towards the surface while the temperature inversion lasts. Due to these factors, East Antarctica had experienced slight cooling for decades while

3885-432: The ice sheet model used. Isostatic rebound of the newly ice-free land would also add 8 cm (3.1 in) and 57 cm (1 ft 10 in), respectively. The entire East Antarctic Ice Sheet holds enough ice to raise global sea levels by 53.3 m (175 ft). Its complete melting is also possible, but it would require very high warming and a lot of time: In 2022, an extensive assessment of tipping points in

3996-705: The ozone hole . In 1998 two independent teams of NSF-supported astronomers discovered that the expansion of the universe was actually speeding up, as if some previously unknown force, now known as dark energy , is driving the galaxies apart at an ever-increasing rate. Since passage of the Small Business Technology Transfer Act of 1992 (Public Law 102–564, Title II), NSF has been required to reserve 0.3% of its extramural research budget for Small Business Technology Transfer awards, and 2.8% of its R&D budget for small business innovation research. NSF joined with other federal agencies in

4107-444: The "Science Mobilization Act" (S. 1297), which did not pass. Perceiving organizational chaos, elitism, over-concentration of funds in elite universities, and lack of incentives for socially applicable research, Kilgore envisioned a comprehensive and centralized research body supporting basic and applied research which would be controlled by members of the public and civil servants rather than scientific experts. The public would own

4218-585: The 2007 fiscal year (October 1, 2006, through September 30, 2007), and in 2007 NSF requested $ 6.43 billion for FY 2008. President Obama requested $ 7.373 billion for fiscal year 2013. Due to the October 1, 2013 shutdown of the Federal Government, and NSF's lapse in funding, their website was down "until further notice", but was brought back online after the US government passed their budget. In 2014, NSF awarded rapid response grants to study

4329-407: The Antarctic winter results in middle layers of the atmosphere being warmer than the surface. This leads to the negative greenhouse effect on a local scale, where greenhouse gases trap heat in the middle atmosphere and reduce its flow towards the surface and towards space, while normally, they prevent the flow of heat from the lower atmosphere and towards space. This effect lasts until the end of

4440-521: The Antarctic winter. Consequently, East Antarctica had experienced cooling in the 1980s and 1990s, even as the rest of the Earth was warming. For instance, between 1986 and 2006 there had been a cooling of 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) per decade at Lake Hoare station in the McMurdo Dry Valleys . A 2002 paper by Peter Doran suggested that the cooling over East Antarctica outweighed warming of

4551-801: The Cumulus Hills to enter Shackleton Glacier just northeast of Vickers Nunatak. Named by the Southern Party of the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition (NZGSAE) (1961–62) for W.R. Logie, New Zealand maintenance officer and field mechanic who spent nearly two years in the Antarctic and was Deputy-Leader of Scott Base during the 1962–63 season. 85°14′S 175°38′W  /  85.233°S 175.633°W  / -85.233; -175.633 . A narrow steep-walled glacier 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi) long, descending

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4662-726: The Division of Environmental Sciences (1965), deep sea exploration endeavors Project Mohole (1961) and the Deep Sea Drilling Project (1968–1983), the Ecosystems Analysis Program (1969), and ownership of the Arecibo Observatory (1969). In 1969, Franklin Long was tentatively selected to take over directorship of the NSF. His nomination caused some controversy due to his opposition to the current administration's antiballistic missile program and

4773-535: The European Alps . Consequently, the ice thickness over these mountains ranges from around 1 km (0.62 mi) over their peaks to about 3 km (1.9 mi) over the valleys. These high elevations are an important reason for why the ice sheet is the driest, windiest, and coldest place on Earth. Dome A in particular sets reported cold temperature records of nearly −100 °C (−148 °F). The only ice-free areas of East Antarctica are where there

4884-462: The NSF delivered ozone sensors, along with balloons and helium, to researchers at the South Pole so they can measure stratospheric ozone loss. This was in response to findings earlier that year, indicating a steep drop in ozone over a period of several years. The Internet project continued, now known as NSFNET . In 1990 the NSF's appropriation passed $ 2 billion for the first time. NSF funded

4995-613: The NSF has 53 existing contracts. The NSF also supports research through several offices within the Office of the Director, including the Office of Integrative Activities, and Office of International Science and Engineering. The NSF organizes its research and education support through eight directorates, each encompassing several disciplines: An eighth directorate, the Directorate for Technology, Innovation and Partnerships (TIP),

