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87-632: The Ghost Dance ( Caddo : Nanissáanah , also called the Ghost Dance of 1890 ) is a ceremony incorporated into numerous Native American belief systems. According to the millenarian teachings of the Northern Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka (renamed Jack Wilson), proper practice of the dance would reunite the living with spirits of the dead, bring the spirits to fight on their behalf, end American Westward expansion , and bring peace, prosperity, and unity to Native American peoples throughout

174-476: A French woman who has received extensive training in the Mongolian shamanic tradition and becomes therefore capable of self-inducing a trance state. Quantitative EEG mapping and  low resolution electromagnetic tomography show that shamanic trance involves a shift from the normally dominant left analytical to the right experiential mode of self-experience, and from the normally dominant anterior prefrontal to

261-492: A beautiful land filled with wild game and instructed him to return home to tell his people that they must love each other and not fight. He also stated that Jesus was being reincarnated on Earth in 1892, that the people must work, not steal or lie, and that they must not engage in the old practices of war or the traditional self-mutilation practices connected with mourning the dead. He said that if his people abided by these rules, they would be united with their friends and family in

348-609: A dissociated trance plane where at least some cognitive functions such as volition are disabled; as is seen in what is typically termed a 'hypnotic trance'. With this definition, meditation, hypnosis, addictions and charisma are seen as being trance states. In Wier's 2007 book, The Way of Trance , he elaborates on these forms, adds ecstasy as an additional form and discusses the ethical implications of his model, including magic and government use which he terms "trance abuse". John Horgan in Rational Mysticism (2003) explores

435-439: A distinguished neurologist . Mechanisms and disciplines that include kinesthetic driving may include: dancing , walking meditation , yoga and asana , mudra , juggling , poi (juggling) , etc. Sufism (the mystical branch of Islam ) has theoretical and metaphoric texts regarding ecstasy as a state of connection with Allah . Sufi practice rituals ( dhikr , sema ) use body movement and music to achieve

522-432: A function in religion and mystical experience. Castillo (1995) states that: "Trance phenomena result from the behavior of intense focusing of attention, which is the key psychological mechanism of trance induction. Adaptive responses, including institutionalized forms of trance, are 'tuned' into neural networks in the brain and depend to a large extent on the characteristics of culture. Culture-specific organizations exist in

609-406: A human involve the filtering of information coming into sense modalities, and this influences brain functioning and consciousness. Therefore, trance may be understood as a way for the mind to change the way it filters information in order to provide more efficient use of the mind's resources. Trance states may also be accessed or induced by various modalities and are considered by some people to be

696-487: A long-term project of trying to record and digitally archive Caddoan oral traditions, which are an important part of Caddo culture. As of 2010, a Caddo app is available for Android phones. As of 2012, the Caddo Nation teaches weekly language classes; language CDs, a coloring book, and an online learning website are also available. There is a Caddo grammar, published August 2018, and an in-depth examination of

783-427: A low tone (e.g. /ù/), unmarked in the orthography ⟨u⟩; a high tone (e.g. /ú/), marked by an acute accent over the vowel ⟨ú⟩; and falling tone, which always occurs on long vowels (e.g. /ûː/) and is marked by a grave accent over the vowel ⟨ù꞉⟩. Tone occurs both lexically (as a property of the word), non-lexically (as a result of tonological processes), and also as a marker of certain morphological features. For instance,

870-402: A palatal affricate so it has not been included here. Nevertheless, the third process probably occurs.) Caddo has three processes by which a syllable nucleus (vowel) may be lengthened: The Caddo word táy:sha’ [tə́jːʃaʔ] , meaning "ally" or "friend," is the ultimate origin of the place name Texas . Trance Trance is a state of semi-consciousness in which a person

957-597: A renewed Earth filled with food, love, and faith. Quickly accepted by his Paiute brethren, the new religion was termed, "Dance In A Circle". Because the first European contact with the practice came by way of the Lakota , their expression "Spirit Dance" was adopted as a descriptive title for all such practices. This was subsequently translated as "Ghost Dance". The invention of the Kinetoscope created and developed by Thomas Edison and William Kennedy Dickson were part of

