121-541: The Gisela- Gymnasium München is a secondary school in Munich , Germany and belongs to the mathematical-scientific category of gymnasia but also has a modern languages branch. The school is named after its patron , the Archduchess Gisela of Austria who resided in the nearby Leopoldschlößchen with her family during her time in the city and played a significant role in local social and political events of
242-614: A co-educational school in 1981/82 and although male teachers and students still outnumber females, the ratio is much close to being half and half today and the school has had a female headmaster for the first time since 2001. The school has been participating in the mainstreaming of students with hearing disabilities since 1984. It has special facilities such as 4 sound insulated circular (to enable lip reading ) classrooms with an integrated audio-system. Special mixed transfer classes exist in year 10 and 11, enabling students who have come from specialised educational facilities to integrate into
363-600: A 75 mm 12-pounder, and even a 105 mm gun. Erhardt also had a 12-pounder, while Vickers Maxim offered a 3-pounder and Schneider a 47 mm. The French balloon gun appeared in 1910, it was an 11-pounder but mounted on a vehicle, with a total uncrewed weight of two tons. However, since balloons were slow moving, sights were simple. But the challenges of faster moving aeroplanes were recognised. By 1913 only France and Germany had developed field guns suitable for engaging balloons and aircraft and addressed issues of military organisation. Britain's Royal Navy would soon introduce
484-645: A full military structure. For example, the UK's Anti-Aircraft Command, commanded by a full British Army general was part of ADGB. At its peak in 1941–42 it comprised three AA corps with 12 AA divisions between them. The use of balloons by the U.S. Army during the American Civil War compelled the Confederates to develop methods of combating them. These included the use of artillery, small arms, and saboteurs. They were unsuccessful, and internal politics led
605-401: A large number of classes in alternate locations. At the same time, a large number of students took an active role in the war either by volunteering for military service or by getting involved in other activities to aid the war. Towards the end of the war the school was then used as a military hospital . The period following saw the establishment of first student councils and an increase in
726-451: A large traverse that could be easily transported on a wagon. Krupp 75 mm guns were supplied with an optical sighting system that improved their capabilities. The German Army also adapted a revolving cannon that came to be known to Allied fliers as the " flaming onion " from the shells in flight. This gun had five barrels that quickly launched a series of 37 mm artillery shells. As aircraft started to be used against ground targets on
847-543: A maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites". In some armies the term all-arms air defence (AAAD) is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops. Other terms from the late 20th century include "ground based air defence" (GBAD) with related terms " short range air defense " (SHORAD) and man-portable air-defense system (MANPADS). Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called surface-to-air missiles , ("SAMs") and surface-to-air guided weapons (SAGWs). Examples are
968-416: A mentor. Some schools have mentors (mostly alumni or parents) who help graduates choose a college and who arrange practical training for them. In 2008, a mentoring programme called "Arbeiterkind" ("working-class child") was founded to assist students from working-class families make the transition. A year later, this organization had 1000 mentors and 70 local chapters. Flak Anti-aircraft warfare
1089-513: A new 3.6-inch gun, in 1918. In 1928 a 3.7-inch (94 mm) gun became the preferred solution, but it took six years to gain funding. Production of the QF 3.7-inch gun began in 1937; this gun was used on mobile carriages with the field army and transportable guns on fixed mountings for static positions. At the same time the Royal Navy adopted a new 4.5-inch (113 mm) gun in a twin turret, which
1210-637: A new field mounting was introduced in 1916. Since most attacks were at night, searchlights were soon used, and acoustic methods of detection and locating were developed. By December 1916 there were 183 AA sections defending Britain (most with the 3-inch), 74 with the BEF in France and 10 in the Middle East. AA gunnery was a difficult business. The problem was of successfully aiming a shell to burst close to its target's future position, with various factors affecting
1331-626: A number of parochial and private gymnasia also exist. In 2009/10, 11.1 percent of gymnasium students attended a private gymnasium. These often charge tuition fees , though many also offer scholarships. Tuition fees are lower than in comparable European countries. Some gymnasia are boarding schools , while others run as day schools; they are now predominantly co-educational, and few single-sex schools remain. Students are generally admitted at 10 years of age and are required to have completed four years (six in Berlin and Brandenburg where they are enrolled at
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#17327982259691452-691: A par with the army, navy, or air force. In the Soviet Union, this was called Voyska PVO , and had both fighter aircraft, separate from the air force, and ground-based systems. This was divided into two arms, PVO Strany, the Strategic Air defence Service responsible for Air Defence of the Homeland, created in 1941 and becoming an independent service in 1954, and PVO SV, Air Defence of the Ground Forces. Subsequently, these became part of
1573-608: A six-year course. The rising prominence of girls' gymnasia was mainly due to the ascendancy of the German feminist movement in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, corresponding to the rising demand for women's university education. Co-educational gymnasia have become widespread since the 1970s, and today, single-sex gymnasia are rare in Germany. When primary school ended with the fourth grade and pupils left German basic secondary schools ( Volksschule/Hauptschule or Realschule ) at
1694-515: A strong political movement to reduce the time spent at the gymnasium to eight years throughout Germany; nowadays most pupils throughout Germany attend the gymnasium for 8 years (referred to as G8), dispensing with the traditional ninth year or oberprima (except in Rhineland-Palatinate and Lower Saxony which still has a year 13; Bavaria will bring back the 13th year in 2024, North Rhine-Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein will bring back