5106-634: The National Science Foundation prior to the 1970s typically concentrated on Vannevar Bush and his 1945 publication Science—The Endless Frontier. In this report, Vannevar Bush, then head of the Office of Scientific Research and Development which began the Manhattan Project , addressed plans for the postwar years to further foster government commitment to science and technology. Issued to President Harry S. Truman in July 1945,

5217-549: The National Science Foundation. which provided for a National Science Board of twenty-four part-time members. In 1951 Truman nominated Alan T. Waterman , chief scientist at the Office of Naval Research , to become the first Director. With the Korean War underway, the agency's initial budget was just $ 151,000 for 9 months. After moving its administrative offices twice, NSF began its first full year of operations with an appropriation from Congress of $ 3.5 million, far less

5328-641: The OMB's 75% reduction proposal failed, but the NSF Economics Program budget did fall 40%. In 2012, political science research was barred from NSF funding by the passage of the Flake Amendment, breaking the precedent of granting the NSF autonomy to determine its own priorities. In fiscal year 2020, NSF received 42,400 proposals and awarded 12,100, for a funding rate of 28%. In FY 2021, the estimates are 43,200 and 11,500 respectively, giving

5439-558: The Professoriate (AGEP) programs and through the Graduate Research Fellowships, NSF-GRF . K–12 and some community college instructors are eligible to participate in compensated Research Experiences for Teachers programs. In addition, an early career-development program (CAREER) supports teacher-scholars that most effectively integrate research and education within the mission of their organization, as

5550-568: The Queen Maud Mountains. Named by US-ACAN after John H. Forman, Construction Mechanic, USN, a member of the McMurdo Station winter party, 1959. Tributaries from the right (east) of the glacier are: 85°26′S 176°25′W  /  85.433°S 176.417°W  / -85.433; -176.417 . A broad tributary glacier, flowing from the polar plateau northwest between Roberts Massif and Cumulus Hills to enter

5661-475: The Queen Maud Mountains. Named by US-ACAN for Lt. Alan L. Dick, a member of U.S. Navy Squadron VX-6 during Deep Freeze 1964. 84°49′S 175°30′W  /  84.817°S 175.500°W  / -84.817; -175.500 . A tributary glacier, 4 nautical miles (7.4 km; 4.6 mi) long, which flows west along the north side of Lubbock Ridge to enter Shackleton Glacier. Named by US-ACAN for Joshua P. McCuistion, Construction Driver 1st Class, USN, who

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5772-811: The Shackleton Glacier is joined from the right by the Yeats Glacier. The glacier flows north through the Queen Maud Mountains, with the Anderson Heights to its west and the Cathedral Peaks to its east. Below the Gemini nunataks the Gerasimou Glacier and Forman Glacier enter from the west before the mouth of the Shackleton Glacier. From the right (east) the Shackleton Glacier is fed by the Dick Glacier and McCuistion Glacier. It

5883-503: The Shackleton Glacier. It trends northward from Matador Mountain . Named by the Southern Party of the NZGSAE (1961–62) for Charles W. Swithinbank, a member of the University of Michigan glaciological and survey parties to the major glaciers feeding the Ross Ice Shelf in 1960-61 and 1961-62. 84°42′S 176°38′W  /  84.700°S 176.633°W  / -84.700; -176.633 . Two nunataks of similar size and appearance in

5994-477: The Smith bill made it to President Truman's desk, but it was vetoed. Truman wrote that regrettably, the proposed agency would have been "divorced from control by the people to an extent that implies a distinct lack of faith in the democratic process". The third attempt began with the introduction of S. 2385 in 1948. This was a compromise bill cosponsored by Smith and Kilgore, and Bush aide John Teeter had contributed in

6105-564: The Southern Party almost every day during the three months they were in the field. 85°07′S 175°51′W  /  85.117°S 175.850°W  / -85.117; -175.850 . A small, isolated nunatak lying 5 nautical miles (9.3 km; 5.8 mi) northeast of Matador Mountain , in the east part of Shackleton Glacier. Named by US-ACAN for Henry J. Eckins, USARP meteorologist at South Pole Station, winter 1961. 84°54′S 176°00′W  /  84.900°S 176.000°W  / -84.900; -176.000 . A large nunatak at