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1044-534: A role in Lurianic Kabbalah , the mystical life of the circle of Moshe Hayyim Luzzatto and Hasidism . Joseph Jordania proposed the term "battle trance" in 2011 for a mental state when combatants do not feel fear and pain , and they lose their individual identity and acquire a collective identity . Many Christian mystics are documented as having experiences that may be considered as cognate with trance, such as: Hildegard of Bingen , John of

1131-494: A semivowel. In general, the long vowels do not feature this kind of variation but are simply lengthened versions of the phonemes that are represented in the chart. Caddo also has four diphthongs , which can be written a number of different ways; the transcription below shows the typical Caddo Nation orthography (a vowel paired with a glide) and the IPA version, represented with vowels and offglides. Caddo has three lexical tones :

1218-451: A state of high arousal. These four brainwave states are common throughout humans. All levels of brainwaves exist in everyone at all times, even though one is foregrounded depending on the activity level. When a person is in an aroused state and exhibiting a beta brainwave pattern, their brain also exhibits a component of alpha, theta, and delta, even though only a trace may be present. The University of Philadelphia study on some Christians at

1305-403: A subsistence pattern of fishing, hunting wild game, and foraging for pine nuts and roots such as Cyperus esculentus . The Tövusidökadö tended to follow various spiritual leaders and community organizers. Community events centered on the observance of seasonal ceremonies such as harvests or hunting. In 1869, Hawthorne Wodziwob , a Paiute man, organized a series of community dances to announce

1392-416: A useful working definition of auditory driving. It is the induction of trance through the sense of hearing. Auditory driving works through a process known as entrainment . The usage of repetitive rhythms to induce trance states is an ancient phenomenon. Throughout the world, shamanistic practitioners have been employing this method for millennia . Anthropologists and other researchers have documented

1479-649: A variety of techniques, including prayer , religious rituals , meditation , pranayama ( breathwork or breathing exercises), physical exercise , sexual intercourse , music , dancing , sweating (e.g. sweat lodge ), fasting , thirsting , and the consumption of psychotropic drugs such as cannabis . Sensory modality is the channel or conduit for the induction of the trance. Sometimes an ecstatic experience takes place in occasion of contact with something or somebody perceived as extremely beautiful or holy . It may also happen without any known reason. The particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy

1566-456: A vision. He spoke of a journey to the land of the dead and of promises made to him by the souls of the recently deceased. They promised to return to their loved ones within a period of three to four years. Wodziwob's peers accepted this vision, likely due to his reputable status as a healer . He urged the populace to dance the common circle dance as was customary during a time of celebration. He continued preaching this message for three years with

1653-548: A way of accessing the unconscious mind for the purposes of relaxation , healing , intuition , and inspiration . There is an extensive documented history of trance as evidenced by the case-studies of anthropologists and ethnologists and associated and derivative disciplines. Principles of trance are being explored and documented as are methods of trance induction. Mind functioning during trance and benefits of trance states are being explored by medical and scientific inquiry. Many traditions and rituals employ trance. Trance also has

1740-399: Is a device of sport psychologists to help them to attain an ecstasy-like state. Joseph Campbell had a peak experience whilst running . Roger Bannister on breaking the four-minute mile (Cameron, 1993: 185): "No longer conscious of my movement, I discovered a new unity with nature. I had found a new source of power and beauty, a source I never dreamt existed." Roger Bannister later became

1827-413: Is a circular community dance held usually around an individual who leads the ceremony. Round dances may be ceremonial or purely social. Usually, the dancers are accompanied by a group of singers who may also play hand drums in unison. The dancers join hands to form a large circle. The dancers move with a side-shuffle step to reflect the long-short pattern of the drum beat , bending their knees to emphasize

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1914-581: Is a member of the Caddoan language family ; this family includes the Pawnee-Kitsai (Keechi) languages ( Arikara , Kitsai , and Pawnee ) and the Wichita language. Kitsai and Wichita are now extinct, and Pawnee and Arikara each have fewer surviving speakers than Caddo does. Another language, Adai , is postulated to have been a Caddoan language while it was extant, but because of scarce resources and