1815-471: A student should not interrupt his teachers." Students may also be subjected to official disciplinary measures, such as a Verweis (reprimand), not unlike equally-called measures in the disciplining of civil-servants or soldiers; the hardest of these measures is expelling from school. Such pupils have to go to another school, or even be banned from attending state schools altogether. This is rare though. Some private schools are more easy with expulsions, along with
1936-481: A two-storey sports hall. The school gradually introduced the Kollegstufe system between 1971 and 1973 and again re-classified as a Gymnasium of the mathematical-scientific branch in 1965. An additional branch of modern languages was added in 1987, adding Latin , Spanish and Italian to the curriculum. Student numbers fluctuated heavily in the post-war period, dipping from its peak of some 1300 students in
2057-526: Is a requirement for graduation. If they wish, students may also graduate with four foreign languages. There are a number of gymnasia for mature students, people who graduated from school, but did not receive an Abitur . Most of these schools have only the top three or four year groups, rather than the traditional 5th to 13th years. Examples are the Abendgymnasium , the Aufbaugymnasium and
2178-483: Is assisted but not governed by identification friend or foe (IFF) electronic devices originally introduced during the Second World War . While these rules originate at the highest authority, different rules can apply to different types of air defence covering the same area at the same time. AAAD usually operates under the tightest rules. NATO calls these rules "weapon control orders" (WCO), they are: Until
2299-639: Is deployed in several ways: Air defence has included other elements, although after the Second World War most fell into disuse: Passive air defence is defined by NATO as "Passive measures taken for the physical defence and protection of personnel, essential installations and equipment in order to minimise the effectiveness of air and/or missile attack". It remains a vital activity by ground forces and includes camouflage and concealment to avoid detection by reconnaissance and attacking aircraft. Measures such as camouflaging important buildings were common in
2420-686: Is no longer the case for every gymnasium. In the past, Gymnasiasten wore a traditional cap, marking them as a gymnasium student. The colour of the cap differed by gymnasium and grade. In case of the Ludwig Meyn Gymnasium in Uetersen , for example, in 1920: After the Machtergreifung of the Nazis, the gymnasium cap was banned for political reasons. Literature describing student caps was burned .Students received new clothing from
2541-487: Is not up to the parents to decide if a pupil will attend the Gymnasium but decision will mainly be based on the performance in elementary schools. However, even "the gifted" in this sense comprise a fourth or fifth of the population. Other gymnasia in other states have no such strict provisions. Though gymnasia traditionally impose strict grading that causes students of average academic ability to struggle, many schools share
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#17327982259692662-454: Is operated by specialists, batteries may have several dozen teams deploying separately in small sections; self-propelled air defence guns may deploy in pairs. Batteries are usually grouped into battalions or equivalent. In the field army, a light gun or SHORAD battalion is often assigned to a manoeuvre division. Heavier guns and long-range missiles may be in air-defence brigades and come under corps or higher command. Homeland air defence may have
2783-462: Is the counter to aerial warfare and includes "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action". It encompasses surface-based, subsurface ( submarine-launched ), and air-based weapon systems, in addition to associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements, and passive measures (e.g. barrage balloons ). It may be used to protect naval , ground , and air forces in any location. However, for most countries,
2904-414: Is to detect hostile aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space; an attack must not only match these three coordinates, but must do so at the time the target is at that position. This means that projectiles either have to be guided to hit the target, or aimed at the predicted position of the target at the time the projectile reaches it, taking into account
3025-421: Is true even in regions where High German is not the prevailing dialect. Curricula differ from school to school, but generally include German , mathematics , informatics / computer science , physics , chemistry , biology , geography , art (as well as crafts and design), music , history , philosophy , civics / citizenship, social sciences , and several foreign languages. For younger students nearly
3146-586: Is usually accomplished via the combined use of systems optimized for either short-, medium-, or long-range air defence. In some countries, such as Britain and Germany during the Second World War , the Soviet Union , and modern NATO and the United States, ground-based air defence and air defence aircraft have been under integrated command and control. However, while overall air defence may be for homeland defence (including military facilities), forces in
3267-425: The 13-pr QF 9 cwt and these proved much more satisfactory. However, in general, these ad hoc solutions proved largely useless. With little experience in the role, no means of measuring target, range, height or speed the difficulty of observing their shell bursts relative to the target gunners proved unable to get their fuse setting correct and most rounds burst well below their targets. The exception to this rule
3388-811: The German education system , is the most advanced and highest of the three types of German secondary schools , the others being Hauptschule (lowest) and Realschule (middle). Gymnasium strongly emphasizes academic learning, comparable to the British grammar school system or with prep schools in the United States. A student attending Gymnasium is called a Gymnasiast (German plural: Gymnasiasten ). In 2009/10 there were 3,094 gymnasia in Germany, with c. 2,475,000 students (about 28 percent of all precollegiate students during that period), resulting in an average student number of 800 students per school. Gymnasia are generally public, state-funded schools, but
3509-650: The Latinum, some also the Graecum , proof of study or comprehension of Latin or Ancient Greek, respectively. This type of school is less traditional. It teaches at least two modern languages. In most cases the students have the chance to learn Latin as well. Often combined with the Neusprachliches Gymnasium this type of schools have a focus on STEM subjects. The Gymnasium with focus on mathematics and sciences used to be called Oberrealschule ,