6216-572: The Southern Party of NZGSAE (1963–64) for D. Massam, a member of that party. 84°37′S 174°10′W  /  84.617°S 174.167°W  / -84.617; -174.167 . A glacier draining from the north slopes of the Prince Olav Mountains , about 15 nautical miles (28 km; 17 mi) long, flowing between Longhorn Spurs and Gabbro Hills to the Ross Ice Shelf. Named by the Southern Party of NZGSAE (1963–64) for Peter J. Barrett, geologist with that party. Features in

6327-623: The Texas Tech Shackleton Glacier Expeditions (1962-63 and 1964–65), for Vestal L. Yeats, a member of the Texas Technological College faculty and of both expeditions. 84°53′S 175°50′W  /  84.883°S 175.833°W  / -84.883; -175.833 . A tributary glacier, 7 nautical miles (13 km; 8.1 mi) long, flowing west from Mount Campbell to enter Shackleton Glacier just north of Taylor Nunatak , in

6438-400: The agency's move to a more nimble international posture. Rather than maintain dedicated offices, NSF will dispatch small teams to specific international institutions. Teams may work for up to a week on-site to evaluate research and explore collaborations with the institution. In addition to the research it funds in specific disciplines, the NSF has launched a number of projects that coordinate

6549-414: The almost $ 33.5 million requested with which 28 research grants were awarded. After the 1957 Soviet Union orbited Sputnik 1 , the first ever human-made satellite, national self-appraisal questioned American education, scientific, technical and industrial strength and Congress increased the NSF appropriation for 1958 to $ 40 million. In 1958 the NSF selected Kitt Peak , near Tucson, Arizona , as

6660-427: The best judges of the direction and needs of their field. While Bush and Kilgore both agreed on the need for a national science policy, Bush maintained that scientists should continue to own the research results and patents , wanted project selection limited to scientists, and focused support on basic research, not the social sciences, leaving the market to support applied projects. Sociologist Daniel Kleinman divides

6771-454: The biennial "Science & Engineering Indicators" report to the US president and Congress, as required by the NSF Act of 1950. In 1977 the first interconnection of unrelated networks was developed, run by DARPA . During this decade, increasing NSF involvement lead to a three-tiered system of internetworks managed by a mix of universities, nonprofit organizations, and government agencies. By

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6882-622: The book's claims. In 2009, it was demonstrated that the West Antarctic Ice Sheet has warmed by more than 0.1 °C/decade since the 1950s, resulting in a statistically significant warming trend across Antarctica of >0.05 °C/decade since 1957. Later research found that after 2000, the warming of West Antarctica locations slowed or partially reversed between 2000 and 2020, while the East Antarctica interior had demonstrated clear warming. This happened due to

6993-551: The climate system published in Science Magazine concluded that the ice sheet would take a minimum of 10,000 years to fully melt. It would most likely be committed to complete disappearance only once the global warming reaches about 7.5 °C (13.5 °F), with the minimum and the maximum range between 5 °C (9.0 °F) and 10 °C (18 °F). Another estimate suggested that at least 6 °C (11 °F) would be needed to melt two thirds of its volume. If

7104-466: The coldest continent, and East Antarctica is additionally cooler than the West Antarctica, because it is located at a substantially greater elevation. Thus, it is the only place on Earth cold enough for atmospheric temperature inversion to occur every winter. While the atmosphere on Earth is at its warmest near the surface and becomes cooler as elevation increases, temperature inversion during

7215-531: The debate into three broad legislative attempts. The first attempt consisted of the 1945 Magnuson bill (S. 1285), the 1945 Science and Technology Mobilization Bill, a 1945 compromise bill (S. 1720), a 1946 compromise bill (S. 1850), and the Mills Bill (H.B. 6448). The Magnuson bill was sponsored by Senator Warren Magnuson and drafted by the OSRD, headed by Vannevar Bush. The Science and Technology Mobilization bill

7326-768: The development of several curricula based on the NCTM standards , devised by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics . These standards were widely adopted by school districts during the subsequent decade. However, in what newspapers such as the Wall Street Journal called the "math wars", organizations such as Mathematically Correct complained that some elementary texts based on the standards, including Mathland , had almost entirely abandoned any instruction of traditional arithmetic in favor of cutting, coloring, pasting, and writing. During that debate, NSF