2001-491: Is danced with Ghost Dance songs. Leonard Crow Dog recalls in his memoir during the Wounded Knee Occupation of 1973 the chants they were singing: "The whole world is coming, a nation is coming, a nation is coming, the eagle brought the message, says the father, says the father, the whole world is coming, the buffalo are coming, the buffalo are coming, the crow has brought the message, says the father , says

2088-438: Is generally realized as its lower counterpart /ɪ/ , and the high back vowel /u/ is similarly often realized as its lower counterpart /ʊ/ . The low central vowel /ä/ has a wider range of variation, pronounced (most commonly) as /ɐ/ when it is followed by any consonant except a semivowel or a laryngeal consonant, as a low central /ä/ at the end of an open syllable or when followed by a laryngeal consonant, and as /ə/ before

2175-587: Is not self-aware and is either altogether unresponsive to external stimuli (but nevertheless capable of pursuing and realizing an aim) or is selectively responsive in following the directions of the person (if any) who has induced the trance. Trance states may occur involuntarily and unbidden. The term trance may be associated with hypnosis , meditation , magic , flow , prayer , psychedelic drugs , and altered states of consciousness . Trance in its modern meaning comes from an earlier meaning of "a dazed, half-conscious or insensible condition or state of fear", via

2262-591: Is practiced by most notably the Caddo , but details are confined to the participants not the public. During the Wounded Knee incident of 1973, Lakota men and women, including Mary Brave Bird , did the ghost dance ceremony on the site where their ancestors had been killed. In her book Lakota Woman , Brave Bird wrote that ghost dances continue as private ceremonies. During the Wounded Knee Occupation from February 27 – May 8, 1973, Caddo language Caddo

2349-459: Is the English articles. Caddo has a glottalization process by which any voiceless stop or affricate (except p) becomes an ejective when it is followed by a glottal stop . Caddo has a palatalization process that affects certain consonants when they are followed by /j/, with simultaneous loss of the /j/. (Melnar includes a third palatization process, /tj/ → [ts]. However, /ts/ is not

2436-565: Is the cause of the altered states of consciousness that it can induce. Nowack and Feltman published an article entitled "Eliciting the Photic Driving Response" which states that the EEG photic driving response is a sensitive neurophysiological measure which has been employed to assess chemical and drug effects, forms of epilepsy, neurological status of Alzheimer's patients, and physiological arousal. Photic driving also impacts upon

2523-478: Is used by Tibetans to refer to the spirit , deity or entity that enters those men and women who act as media between the natural and the spiritual realms. The media are, therefore, known as kuten , which literally means, "the physical basis". The Dalai Lama , who lives in exile in northern India, still consults an oracle known as the Nechung Oracle , which is considered the official state oracle of

2610-703: Is usually one that is associated with that individual's particular religious and cultural traditions . As a result, an ecstatic experience is usually interpreted within the context of a particular individual's religious and cultural traditions. These interpretations often include statements about contact with supernatural or spiritual beings , about receiving new information as a revelation , also religion-related explanations of subsequent change of values , attitudes , and behavior (e.g. in case of religious conversion ). Benevolent, neutral and malevolent trances may be induced (intentionally, spontaneously and/or accidentally) by different methods: Charles Tart provides

2697-510: The MRI scans of the test subjects, stated that Buddhist monks in meditation and Franciscan nuns in prayer exhibited increased activity in the frontal lobe, and subsequently their behaviors, very much under voluntary control. The investigation found this particular beyond-body-control characteristic only in tongue-speakers (also see xenoglossia ). Studies have been conducted in France and Belgium on

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2784-605: The Old French transe "fear of evil", from the Latin transīre "to cross", "pass over". Wier, in his 1995 book, Trance: from magic to technology , defines a simple trance (p. 58) as a state of mind being caused by cognitive loops where a cognitive object (a thought, an image, a sound, an intentional action) repeats long enough to result in various sets of disabled cognitive functions. Wier represents all trances (which include sleep and watching television) as taking place on

2871-599: The Caddo verb, published in 2004. In August 2022 the Caddo Nation Language Preservation Program was launched. The program's goals are to archive resources in the language, share their resources through community events and programs, and develop a curriculum to teach the language. Caddo has 19 contrastive consonants , a normal-sized consonant inventory. It is somewhat unusual in that it lacks liquid consonants . The IPA symbols for