3630-523: The League of German Girls and the Hitler Youth . Gymnasium students were forbidden from wearing clothing that identified them as members of their school. Now, it is no longer illegal and these caps are again being sold however, few ever wear one. At some schools, when graduating, students receive an Abitur T-shirt, which is printed with the name of the school, the year of graduation and a slogan. As
3751-463: The QF 3-inch and QF 4-inch AA guns and also had Vickers 1-pounder quick firing "pom-poms" that could be used in various mountings. The first US anti-aircraft cannon was a 1-pounder concept design by Admiral Twining in 1911 to meet the perceived threat of airships, that eventually was used as the basis for the US Navy's first operational anti-aircraft cannon: the 3-inch/23 caliber gun . On
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3872-671: The RIM-66 Standard , Raytheon Standard Missile 6 , or the MBDA Aster missile. Non-English terms for air defence include the German Flak or FlaK ( Fliegerabwehrkanone , 'aircraft defence cannon', also cited as Flugabwehrkanone ), whence English flak , and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona ( Cyrillic : Противовозду́шная оборо́на), a literal translation of 'anti-air defence', abbreviated as PVO. In Russian,
3993-675: The Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (RNVR) was manning AA guns and searchlights assembled from various sources at some nine ports. The Royal Garrison Artillery (RGA) was given responsibility for AA defence in the field, using motorised two-gun sections. The first were formally formed in November 1914. Initially they used QF 1-pounder "pom-pom"s (37 mm versions of the Maxim Gun ). All armies soon deployed AA guns often based on their smaller field pieces, notably
4114-682: The United States Air Force 's operating bases in the UK. All ground-based air defence was removed from Royal Air Force (RAF) jurisdiction in 2004 . The British Army's Anti-Aircraft Command was disbanded in March 1955, but during the 1960s and 1970s the RAF's Fighter Command operated long-range air-defence missiles to protect key areas in the UK. During World War II, the Royal Marines also provided air defence units; formally part of
4235-482: The Wirtschaftsgymnasium . German gymnasia follow different pedagogical philosophies, and teaching methods may vary. In the most traditional schools, students rise when the teacher enters the classroom. The teacher says "Good morning, class" and the class answers "Good morning, Mr./Ms. ... ." The teacher then asks them to sit down. Up to the 1960s, students used to be supposed to call their teachers by
4356-508: The 13th year in 2025), which is roughly equivalent to the first year of higher education . Final year students take the Abitur final exam. The gymnasium arose out of the humanistic movement of the sixteenth century. The first general school system to incorporate the gymnasium emerged in Saxony in 1528, with the study of Greek and Latin added to the curriculum later; these languages became
4477-649: The 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions were the standard weapon; guided missiles then became dominant, except at the very shortest ranges. However, the type of shell or warhead and its fuzing and, with missiles, the guidance arrangement were and are varied. Targets are not always easy to destroy; nonetheless, damaged aircraft may be forced to abort their mission and, even if they manage to return and land in friendly territory, may be out of action for days or permanently. Ignoring small arms and smaller machine-guns, ground-based air defence guns have varied in calibre from 20 mm to at least 152 mm. Ground-based air defence
4598-471: The 30th of September, 1915, troops of the Serbian Army observed three enemy aircraft approaching Kragujevac . Soldiers fired at them with shotguns and machine-guns but failed to prevent them from dropping 45 bombs over the city, hitting military installations, the railway station and many other, mostly civilian, targets in the city. During the bombing raid, private Radoje Ljutovac fired his cannon at
4719-409: The 70's to just over 600 in the 90's only gradually to recover and stabilise eventually at about 800 students with some 60 full-time teaching staff. Composition of the student body also changed with increasing numbers of students from Aussiedler , migrant and immigrant background. In spite of the dip in student numbers the school suffered from chronic overcrowding, not least because when the school
4840-420: The 8.8 cm FlaK 18 in 1933, the 36 and 37 models followed with various improvements, but ballistic performance was unchanged. In the late 1930s the 10.5 cm FlaK 38 appeared, soon followed by the 39; this was designed primarily for static sites but had a mobile mounting, and the unit had 220 V 24 kW generators. In 1938 design started on the 12.8 cm FlaK . Britain had successfully tested
4961-487: The AA systems are called zenitnye (i.e., 'pointing to zenith ') systems. In French, air defence is called Défense contre les aéronefs (DCA) , aéronef meaning 'aircraft'. The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure. However, many different definitions are used and unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only
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5082-492: The British Isles increased in 1915 and the AA efforts were deemed somewhat ineffective, so a Royal Navy gunnery expert, Admiral Sir Percy Scott , was appointed to make improvements, particularly an integrated AA defence for London. The air defences were expanded with more RNVR AA guns, 75 mm and 3-inch, the pom-poms being ineffective. The naval 3-inch was also adopted by the army, the QF 3-inch 20 cwt (76 mm),
5203-491: The British adopted a new instrument developed by Vickers. It was a mechanical analogue computer - the Predictor AA No 1. Given the target height, its operators tracked the target and the predictor produced bearing, quadrant elevation and fuse setting. These were passed electrically to the guns, where they were displayed on repeater dials to the layers who "matched pointers" (target data and the gun's actual data) to lay
5324-460: The Europäisches gymnasium start learning Latin and English while in 5th grade. They pick up their third language by 7th or 8th grade and their fourth foreign language by 10th grade. By 10th grade, students also choose if they want to drop one of the languages they started in 5th grade. Later, they may drop another language. Students are required to take at least two foreign languages and fluency
5445-472: The French 75 mm and Russian 76.2 mm, typically simply propped up on some sort of embankment to get the muzzle pointed skyward. The British Army adopted the 13-pounder quickly producing new mountings suitable for AA use, the 13-pdr QF 6 cwt Mk III was issued in 1915. It remained in service throughout the war but 18-pdr guns were lined down to take the 13-pdr shell with a larger cartridge producing