7437-572: The drafting process. In 1949, S. 247 was introduced by the same group of senators behind S. 2385, marking the fourth and final effort to establish a national science agency. Essentially identical to S. 2385, S. 247 passed the Senate and the House with a few amendments. It was signed by President Truman on May 10, 1950. Kleinman points out that the final NSF bill closely resembles Vannevar Bush's proposals. (Harley Kilgore) (Vannevar Bush) 1950 Business, labor, farmers, consumers In 1950 Harry S. Truman signed Public Law 507, or 42 U.S.C. 16 creating

7548-476: The east side of Shackleton Glacier, just south of the terminus of Dick Glacier, in the Queen Maud Mountains. Named by the Southern Party of NZGSAE (1961–62) for Thomas F. Taylor, topographic surveyor, USGS, who worked near the mouth of Shackleton Glacier in the summers of 1960-61 and 1961–62, and in the Pensacola Mountains, 1962–63. 85°00′S 177°05′W  /  85.000°S 177.083°W  / -85.000; -177.083 . A spectacular medial moraine in

7659-468: The efforts of experts in many disciplines, which often involve collaborations with other U.S. federal agencies. Examples include initiatives in: NSF's National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES) gathers data from surveys and partnerships with other agencies to offer official data on the American science and engineering workforce, graduates of advanced U.S. science and engineering programs, and R&D expenditures by U.S. industry. NCSES

7770-523: The entire ice sheet were to disappear, then the change in ice-albedo feedback would increase the global temperature by 0.6 °C (1.1 °F), while the regional temperatures would increase by around 2 °C (3.6 °F). The loss of the subglacial basins alone would only add about 0.05 °C (0.090 °F) to global temperatures due to their relatively limited area, and a correspondingly low impact on global albedo. National Science Foundation The U.S. National Science Foundation ( NSF )

7881-487: The first freely available browser to allow World Wide Web pages that include both graphics and text. Within 18 months, NCSA Mosaic becomes the Web browser of choice for more than a million users, and sets off an exponential growth in the number of Web users. In 1994 NSF, together with DARPA and NASA , launched the Digital Library Initiative. One of the first six grants went to Stanford University , where two graduate students, Larry Page and Sergey Brin , began to develop

7992-574: The foundation, while the NSB meets six times a year to establish its overall policies. The current NSF director is Sethuraman Panchanathan. The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) was established by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950. Its stated mission is "to promote the progress of science, to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare, and to secure the national defense." The NSF's scope has expanded over

8103-568: The geographic South Pole , South Magnetic Pole and the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station . The surface of the EAIS is the driest, windiest, and coldest place on Earth. Lack of moisture in the air, high albedo from the snow as well as the surface's consistently high elevation results in the reported cold temperature records of nearly −100 °C (−148 °F). It is the only place on Earth cold enough for atmospheric temperature inversion to occur consistently. That is, while

8214-399: The glacier, from south to north, include: 85°20′S 176°40′W  /  85.333°S 176.667°W  / -85.333; -176.667 . A massive nunatak in the upper Shackleton Glacier, about 11 nautical miles (20 km; 13 mi) southeast of Mount Black. Named by the Southern Party of the NZGSAE (1961–62) for E. Vickers, radio operator at Scott Base, who was in contact with

8325-448: The global warming reaches 3 °C (5.4 °F) - the plausible temperature range is between 2 °C (3.6 °F) and 6 °C (11 °F). Then, the subglacial basins would gradually collapse over a period of around 2,000 years, although it may be as fast as 500 years or as slow as 10,000 years. Their loss would ultimately add between 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in) and 6.4 m (21 ft 0 in) to sea levels, depending on

8436-505: The goals and aims of the agency and published a revised version of the merit review criteria in its 2012 report, to clarify and improve the function of the criteria. However, both criteria already had been mandated for all NSF merit review procedures in the 2010 re-authorization of the America COMPETES Act . The Act also includes an emphasis on promoting potentially transformative research , a phrase which has been included in

8547-417: The latest available FY 2013 Agency Financial Report was posted December 16, 2013, and the six-page FY 2013 Performance and Financial Highlights was posted March 25, 2013. More recently, the NSF has focused on obtaining high return on investment from their spending on scientific research. Various bills have sought to direct funds within the NSF. In 1981, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) introduced

8658-663: The local changes in Southern Annular Mode the dominant climate variability pattern over the Antarctica. Some of those changes were caused by the ozone layer beginning to recover following the Montreal Protocol . The limited warming and already low temperatures over East Antarctica mean that as of early 2020s, the majority of observational evidence shows it continuing to gain mass. Some analyses have suggested it already began to lose mass in 2000s, but they over-extrapolated some observed losses onto