2958-708: The Cross , Meister Eckhart , Saint Theresa (as seen in the Bernini sculpture), and Francis of Assisi . Taves (1999) charts the synonymic language of trance in the American Christian traditions: power or presence or indwelling of God, or Christ, or the Spirit, or spirits. Typical expressions include "the indwelling of the Spirit" ( Jonathan Edwards ), "the witness of the Spirit" ( John Wesley ), "the power of God" (early American Methodists ), being "filled with

3045-692: The Freedom Valley Worship Center in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania , revealed that glossolalia -speaking (vocalizing or praying in unrecognizable form of language which is seen in members of certain Christian sects) activates areas of the brain out of voluntary control. In addition, the frontal lobe of the brain, which monitors speech, significantly diminished in activity as the study participants spoke glossolalia. Dr. Andrew B. Newberg , in analysis of his earlier studies as opposed to

3132-583: The Indian prophet were familiar and often accepted. While many followers of the Ghost Dance believed Wovoka to be a teacher of pacifism and peace, others did not. An elaboration of the Ghost Dance concept was the development of ghost shirts , which were special clothing that warriors could wear. They were rumored to repel bullets through spiritual power. It is uncertain where this belief originated. Scholars believe that in 1890 Chief Kicking Bear introduced

3219-522: The Lakota during the period of transition, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) was to supplement the Lakota with food and to hire white farmers as teachers for the people. The farming plan failed to take into account the difficulty that Lakota farmers would have in trying to cultivate crops in the semi-arid region of South Dakota. By the end of the 1890 growing season, a time of intense heat and low rainfall, it

3306-521: The Lakota interpretation from Jack Wilson's original teachings. The Caddo still practice the Ghost Dance today. The Northern Paiutes living in Mason Valley , in what became the U.S. state of Nevada , were known collectively as the Tövusidökadö ( lit.   ' ( Cyperus ) bulb eaters ' ) at the time of European contact . The Northern Paiute community at this time was thriving upon

3393-498: The Navajo's higher levels of social and economic satisfaction at the time. Another factor was cultural norms among the Navajo, which inculcated a fear of ghosts and spirits, based on religious beliefs. The Wounded Knee massacre was not the end of the Ghost Dance religious movement. Instead, it went underground. Wovoka continued to spread its message, along with Kicking Bear , Short Bull and other spiritual leaders. The Ghost Dance

3480-638: The Spirit of the Lord" (early Adventists ; see charismatic Adventism ), "communing with spirits" ( Spiritualists ), "the Christ within" ( New Thought ), "streams of holy fire and power" (Methodist holiness ), "a religion of the Spirit and Power" (the Emmanuel Movement ), and "the baptism of the Holy Spirit" (early Pentecostals ). (Taves, 1999: 3) Taves (1999) well-referenced book on trance charts

3567-608: The United States government broke a Lakota treaty by adjusting the Great Sioux Reservation of South Dakota (an area that formerly encompassed the majority of the state) and breaking it up into five smaller reservations. The government was accommodating white homesteaders from the eastern United States; in addition, it intended to "break up tribal relationships" and "conform Indians to the white man's ways, peaceably if they will, or forcibly if they must". On

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3654-495: The awards to be rescinded, but none have been revoked. Following the Wounded Knee Massacre, open participation in the Ghost Dance movement declined gradually for fear of continued violence against practitioners. Like most Indian ceremonies, it became clandestine rather than dying out completely. Congress officially apologized for the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1990 but did not rescind any Medals of Honor. Despite

3741-491: The banks of Wounded Knee Creek . The following day, during an attempt by the officers to collect weapons from the band, one young, deaf Lakota warrior refused to relinquish his arms. A struggle followed in which somebody's weapon discharged into the air. One U.S. officer gave the command to open fire, and the Lakota responded by taking up previously confiscated weapons; the U.S. forces responded with carbine firearms and several rapid-fire light-artillery Hotchkiss guns mounted on

3828-513: The beginning of a movement to cast and film Indigenous North Americans performing ceremonies, dances, and hunting. The kinetoscope was largely popular in the 1890s in both the East and West coast of the United States. These motion pictures were produced to contain a level of shock value to satisfy the viewers who would pay fifty cents to watch it. Films of Indigenous North Americans include a twenty-two second video of "Sioux Ghost Dance", passing around of