5566-563: The German Flugzeugabwehrkanone ), "ack-ack" (from the spelling alphabet used by the British for voice transmission of "AA"); and "archie" (a World War I British term probably coined by Amyas Borton , and believed to derive via the Royal Flying Corps , from the music-hall comedian George Robey 's line "Archibald, certainly not!" ). NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) as "measures taken to defend
5687-915: The German President Joachim Gauck congratulating them. The Project was supported by the International Tracing Service . Marianne Achatz 2001- Axel Müller-Nordhorn (1942-) 1990-2001 Ernst Weinzierl (1927-?) 1980-1990 Albert Lehmeier (1916-?) 1972-1980 Dr Hans Buchner 1951-1972 Dr Stephan Ankenbrand (1884-?) 1948-1951 Andreas Blaha (1879-?) 1945-1948 Albert Dittmar (1888-?) 1943-1945 Dr Georg Wetzstein (1876-?) 1932-1943 Dr Karl Manger (1866-1932) 1920-1932 Wilhelm Orscheidt (?-1925) 1916-1920 Peter Arnold (1849-1918) 1904-1916 Gisela-Gymnasium 1904-2004 Gisela-Gymnasium, Munich 2004 Gymnasium (Germany) Gymnasium ( German: [ɡʏmˈnaːzi̯ʊm] ; German plural: Gymnasien ), in
5808-494: The Gymnasium and this is demonstrated by the time-honoured practices and subject matter that are unique to the gymnasia and could be baffling to outsiders. It is often offered in the last three years at school. Although some specialist gymnasia have English or French as the language of instruction, most lessons in a typical gymnasium (apart from foreign language courses) are conducted in Standard High German . This
5929-468: The Gymnasium with focus on both modern languages and mathematics plus sciences used to be called Realgymnasium . The Gymnasium was supposed to be the humanities-oriented variety; during the Nazi era, a common term for all of these schools put together was Oberschule (literally, "upper school"). In the 1960s, school reformers in an equalization effort discontinued these names. The most practical benefit of this
6050-589: The Northwestern part of the city opposite the Elisabethmarkt and the Berufsschule für KfZ Mechanik (Municipal Vocational School for Vehicle Mechanics). The original school was designed by the architect Cajetan Pacher in a Neo-Renaissance style and contained 23 classrooms, a sports hall and a period school botanical garden. It first opened on 21 September 1904 following increasing demand by
6171-473: The Second World War. During the Cold War the runways and taxiways of some airfields were painted green. While navies are usually responsible for their own air defence—at least for ships at sea—organisational arrangements for land-based air defence vary between nations and over time. The most extreme case was the Soviet Union and this model may still be followed in some countries: it was a separate service, on
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#17327982259696292-621: The United States Army's Balloon Corps to be disbanded mid-war. The Confederates experimented with balloons as well. Turks carried out the first ever anti-airplane operation in history during the Italo-Turkish war . Although lacking anti-aircraft weapons, they were the first to shoot down an airplane by rifle fire. The first aircraft to crash in a war was the one of Lieutenant Piero Manzini, shot down on August 25, 1912. The earliest known use of weapons specifically made for
6413-451: The age of 12) of Grundschule (primary education). In some states of Germany, permission to apply for gymnasium is nominally dependent on a letter of recommendation written by a teacher or a certain GPA, although when parents petition, an examination can be used to decide the outcome. Traditionally, a pupil attended gymnasium for nine years in western Germany. However, since 2004, there has been
6534-669: The air force and ground forces respectively. At the other extreme, the United States Army has an Air Defense Artillery Branch that provides ground-based air defence for both homeland and the army in the field; however, it is operationally under the Joint Force Air Component Commander . Many other nations also deploy an air-defence branch in the army. Some, such as Japan or Israel, choose to integrate their ground based air defence systems into their air force. In Britain and some other armies,
6655-413: The altitude at which a gun could deliver a series of shells against a moving target; this could be constrained by maximum fuse running time as well as the gun's capability. By the late 1930s the British definition was "that height at which a directly approaching target at 400 mph [640 km/h] can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation". The essence of air defence
6776-562: The anti-aircraft role occurred during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. After the disaster at Sedan , Paris was besieged and French troops outside the city started an attempt at communication via balloon . Gustav Krupp mounted a modified 1-pounder (37 mm) gun – the Ballonabwehrkanone (Balloon defence cannon) or BaK — on top of a horse-drawn carriage for the purpose of shooting down these balloons. By
6897-475: The appropriate title, e. g. "Herr Studienrat ." This is generally outdated. The headmaster might also be addressed more laxly as Herr Direktor (the correct title being Herr Oberstudiendirektor). The general mode of address is these days Mr. + surname. Teachers mostly address students by their first name. Corporal punishment was banned in 1973. Teachers who want to punish students put them in detention or assign them boring tasks. Some have them write essays like "Why
7018-407: The ascending part of the trajectory can be usefully used. One term is "ceiling", the maximum ceiling being the height a projectile would reach if fired vertically, not practically useful in itself as few AA guns are able to fire vertically, and the maximum fuse duration may be too short, but potentially useful as a standard to compare different weapons. The British adopted "effective ceiling", meaning
7139-457: The battlefield, the AA guns could not be traversed quickly enough at close targets and, being relatively few, were not always in the right place (and were often unpopular with other troops), so changed positions frequently. Soon the forces were adding various machine-gun based weapons mounted on poles. These short-range weapons proved more deadly, and the " Red Baron " is believed to have been shot down by an anti-aircraft Vickers machine gun . When
7260-408: The competition for a share of limited defence budgets. Demobilisation meant that most AA guns were taken out of service, leaving only the most modern. However, there were lessons to be learned. In particular the British, who had had AA guns in most theatres in action in daylight and used them against night attacks at home. Furthermore, they had also formed an Anti-Aircraft Experimental Section during