8769-517: The mid-1980s, primary financial support for the growing project was assumed by the NSF. In 1983, NSF budget topped $ 1 billion for the first time. Major increases in the nation's research budget were proposed as "the country recognizes the importance of research in science and technology, and education". The U.S. Antarctic Program was taken out of the NSF appropriation now requiring a separate appropriation. The NSF received more than 27,000 proposals and funded more than 12,000 of them in 1983. In 1985,

8880-403: The most recent incarnation of the 'merit review' criteria. Most NSF grants go to individuals or small groups of investigators, who carry out research at their home campuses. Other grants provide funding for mid-scale research centers, instruments, and facilities that serve researchers from many institutions. Still, others fund national-scale facilities that are shared by the research community as

8991-561: The past 8 million years. While it had still thinned by at least 500 m (1,600 ft) during the Pleistocene period, and by less than 50 m (160 ft) since Last Glacial Maximum , the land area covered by ice in East Antarctica remained largely the same. Contrastingly, the smaller West Antarctic ice sheet is thought to have largely collapsed as recently as during the Eemian period, about 125,000 years ago. Antarctica as

9102-415: The poorly-observed areas, and a more complete observational record shows continued mass gain. Because it is currently gaining mass, East Antarctic Ice Sheet is not expected to play a role in the 21st century sea level rise . However, it is still subject to adverse change, such as the retreat of Denman Glacier , or the flow of warmer ocean current into ice cavities beneath the stabilizing ice shelves like

9213-438: The proposing researchers. All proposal evaluations are confidential: the proposing researchers may see them, but they do not see the names of the reviewers. The first merit review criterion is 'intellectual merit', the second is that of the 'broader societal impact' of the proposed research; the latter reflects a broader global trend for funding agencies to demand evidence of research 'impact' and has been met with opposition from

9324-531: The public had a positive attitude toward science, but a poor understanding of it. During 2004–5 NSF sent "rapid response" research teams to investigate the aftermath of the Indian Ocean tsunami disaster and Hurricane Katrina . An NSF-funded engineering team helped uncover why the levees failed in New Orleans . In 2005, NSF's budget stood at $ 5.6 billion, in 2006 it stood at $ 5.91 billion for

9435-522: The report made a strong case for federally-funded scientific research, arguing that the nation would reap rich dividends in the form of better health care, a more vigorous economy, and a stronger national defense. It proposed creating a new federal agency, the National Research Foundation. The NSF first appeared as a comprehensive New Deal Policy proposed by Sen. Harley Kilgore of West Virginia. In 1942, Senator Kilgore introduced

9546-667: The research community and establishing cooperative agreements with research organizations. It does not operate its own laboratories, unlike other federal research agencies, notable examples being NASA and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The NSF uses four main mechanisms to communicate funding opportunities and generate proposals: dear colleague letters, program descriptions, program announcements, and program solicitations. The NSF receives over 50,000 such proposals each year, and funds about 10,000 of them. Those funded are typically projects that are ranked highest in

9657-426: The rest of the continent. While the paper estimated that about 42% of the Antarctic area had been warming, it was wrongly described by many media outlets as a proof that there was no warming in Antarctica. In 2004, author Michael Crichton used that cooling as one of his arguments for denying climate change in his novel State of Fear . First other scientists, and then Peter Doran himself eventually had to debunk

9768-510: The rest of the world warmed as the result of climate change . Clear warming over East Antarctica only started to occur since the year 2000, and was not conclusively detected until the 2020s. In the early 2000s, cooling over East Antarctica seemingly outweighing warming over the rest of the continent was frequently misinterpreted by the media and occasionally used as an argument for climate change denial . After 2009, improvements in Antarctica's instrumental temperature record have proven that

9879-550: The rights to all patents funded by public monies and research monies would be equitably spread across universities. Kilgore's supporters included non-elite universities, small businesses, and the Budget Bureau. His proposals received mixed support. Vannevar Bush opposed Kilgore, preferring science policy driven by experts and scientists rather than public and civil servants. Bush was concerned that public interests would politicize science, and believed that scientists would be

9990-455: The scientific and policy communities since its inception in 1997. In June 2010, the National Science Board (NSB), the governing body for NSF and science advisers to both the legislative and executive branches, convened a 'Task Force on Merit Review' to determine "how well the current Merit Review criteria used by the NSF to evaluate all proposals were serving the agency." The task force reinforced its support for both criteria as appropriate for