3915-438: The border area between alpha and theta has generated considerable research interest. Charles Tart provides a useful working definition of kinesthetic driving. It is the induction of trance through the sense of touch , feeling , or emotions . Kinesthetic driving works through a process known as entrainment . The rituals practiced by some athletes in preparing for contests are dismissed as superstition , but this

4002-472: The center, and the gap was closed by other dancers. The goal was to enter a Trance , where the dancer is transported into the afterworld and met with lost realties, and times before the arrival of Europeans when the Bison was found in abundance. Wailing, cries, and perplexed looks were found from the dancers as they woke from their unconscious state and retold their experiences to the shamans. The Ghost Dance

4089-451: The ceremony. On the day of the dance, Men and Women enter a separate Sweat lodge . During a period of two to four days dancers hold hands with their heads looking upwards and slowly sideways shuffle their feet in a clockwise formation while singing Ghost Dance songs. Shamans will wave eagle wing fans in the faces of the participants. The combination of days-long dancing caused with exhaustion and ensued with participants falling unconscious into

4176-458: The concept to his people, the Lakota, while James Mooney argued that the most likely source is the Mormon temple garment (which Mormons believe protect the pious wearer from evil). The Lakota interpretation drew from their traditional idea of a "renewed Earth" in which "all evil is washed away". This Lakota interpretation included the removal of all European Americans from their lands: They told

4263-406: The consonant cluster simplification process, there are four processes by which a syllable-final consonant is altered: There are three word-boundary processes in Caddo, all of which occur word-initially: Such processes are generally not applicable in the case of proclitics (morphemes that behave like an affix and are phonologically dependent on the morpheme to which they are attached). An example

4350-413: The consonants of Caddo are given below: Caddo also features contrastive gemination of consonants, which is generally indicated in orthography by a double letter: /nɑ́ttih/ "woman." Caddo has three contrastive vowel qualities: /i/ , /a/ and /u/ , and two contrastive vowel lengths, long and short. However, there is a great deal of phonetic variation in the short vowels. The high front vowel /i/

4437-784: The dances and ridiculed the panic that seemed to have overcome the agencies, saying: The coming of the troops has frightened the Indians. If the Seventh-day Adventists prepare the ascension robes for the Second Coming of the Savior , the United States Army is not put in motion to prevent them. Why should not the Indians have the same privilege? If the troops remain, trouble is sure to come. Nonetheless, thousands of additional U.S. Army troops were deployed to

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4524-673: The driving of sensory modalities, for example polyharmonics , multiphonics , and percussive polyrhythms through the channel of the auditory and kinesthetic modality . Neuroanthropology and cognitive neuroscience are conducting research into the trance induction of altered states of consciousness (possibly engendering higher consciousness ) resulting from neuron firing entrainment with these polyharmonics and multiphonics . Related research has been conducted into neural entraining with percussive polyrhythms . The timbre of traditional singing bowls and their polyrhythms and multiphonics are considered meditative and calming, and

4611-1083: The experience of Anglo-American Protestants and those who left the Protestant movement beginning with the transatlantic awakening in the early 18th century and ending with the rise of the psychology of religion and the birth of Pentecostalism in the early 20th century. This book focuses on a class of seemingly involuntary acts alternately explained in religious and secular terminology. These involuntary experiences include uncontrolled bodily movements ( fits , bodily exercises, falling as dead, catalepsy , convulsions ); spontaneous vocalizations (crying out, shouting, speaking in tongues ); unusual sensory experiences (trances, visions , voices, clairvoyance , out-of-body experiences ); and alterations of consciousness and/or memory ( dreams , somnium , somnambulism , mesmeric trance, mediumistic trance, hypnosis , possession , alternating personality) (Taves, 1999: 3). Trance-like states are often interpreted as religious ecstasy or visions and can be deliberately induced using

4698-487: The father. The crow nation is coming, says the father, says the father." Jack Wilson, the prophet otherwise known as Wovoka , was believed to have had a vision during a solar eclipse on January 1, 1889 . It was reportedly not his first time experiencing a vision, but as a young adult, he claimed that he was then better equipped, spiritually, to handle this message. Jack had received training from an experienced holy man under his parents' guidance after they realized that he