7381-404: The compulsory second foreign language may be English, French, Latin, Ancient Greek , Spanish or Russian . The German State of Berlin , where secondary education normally begins in the seventh year of schooling, has some specialised gymnasia beginning with the fifth year which teach Latin or French as a primary foreign language. Teaching English as a subject, particularly, has a long history at
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#17327982259697502-499: The countryside. The remaining students (as young as 11) increasingly were drafted into anti-aircraft defence and fire services in and around Munich. At the end of the war, almost 200 students had been killed and the building severely damaged. After the end of the World War II , the school had to be rebuilt and resumed limited operations from December 1945 onwards with classes of up to 53 students, with many classes held outside
7623-678: The early 20th century balloon, or airship, guns, for land and naval use were attracting attention. Various types of ammunition were proposed, high explosive, incendiary, bullet-chains, rod bullets and shrapnel. The need for some form of tracer or smoke trail was articulated. Fuzing options were also examined, both impact and time types. Mountings were generally pedestal type but could be on field platforms. Trials were underway in most countries in Europe but only Krupp, Erhardt, Vickers Maxim, and Schneider had published any information by 1910. Krupp's designs included adaptations of their 65 mm 9-pounder,
7744-576: The education and insights offered by the models of classical antiquity. During the National Socialism era, it became virtually impossible for girls to study at a Gymnasium according to Hitler 's idea, as stated in Mein Kampf , the education of girls should be conditioned only by the task of motherhood. After the Second World War, German education was reformed with the introduction of new system, content, aims, and ethos. The Gymnasium
7865-487: The end of the ninth or tenth grade, the gymnasium used special terms for its grade levels: The introduction of French and English as elective languages in the early twentieth century brought about the greatest change to German secondary education since the introduction of the Realschulen in the eighteenth century. Today, German gymnasia teach English, French, or Latin as a compulsory primary foreign language, while
7986-490: The enemy aircraft and successfully shot one down. It crashed in the city and both pilots died from their injuries. The cannon Ljutovac used was not designed as an anti-aircraft gun; it was a slightly modified Turkish cannon captured during the First Balkan War in 1912. This was the first occasion in military history that a military aircraft was shot down with ground-to-air artillery fire. The British recognised
8107-523: The entire curriculum of a gymnasium is compulsory; in upper years more elective subjects are available, but the choice is not as wide as in a U.S. high school. Generally academic standards are high as the gymnasium typically caters for the upper 25–35% of the ability range. Schools concentrate not only on academic subjects, but on producing well-rounded individuals, so physical education and religion or ethics are compulsory, even in non-denominational schools which are prevalent. The German constitution guarantees
8228-409: The fee. Most gymnasia offer social and academic clubs. Most traditional among these (sports excepted) are drama , journalism (i. e. producing a Schülerzeitung ) and choir . However, chess , photography , debating , improv , environmentalism , additional math , experimental physics , IT classes , etc. can also be found. Some gymnasia require students to participate in at least one club (of
8349-654: The field, wherever they are, provide their own defences against airborne threats. Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 7.62 mm (.30 in) to 152.4 mm (6 in) were the standard weapons; guided missiles then became dominant, except at the very shortest ranges (as with close-in weapon systems , which typically use rotary autocannons or, in very modern systems, surface-to-air adaptations of short-range air-to-air missiles , often combined in one system with rotary cannons). It may also be called counter-air , anti-air , AA , flak , layered air defence or air defence forces . The term air defence
8470-407: The foundation of teaching and study in the gymnasium, which then offered a nine-year course. Hebrew was also taught in some gymnasia. The integration of philosophy, English, and chemistry into the curriculum also set the gymnasium apart from other schools. Prussian secondary schools only received the title "Gymnasium" in 1918, which for some time would be the only path to university study. Due to
8591-584: The ground-based air defence of the British Army's Anti-Aircraft Command , although field-deployed air defence relied on less sophisticated arrangements. NATO later called these arrangements an "air defence ground environment", defined as "the network of ground radar sites and command and control centres within a specific theatre of operations which are used for the tactical control of air defence operations". Rules of engagement are critical to prevent air defences engaging friendly or neutral aircraft. Their use
8712-587: The guns. This system of repeater electrical dials built on the arrangements introduced by British coast artillery in the 1880s, and coast artillery was the background of many AA officers. Similar systems were adopted in other countries and for example the later Sperry M3A3 in the US, was also used by Britain as the Predictor AA No 2. Height finders were also increasing in size; in Britain, the seven-foot optical base World War I Barr & Stroud UB 2 stereoscopic rangefinder
8833-501: The late 1930s for development work on sound-locating acoustic devices to be generally halted, although equipment was retained. Furthermore, in Britain the volunteer Observer Corps formed in 1925 provided a network of observation posts to report hostile aircraft flying over Britain. Initially radar was used for airspace surveillance to detect approaching hostile aircraft. However, the German Würzburg radar put into use in 1940
8954-455: The limited importance of German lessons) even countries whose language is not taught at all are visited. While this is not required, it is encouraged. Some pupils might go a year or half a year abroad (and are granted some time to catch up with their studies at home), while the more general thing is an organized stay of 2–4 weeks in either country in a group of 20+ students with two teachers (who are, naturally, dispensed from every-day duties during
9075-407: The line that the pupil in question does not fit into the community and should thus try his fortune with a school officially designated to take all pupils, i.e. a state school. There are written, as well as oral, exams. Written exams are essay-based and called Klausur and typically take one and a half hours. Many German students never take a multiple choice test. Gymnasium is a school where most of