10101-543: The sea level. Evidence from the Pleistocene shows that Wilkes Basin had likely lost enough ice to add 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) to sea levels between 115,000 and 129,000 years ago, during the Eemian , and about 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) between 318,000 and 339,000 years ago, during the Marine Isotope Stage 9 . Neither Wilkes nor the other subglacial basins were lost entirely, but estimates suggest that they would be committed to disappearance once

10212-684: The site of the first national observatory, that would give any astronomer unprecedented access to state-of-the-art telescopes; previously major research telescopes were privately funded, available only to astronomers who taught at the universities that ran them. The idea expanded to encompass the National Optical Astronomy Observatory , the National Radio Astronomy Observatory , the National Solar Observatory ,

10323-585: The social sciences, the NSF is the major source of federal backing. NSF's director and deputy director are appointed by the president of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate, whereas the 24 president-appointed members of the National Science Board (NSB) do not require U.S. Senate confirmation. The director and deputy director are responsible for administration, planning, budgeting and day-to-day operations of

10434-970: The south slopes of Anderson Heights in the Bush Mountains and flowing southeast to enter Shackleton Glacier at Thanksgiving Point . Discovered and photographed by USN OpHjp (1946–47) on the flights of Feb. 16, 1947. Named by US-ACAN for Master Sgt. A.V. Mincey, USMC, radio operator of Flight 8A. 84°47′S 177°00′W  /  84.783°S 177.000°W  / -84.783; -177.000 . A tributary glacier, 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi) long, flowing east from Anderson Heights to enter Shackleton Glacier just south of Epidote Peak . Named by US-ACAN for Lieutenant George B. Held, Civil Engineer Corps, USN, Public Works Officer at McMurdo Station during 1964. 84°42′S 177°03′W  /  84.700°S 177.050°W  / -84.700; -177.050 . Steep-walled tributary glacier, 5 nautical miles (9.3 km; 5.8 mi) long, entering

10545-422: The southwest slopes of the Prince Olav Mountains and flowing west to enter Shackleton Glacier just north of Cumulus Hills. Named by the Southern Party of NZGSAE (1961–62) for V.R. McGregor, geologist with that party. 85°10′S 173°30′W  /  85.167°S 173.500°W  / -85.167; -173.500 . A tributary glacier 7 nautical miles (13 km; 8.1 mi) long, flowing northwest between

10656-553: The staffs of the NSB office and the Office of the Inspector General , NSF's workforce includes some 200 scientists on temporary duty and 450 contract workers. Scientists from research institutions can join the NSF as temporary program directors, called "rotators", overseeing the merit review process and searching for new funding opportunities. These assignments typically last one–two years, but may extend to four. The NSF also offers contracting opportunities. As of May 2018,

10767-565: The upper part of Shackleton Glacier. Named by US-ACAN for Jacques S. Zaneveld, United States Antarctic Program (USARP) biologist at McMurdo Station, 1963–64 and 1964–65, who participated in the cruise of the USS Glacier , January-March 1965. 85°18′S 175°20′W  /  85.300°S 175.333°W  / -85.300; -175.333 . A tributary glacier, about 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) long and 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi) wide, flowing west through

10878-628: The warming over West Antarctica resulted in consistent net warming across the continent since the 1957. Because the East Antarctic ice sheet has barely warmed, it is still gaining ice on average. for instance, GRACE satellite data indicated East Antarctica mass gain of 60 ± 13 billion tons per year between 2002 and 2010. It is most likely to first see sustained losses of ice at its most vulnerable locations such as Totten Glacier and Wilkes Basin . Those areas are sometimes collectively described as East Antarctica's subglacial basins, and it

10989-503: The warming were to remain at elevated levels for a long time, then the East Antarctic Ice Sheet would eventually become the dominant contributor to sea level rise, simply because it contains the largest amount of ice. Sustained ice loss from the EAIS would begin with the significant erosion of the so-called subglacial basins, such as Totten Glacier and Wilkes Basin , which are located in vulnerable locations below

11100-593: The wartime period. In particular, concerns were raised that industry laboratories were largely allowed full patent rights of technologies developed with federal funds. These concerns, in part, led to efforts like Senator Harley M. Kilgore 's "Science Mobilization Act". Amidst growing awareness that US military capability depended on strength in science and engineering, Congress considered several proposals to support research in these fields. Separately, President Franklin D. Roosevelt sponsored creation of organizations to coordinate federal funding of science for war, including