4785-472: The government of Tibet. He gives a complete description of the process of trance and possession in his book Freedom in Exile . Convergent disciplines of neuroanthropology , ethnomusicology , electroencephalography (EEG), neurotheology , and cognitive neuroscience , amongst others, are conducting research into the trance induction of altered states of consciousness resulting from neuron entrainment with

4872-587: The harmony inducing effects of this tool to potentially alter consciousness are being explored by scientists, medical professionals and therapists. Scientific advancement and new technologies such as computerized EEG , positron emission tomography , regional cerebral blood flow, and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, are providing measurable tools to assist in understanding trance phenomena. There are four principal brainwave states that range from high-amplitude, low-frequency delta to low-amplitude, high-frequency beta. These states range from deep dreamless sleep to

4959-475: The help of a local "weather doctor" named Tavibo, father of Wovoka . Prior to Wodziwob's religious movement, a devastating typhoid fever epidemic struck in 1867. This and other European diseases killed approximately one-tenth of the total population, resulting in widespread psychological and emotional trauma. The disruption brought disorder to the economic system and society. Many families were prevented from continuing their nomadic lifestyle. A round dance

5046-439: The language's extinct status, this connection is not conclusive, and Adai is generally considered a language isolate. The Caddo Nation is making a concentrated effort to save the Caddo language. The Kiwat Hasí꞉nay ('Caddo Home') foundation, located at the tribal home of Binger, Oklahoma, offers regular Caddo language classes, in addition to creating dictionaries, phrase books, and other Caddo language resources. They have also made

5133-423: The neurological mechanisms and psychological implications of trances and other mystical manifestations. Horgan incorporates literature and case-studies from a number of disciplines in this work: chemistry , physics , psychology , radiology , and theology . Trance conditions include all the different states of mind , emotions , moods , and daydreams that human beings experience. All activities which engage

5220-549: The only dances he was allowed to witness were social dances or ones that had already incorporated Christian elements, making investigation of the round dance's origin complicated. Eyewitness accounts of the Ghost Dance prior to the Wounded knee massacre include Ella Cara Deloria and Goodale Sisters. The Ghost Dance included hundreds of participants in its peak, with many visiting from near by reservations to participate, with those participants fasting for one to two days prior to

5307-514: The other world, and in God's presence, there would be no sickness, disease, or old age. Mooney writes that Wilson was given the Ghost Dance and commanded to take it back to his people. He preached that if the five-day dance was performed in the proper intervals, the performers would secure their happiness and hasten the reunion of the living and deceased. Wilson said that the Creator gave him powers over

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5394-496: The overlooking hill. When the fighting had concluded, 25 U.S. soldiers lay dead, many killed by friendly fire. Among the 153 dead Lakota, most were women and children. Following the massacre, Chief Kicking Bear officially surrendered his weapon to General Nelson A. Miles . Twenty U.S. soldiers received Medals of Honor for their actions (some sources state the number as 18 or 23). American Indian and human rights activists have referred to these as "Medals of Dis-Honor" and called for

5481-414: The past tense marker is associated with high tone. There are three processes that can create non-lexical high tone within a syllable nucleus . See the section below for an explanation of other phonological changes which may occur in the following examples. There are two vowel syncope processes in Caddo, which both involve the loss of a low-tone vowel in certain environments. The first syncope process

5568-522: The pattern. During his studies of the Pacific Northwest tribes the anthropologist Leslie Spier used the term " prophet dances " to describe ceremonial round dances where the participants seek trance , exhortations and prophecy . Spier studied peoples of the Columbia plateau (a region including Washington , Oregon , Idaho , and parts of western Montana ). By the time of his studies

5655-540: The peace pipe, the buffalo dance, and the Omaha war dance. The Sioux Ghost Dance film offers non-natives who watched the kinetoscope an inaccurate depiction of the Ghost Dance, in the film there is a drum but the dance itself does not include instruments. The dancers heads are face downwards, hands are holding pipes and moving their feet in a fast paced motion, whereas the original dance is slow, hands are held together and heads are usually looking upwards. Dancers are crammed into