9196-601: The main effort has tended to be homeland defence . Missile defence is an extension of air defence, as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight. Most modern anti-aircraft (AA) weapons systems are optimized for short-, medium-, or long-range air defence, although some systems may incorporate multiple weapons (such as both autocannons and surface-to-air missiles ). ‘Layered air defence’ usually refers to multiple ‘tiers’ of air defence systems which, when combined, an airborne threat must penetrate in order to reach its target; This defence
9317-576: The mainstream system and complete their Abitur . From the student's point of view the big events of the school term are: A group of students participated 2013 to 2014 at the project „DENK MAL – Erinnerung im öffentlichen Raum“ at the school. The students erected a plaque at the entrance of the school in remembrance of the murdered and prosecuted Jewish students in Nazi Germany. A commemoration ceremony took place on 10 November 2014. The project received letters from German Chancellor Angela Merkel and
9438-513: The mobile naval base defence organisation, they were handled as an integral part of the army-commanded ground based air defences. The basic air defence unit is typically a battery with 2 to 12 guns or missile launchers and fire control elements. These batteries, particularly with guns, usually deploy in a small area, although batteries may be split; this is usual for some missile systems. SHORAD missile batteries often deploy across an area with individual launchers several kilometres apart. When MANPADS
9559-427: The motto: "No child left behind" (" Keiner darf verloren gehen "). Humanities-oriented gymnasia usually have a long tradition. They teach Latin and Ancient Greek (sometimes also Classical Hebrew) and additionally teach English or French or both. The focus is on the classical antiquity and the civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome . For certain subjects, such as History, many universities still require
9680-494: The need for anti-aircraft capability a few weeks before World War I broke out; on 8 July 1914, the New York Times reported that the British government had decided to "dot the coasts of the British Isles with a series of towers, each armed with two quick-firing guns of special design," while "a complete circle of towers" was to be built around "naval installations" and "at other especially vulnerable points". By December 1914
9801-453: The new crop of students arrive at gymnasium, there is often a period of adjustment. Some gymnasia have mentors that help the new, younger students get settled in. They show them around the school and introduce them to older students. In the case of boarding schools, they also show them the city. The mentoring does not mean a student is seen as being "at risk." On the contrary, if there is a mentoring programme, all new students are likely to have
9922-543: The north under-performed on standardised tests. The students who did worst came from Hamburg and the students who did best came from Baden-Württemberg . According to the study, the final year students in Hamburg lagged two years behind those attending a gymnasium in Baden-Württemberg . Because students had the same IQ, the difference in knowledge can only be explained by a difference in the teaching methods. On
10043-404: The number of subjects taught, including French and English . As the school continued to develop, it was re-designated a Staatliche Realschule (State Realschule ) in 1924 and an Oberrealschule (upper realschule) in 1928. Official records from 1933 onwards must be read in the light of the rise of Nazism but show an increasing politicisation of the students and influence on the operations of
10164-487: The opportunity to participate in sport-related outings. In the summer months, they have the opportunity to enjoy rowing trips or sailing and in winter months, they may go skiing . Students are not required to participate, but teachers see the trips as good for building character and leadership skills and encourage students to participate. As a rule, most of these trips come with fees. A school "Förderverein" ( booster club ) pays for those wishing to attend, but unable to afford
10285-482: The other hand, gymnasia in the south have the reputation of valuing knowledge over creativity, while those in the north have the reputation of valuing creativity over knowledge. Comparing students on a creativity test could produce different results. Students from all grades are required to take physical education classes. Most gymnasia have sports teams. Sports often include soccer , badminton , table tennis , rowing and field hockey . Most gymnasia offer students
10406-454: The piano or the violin) as one of their major subjects. The Europäisches Gymnasium has its focus on languages. It exists in Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg . In Bavaria, students are required to learn three different foreign languages. They start learning their first foreign language in 5th grade, the second in 6th grade and the third by grade 10 or 11. In Baden-Württemberg students attending
10527-433: The population for new secondary schools to alleviate the oversubscribed existing schools in the area. It was one of three new schools that were built in the area and originally classified as a Kreisrealschule ( District Realschule ). It initially had 273 students spread across 4 years and 10 teachers. Student numbers increased quickly and by 1911 the school had over 700 students. Due to increasing need for additional space,
10648-400: The rise of German nationalism in the 1900s, the Gymnasium's focus on humanism came under attack, causing it to lose prestige. One of the harshest critics was Friedrich Lange , who assaulted the school's "excessive humanism" and "aesthetic idealism." He argued that they are not aligned with the aims of patriotism, duty, and the idea of Germanhood and that the country's history could also provide
10769-409: The school and contribute to its development. Also known by its abbreviation FF/Gi/Gy , it had close to 200 members in 2004 and has been active in various projects in and around the school since. In 1953 the school was assigned two female teachers for the first time - and against the futile protestations of the then headmaster Dr Hans Buchner. By 1972 13 out of 66 teachers were female. The school became
10890-523: The school at every level. This ranged from student member membership in Nazi organisations such as the Hitler Youth and the Jungvolk to impacts on the curriculum and political indoctrination of the students. The school continued to operate normal classes until 1942 but from the onwards suffered increasing disruption. Year 8 was cut in 1943, classes were merged and many of the youngest students were sent to