11211-591: The west side of Shackleton Glacier opposite Gemini Nunataks. Named by the Texas Tech-Shackleton Glacier Party, 1964–65, for Helen Gerasimou, polar personnel specialist with the Office of Antarctic Programs, National Science Foundation . 84°39′S 177°10′W  /  84.650°S 177.167°W  / -84.650; -177.167 . A tributary glacier, 4 nautical miles (7.4 km; 4.6 mi) long, flowing east to enter Shackleton Glacier between Mount Franke and Mount Cole, in

11322-559: The west slope of the Cumulus Hills between Landry Bluff and Halfmoon Bluff to enter Shackleton Glacier. Named by the Texas Tech Shackleton Glacier Expedition (1964–65) for S/Sgt. Donald R. Brunner, member of the U.S. Army Aviation Detachment which supported the expedition. 85°11′S 175°12′W  /  85.183°S 175.200°W  / -85.183; -175.200 . A small tributary glacier just southwest of Mount Kenyon , descending

11433-403: The west slopes of the Cumulus Hills to enter Shackleton Glacier. Named by US-ACAN for Lester F. Gillespie, USARP meteorologist at South Pole Station, winter 1962. 85°08′S 174°50′W  /  85.133°S 174.833°W  / -85.133; -174.833 . A tributary glacier, 14 nautical miles (26 km; 16 mi) long and 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi) wide, draining

11544-410: The years to include many areas that were not in its initial portfolio, including the social and behavioral sciences, engineering, and science and mathematics education. The NSF is the only U.S. federal agency with a mandate to support all non-medical fields of research. Since the technology boom of the 1980s, the U.S. Congress has generally embraced the premise that government-funded basic research

11655-634: Was both lauded and criticized for favoring the standards. In 1991 the NSFNET acceptable use policy was altered to allow commercial traffic. By 1995, with private, commercial market thriving, NSF decommissioned the NSFNET, allowing for public use of the Internet. In 1993 students and staff at the NSF-supported National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, developed Mosaic ,

11766-551: Was created in 2022 to accelerate the transition of basic research into real world impact. It has a primary goal of the support of use-inspired research and the translation of research results to the market and society. Prior to October 2018, NSF maintained three overseas offices to promote collaboration between the science and engineering communities of the United States and other continents' scientific communities: All three overseas offices were shut down in October 2018, to reflect

11877-560: Was first formed around 34 million years ago, and it is the largest ice sheet on the entire planet, with far greater volume than the Greenland ice sheet or the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS), from which it is separated by the Transantarctic Mountains . The ice sheet is around 2.2 km (1.4 mi) thick on average and is 4,897 m (16,066 ft) at its thickest point. It is also home to

11988-596: Was initially unstable, and did not grow to consistently cover the entire continent until 32.8 million years ago, when the CO 2 levels had further declined to below 600 ppm. Afterwards, the East Antarctic Ice Sheet declined substantially during the Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum 15 million years ago, yet started to recover about 13.96 million years ago. Since then, it had been largely stable, experiencing "minimal" change in its surface extent over

12099-468: Was injured in an Otter airplane crash on Dec. 22, 1955, following take-off from the Cape Bird area. 84°33′S 175°12′W  /  84.550°S 175.200°W  / -84.550; -175.200 . A glacier, 11 nautical miles (20 km; 13 mi) long, flowing north between Waldron Spurs and Longhorn Spurs to enter the Ross Ice Shelf just east of the mouth of Shackleton Glacier. Named by

12210-485: Was promoted by Harley Kilgore. The bills called for the creation of a centralized science agency, but differed in governance and research supported. The second attempt, in 1947, included Senator H. Alexander Smith 's bill S. 526, and Senator Elbert Thomas 's bill S. 525. The Smith bill reflected ideas of Vannevar Bush, while the Thomas bill was identical to the previous year's compromise bill (S. 1850). After amendments,

12321-486: Was ultimately rejected by President Richard Nixon. William D. McElroy instead took over as the third director of the NSF in 1969. By 1968, the NSF budget had reached nearly $ 500 million. In 1972 the NSF took over management of twelve interdisciplinary materials research laboratories from the Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). These university-based laboratories had taken

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