5742-522: The people they could dance a new world into being. There would be landslides, earthquakes, and big winds. Hills would pile up on each other. The earth would roll up like a carpet with all the white man's ugly things – the stinking new animals, sheep and pigs, the fences, the telegraph poles, the mines and factories. Underneath would be the wonderful old-new world as it had been before the white fat-takers came. ...The white men will be rolled up, disappear, go back to their own continent. (p. 228) In February 1890,

5829-424: The plural, because there is more than one altered state of consciousness significantly different from everyday consciousness." As the mystical experience of mystics generally entails direct connection, communication and communion with the divine ; trance and cognate experience are endemic. (see Yoga , Sufism , Shaman , Umbanda , Crazy Horse , etc.) As shown by Jonathan Garb , trance techniques also played

5916-511: The psychological climate of a person by producing increased visual imagery and decreased physiological and subjective arousal. In this research by Nowack and Feltman, all participants reported increased visual imagery during photic driving, as measured by their responses to an imagery questionnaire. Dennis Wier states that over two millennia ago Ptolemy and Apuleius found that differing rates of flickering lights affected states of awareness and sometimes induced epilepsy. Wier also asserts that it

6003-475: The published show programs.Yet they were stereotyped as mounted, war-bonneted warriors, the last impediment to civilization. Thus they had to re-fight a losing war nightly; and their hollow victory in the Little Big Horn enactments demonstrated over and over to their audiences the justification for American conquest. Through Native Americans and some white settlers, Wilson's message spread across much of

6090-442: The reduced reservations, the government allocated family units on 320-acre (1.3 km) plots for individual households. The Lakota were expected to farm and raise livestock, and to send their children to boarding schools . With the goal of assimilation , the schools taught English and Christianity, as well as American cultural practices. Generally, they forbade inclusion of Indian traditional cultures and languages. To help support

6177-553: The region. The basis for the Ghost Dance is the circle dance , a traditional Native American dance. The Ghost Dance was first practiced by the Nevada Northern Paiute in 1889. The practice swept throughout much of the Western United States , quickly reaching areas of California and Oklahoma . As the Ghost Dance spread from its original source, different tribes synthesized selective aspects of

6264-560: The reservation. On December 15, 1890, Sitting Bull was arrested for failing to stop his people from practicing the Ghost Dance. During the incident, one of Sitting Bull's men, Catch the Bear, fired at Lieutenant "Bull Head", striking his right side. He instantly wheeled and shot Sitting Bull, hitting him in the left side, between the tenth and eleventh ribs; this exchange resulted in deaths on both sides, including that of Sitting Bull. Spotted Elk ( Lakota : Unpan Glešká – also known as Big Foot)

6351-528: The ritual with their own beliefs. The Ghost Dance has been associated with Wovoka's prophecy of an end to colonial expansion while preaching goals of clean living, an honest life, and cross-cultural cooperation by Native Americans. Practice of the Ghost Dance movement was believed to have contributed to Lakota resistance to assimilation under the Dawes Act . The Lakota variation on the Ghost Dance tended towards millenarianism , an innovation that distinguished

6438-408: The similarity of shamanistic auditory driving rituals among different cultures. Said simply, entrainment is the synchronization of different rhythmic cycles. Breathing and heart rate have been shown to be affected by auditory stimulus, along with brainwave activity. The ability of rhythmic sound to affect human brainwave activity, especially theta brainwaves , is the essence of auditory driving, and

6525-683: The small stage to accomodate the small space for the kinetoscope to view. The rise in popularity coincided with Buffalo Bill's Wild West shows where, "The role of Indian people was both essential and anomalous in the Wild West. At least in the big shows, they generally were treated and paid the same as other performers. They were able to travel with their families, and they earned a living not possible to them on their reservations. They were encouraged by Buffalo Bill and others to retain their language and rituals. They gained access to political and economic leaders, and their causes were sometimes argued in

6612-542: The state. Divination is a cultural universal which anthropologists have observed as being present in many religions and cultures in all ages up to the present day (see sibyl ). Divination may be defined as a mechanism for fortune-telling by ascertaining information by interpretation of omens or an alleged supernatural agency. Divination often entails ritual , and is often facilitated by trance. In Tibet , oracles have played, and continue to play, an important part in religion and government . The word oracle