11011-550: The school only succeeded in June 2008 when the Bavarian Federal Government made a grant available to the school in addition to the municipal funding for the project. The school recently participated in the trial runs for the planned shortened Gymnasium lasting only 8 instead of 9 years, the so-called G8 . Along with the normal curriculum of a mathematical-scientific Gymnasium with a modern languages branch,
11132-510: The school today also offers a wide variety of optional subjects and extra-curricular activities including Japanese , Russian , pottery (the school has its own kiln , technical drawing , jazz , theatre, cabaret and chess clubs. In 2002 parents and alumni of the school set up a charity called Freundes- und Förderkreis Gisela-Gymnasium München e.V. (Friends and Supporters of the Gisela Gymnasium Munich) to support
11253-473: The school was extended for the first time in 1911, only 7 years after it was first opened. In 1920 the school achieved the additional status of a Seminarschule (Teacher Training School) and has been involved in the training of new teachers since. During the World War I , the school was used to house the 1. Pionier-Einsatzbatallion ( military engineer operational battalion ), forcing the school to conduct
11374-410: The school wherever rooms were available. Parents, teachers and students unofficially carried out initial emergency work to stabilise the building and clear it from rubble. Permission for rebuilding was granted in 1946 and student number increased again despite the limited resources and ongoing rebuilding of the school and full operation only resumed in 1948. Rebuilding finished in 1955 with the addition of
11495-592: The separation of church and state, so although religion or ethics classes are compulsory, students may choose to study a specific religion or none at all. Gymnasien are often conceived as schools for the gifted. This, however, depends on many factors; some states such as Bavaria select their students by elementary grades or by entrance examination, and so do certain specialist schools, like the Sächsisches Landesgymnasium Sankt Afra zu Meißen , in other states. In these federal states, it
11616-461: The shells' predicted trajectory. This was called deflection gun-laying, where "off-set" angles for range and elevation were set on the gunsight and updated as their target moved. In this method, when the sights were on the target, the barrel was pointed at the target's future position. Range and height of the target determined fuse length. The difficulties increased as aircraft performance improved. The British dealt with range measurement first, when it
11737-587: The single artillery branch has been responsible for both home and overseas ground-based air defence, although there was divided responsibility with the Royal Navy for air defence of the British Isles in World War I . However, during the Second World War , the RAF Regiment was formed to protect airfields everywhere, and this included light air defences. In the later decades of the Cold War this included
11858-408: The south did have higher standards than those in other parts of Germany. On a standardised mathematics test provided by scientists, the study showed that students attending a southern gymnasium outperformed those attending one elsewhere in Germany. A 2007 study revealed that those attending a gymnasium in the north had similar IQs to those attending one in the south. Yet those attending a gymnasium in
11979-477: The speed and direction of both the target and the projectile. Throughout the 20th century, air defence was one of the fastest-evolving areas of military technology, responding to the evolution of aircraft and exploiting technology such as radar, guided missiles and computing (initially electromechanical analogue computing from the 1930s on, as with equipment described below). Improvements were made to sensors, technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At
12100-422: The start of the 20th century these were either very primitive or non-existent. Initially sensors were optical and acoustic devices developed during World War I and continued into the 1930s, but were quickly superseded by radar, which in turn was supplemented by optoelectronics in the 1980s. Command and control remained primitive until the late 1930s, when Britain created an integrated system for ADGB that linked
12221-515: The student's choosing), but in most cases, participation is voluntary. It has become increasingly common for gymnasium students to spend some time attending school in another country. Very popular destinations are English-speaking countries such as the US, Great Britain, Canada and Ireland; however, as it is increasingly difficult to find partner schools in English-speaking countries (high demand, little supply, among other things because of
12342-468: The students are college-bound and stringent grading is traditional. Pupils of average ability find themselves at the bottom of their class and might have done better at another type of school. A study revealed that upper-class gymnasium students of average mathematical ability found themselves at the very bottom of their class and had an average grade of "5" (fail). Comprehensive school upper-class students of average ability in mathematics found themselves in
12463-463: The target and having its height. Second, that the target would maintain a steady course, speed and height. This HAA was to engage targets up to 24,000 ft (7.3 km). Mechanical time fuses were required because the speed of powder burning varied with height, so fuse length was not a simple function of time of flight. Automated fire ensured a constant rate of fire that made it easier to predict where each shell should be individually aimed. In 1925
12584-496: The time). Generally, gymnasia have no school uniforms or official dress codes. However, students may be expected to dress modestly and tastefully. Some gymnasia offer branded shirts, but students are allowed to choose whether or not to wear them. For specific school events (like the Abitur ball) students attending them may be expected to wear formal dress, usually consisting of dresses for women and blazer and tie for men, but even this
12705-680: The time. It has regular exchange programmes with schools in England ( The Abbey School, Reading since 1990 and Haberdashers' Aske's School for Girls in Elstree between 1991 and 1998), France ( Collège Louis Michel in Saint-Junien-la-Bregère since 1982) and Italy ( Liceo Scientifico Statale Giovanni da Castiglione in Castiglion Fiorentino . The school is located in the ancient borough of Schwabing in
12826-409: The upper half of their class and had an average grade of "3+". Students who graduated from a gymnasium often do better in college than their grades or ranking in class would predict. To many traditionally minded Germans, a "gymnasium in the south " is the epitome of a good education, while to other Germans, it is the epitome of outmoded traditions and elitism . A study revealed that gymnasia in