6699-481: The structure of individual neurons and in the organizational formation of neural networks." Hoffman (1998: p. 9) states that: "Trance is still conventionally defined as a state of reduced consciousness , or a somnolent state. However, the more recent anthropological definition, linking it to ' altered states of consciousness ' ( Charles Tart ), is becoming increasingly accepted." Hoffman (1998, p. 9) asserts that: "...the trance state should be discussed in

6786-574: The supervising agents of the BIA. Those who had been residing in the area for a long time recognized that the ritual was often held shortly before battle was to occur. Kicking Bear was forced to leave Standing Rock, but when the dances continued unabated, Agent James McLaughlin asked for more troops. He claimed the Hunkpapa spiritual leader Sitting Bull was the real leader of the movement. A former agent, Valentine McGillycuddy , saw nothing extraordinary in

6873-448: The use of brain machines suggest that photic driving via the suprachiasmatic nucleus and direct electrical stimulation and driving via other mechanisms and modalities, may entrain processes of the brain facilitating rapid and enhanced learning , produce deep relaxation , euphoria , an increase in creativity , and problem solving propensity may be associated with enhanced concentration and accelerated learning. The theta range and

6960-479: The weather and that he would be the deputy in charge of affairs in the western United States, leaving current President Harrison as God's deputy in the East. Jack claims that he was then told to return home and preach God's message. Jack Wilson claimed to have left the presence of God convinced that if every Indian in the West danced the new dance to "hasten the event", all evil in the world would be swept away, leaving

7047-414: The western portion of the United States. Early in the religious movement, many tribes sent members to investigate the self-proclaimed prophet, while other communities sent delegates only to be cordial. Regardless of their initial motivations, many left as believers and returned to their homeland preaching his message. The Ghost Dance was also investigated by many Mormons from Utah , for whom the concepts of

7134-407: The widespread acceptance of the Ghost Dance movement, Navajo leaders described the Ghost Dance as "worthless words" in 1890. Three years later, James Mooney arrived at the Navajo reservation in northern Arizona during his study of the Ghost Dance movement and found the Navajo never incorporated the ritual into their society. Kehoe believed the movement did not gain traction with the tribe due to

7221-487: Was a Miniconjou leader on the U.S. Army's list of 'trouble-making' Indians. On December 29, 1890, he was stopped while en route to convene with the remaining Lakota chiefs. U.S. Army officers forced him to relocate with his people to a small camp close to the Pine Ridge Agency. Here the soldiers could more closely watch the old chief. That evening, December 28, the small band of Lakota erected their tipis on

7308-416: Was clear that the land was unable to produce substantial agricultural yields. Unfortunately, this was also the time when the government's patience with supporting the so-called "lazy Indians" ran out. They cut rations for the Lakota in half. With the bison having been virtually eradicated a few years earlier, the Lakota were at risk of starvation. The people turned to the Ghost Dance ritual, which frightened

7395-451: Was described above as low tone-deletion. The second syncope process is described below: As a result of the syncope processes described above, several consonant clusters emerge that are then simplified by way of phonological process. At the present stage of research, the processes seem to be unrelated, but they represent a phonetic reduction in consonant clusters; therefore, they are listed below without much further explanation. Similar to

7482-419: Was discovered in the late 1920s that when light was shined on closed eyelids it resulted in an echoing production of brainwave frequencies. Wier also opined that in 1965 Grey employed a stroboscope to project rhythmic light flashes into the eyes at a rate of 10–25 Hz (cycles per second). Grey discovered that this stimulated similar brainwave activity. Research by Thomas Budzynski , Oestrander et al., in

7569-727: Was having difficulty interpreting his previous visions. Jack was also training to be a "weather doctor", following in his father's footsteps. He was known throughout Mason Valley as a gifted and blessed young leader. Preaching a message of universal love, he often presided over circle dances, which symbolized the sun's heavenly path across the sky. Anthropologist James Mooney conducted an interview with Wilson prior to 1892. Mooney confirmed that his message matched that given to his fellow Indians. This study compared letters between tribes. According to Mooney, Wilson's letter said he stood before God in heaven and had seen many of his ancestors engaged in their favorite pastimes, and that God showed Wilson

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