12947-409: The war and accumulated large amounts of data that was subjected to extensive analysis. As a result, they published the two-volume Textbook of Anti-Aircraft Gunnery in 1924–1925. It included five key recommendations for HAA equipment: Two assumptions underpinned the British approach to HAA fire; first, aimed fire was the primary method and this was enabled by predicting gun data from visually tracking
13068-437: The war ended, it was clear that the increasing capabilities of aircraft would require better means of acquiring targets and aiming at them. Nevertheless, a pattern had been set: anti-aircraft warfare would employ heavy weapons to attack high-altitude targets and lighter weapons for use when aircraft came to lower altitudes. World War I demonstrated that aircraft could be an important part of the battlefield, but in some nations it
13189-440: The years immediately after World War I, the prospect of another major war seemed remote, particularly in Europe, where the most militarily capable nations were, and little financing was available. Four years of war had seen the creation of a new and technically demanding branch of military activity. Air defence had made huge advances, albeit from a very low starting point. However, it was new and often lacked influential 'friends' in
13310-586: Was capable of providing data suitable for controlling AA guns, and the British Radar, Gun Laying, Mark I , was designed to be used on AA gun positions and was in use by 1939. The Treaty of Versailles prevented Germany having AA weapons, and for example, the Krupps designers joined Bofors in Sweden. Some World War I guns were retained and some covert AA training started in the late 1920s. Germany introduced
13431-581: Was determined by time of flight, but the burning rate of the gunpowder was affected by altitude. The British pom-poms had only contact-fused ammunition. Zeppelins , being hydrogen-filled balloons, were targets for incendiary shells and the British introduced these with airburst fuses, both shrapnel type-forward projection of incendiary "pot" and base ejection of an incendiary stream. The British also fitted tracers to their shells for use at night. Smoke shells were also available for some AA guns, these bursts were used as targets during training. German air attacks on
13552-404: Was electrical; the operator entered the target range and had displays at guns; it was used with their 75 mm. The British Wilson-Dalby gun director used a pair of trackers and mechanical tachymetry; the operator entered the fuse length, and deflection angles were read from the instruments. By the start of World War I , the 77 mm had become the standard German weapon, and came mounted on
13673-582: Was probably first used by the UK when Air Defence of Great Britain (ADGB) was created as a Royal Air Force command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called "anti-aircraft", abbreviated as AA , a term that remained in general use into the 1950s. After the First World War it was sometimes prefixed by "light" or "heavy" (LAA or HAA) to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include "AA", "AAA" or "triple-A" (abbreviations of "anti-aircraft artillery"), "flak" (from
13794-476: Was realised that range was the key to producing a better fuse setting. This led to the height/range finder (HRF), the first model being the Barr & Stroud UB2, a two-metre optical coincident rangefinder mounted on a tripod. It measured the distance to the target and the elevation angle, which together gave the height of the aircraft. These were complex instruments and various other methods were also used. The HRF
13915-565: Was rebuilt after the war the original floor plan was broadly retained. But as a municipal school, the Gymnasium is funded by the City of Munich and does not receive any regular funding from the Free State of Bavaria . Due to the lack of city funds, only minor repairs and improvements, in addition to normal maintenance, were carried out and the campaign for a full renovation and extension of
14036-525: Was replaced by the nine-foot optical base UB 7 and the eighteen-foot optical base UB 10 (only used on static AA sites). Goertz in Germany and Levallois in France produced five m (16 ft) instruments. However, in most countries the main effort in HAA guns until the mid-1930s was improving existing ones, although various new designs were on drawing boards. From the early 1930s eight countries developed radar ; these developments were sufficiently advanced by
14157-479: Was retained, along with vocational and general schools. The Realgymnasium offered instead a nine-year course including Latin, but not Greek. Prussian Progymnasien and Realprogymnasien provided six- or seven-year courses, and the Oberschulen later offered nine-year courses with neither Greek nor Latin. The early twentieth century saw an increase in the number of Lyzeum schools for girls, which offered
14278-554: Was soon joined by the height/fuse indicator (HFI), this was marked with elevation angles and height lines overlaid with fuse length curves, using the height reported by the HRF operator, the necessary fuse length could be read off. However, the problem of deflection settings — "aim-off" — required knowing the rate of change in the target's position. Both France and the UK introduced tachymetric devices to track targets and produce vertical and horizontal deflection angles. The French Brocq system
14399-465: Was that it prevented the frequent confusion among parents about the fundamental difference between Realgymnasium, Oberrealschule and Oberschule on the one side and Realschule on the other. The Sportgymnasium is a school of the gymnasium-type, usually a boarding school, that has its main focus on sport. The Skigymnasium has a focus on skiing. The Musikgymnasium has its focus on music. (In Bavaria) It requires to learn to play an instrument (mostly
14520-501: Was the guns protecting spotting balloons, in which case the altitude could be accurately measured from the length of the cable holding the balloon. The first issue was ammunition. Before the war it was recognised that ammunition needed to explode in the air. Both high explosive (HE) and shrapnel were used, mostly the former. Airburst fuses were either igniferious (based on a burning fuse) or mechanical (clockwork). Igniferious fuses were not well suited for anti-aircraft use. The fuse length
14641-496: Was the prospect of strategic air attack that was the main issue, presenting both a threat and an opportunity. The experience of four years of air attacks on London by Zeppelins and Gotha G.V bombers had particularly influenced the British and was one of if not the main driver for forming an independent air force. As the capabilities of aircraft and their engines improved it was clear that their role in future war would be even more critical as their range and weapon load grew. However, in
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