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66-529: The term "marabout" is also used for the mausolea of such religious leaders (cf. maqam , mazar , in Palestine also wali /weli ). Muslim tariqah ( Sufi religious brotherhoods) are one of the main organizing forms of West African Islam, and with the spread of Sufi ideas into the area, the marabout's role combined with local practices throughout Senegambia , the Niger River Valley , and

132-461: A burial vault below the superstructure. This contains the body or bodies, probably within sarcophagi or interment niches. Modern mausolea may also act as columbaria (a type of mausoleum for cremated remains) with additional cinerary urn niches. Mausolea may be located in a cemetery , a churchyard or on private land. In the United States , the term may be used for a burial vault below

198-525: A brand of African socialism. After the breakup of the Mali Federation, Senghor and Prime Minister Mamadou Dia governed together under a parliamentary system. In December 1962, their political rivalry led to an attempted coup by Dia. The coup was put down without bloodshed and Dia was arrested and imprisoned. Senegal adopted a new constitution that consolidated the President's power. Senghor

264-602: A larger facility, such as a church. The Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles, California, for example, has 6,000 sepulchral and cinerary urn spaces for interments in the lower level of the building. It is known as the "crypt mausoleum". In Europe, these underground vaults are sometimes called crypts or catacombs . A chapel mausoleum or mausoleum chapel in a cemetery can be used for funeral services. Senegal#Independence (1960) Senegal , officially

330-779: A liberal party (the Senegalese Democratic Party ). The 1960s and early 1970s saw the continued and persistent violating of Senegal's borders by the Portuguese military from Portuguese Guinea . In response, Senegal petitioned the United Nations Security Council in 1963 , 1965 , 1969 (in response to shelling by Portuguese artillery), 1971 and finally in 1972 . In 1980, Senghor decided to retire from politics. The next year, he transferred power in 1981 to his hand-picked successor, Abdou Diouf . Former prime minister Mamadou Dia , who

396-523: A means to communicate with neighboring rulers. The marabouts' expanding influence in politics paired with their unique allegiance of the Muslim community eventually posed a real threat to the chiefs who had appointed them. In 1683, rising tensions between chiefs and the Muslim population led to a Muslim revolt in the Wolof kingdom of Cayor , which concluded with the installation of a marabout as Damel . In

462-595: A monument enclosing the burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum without the person's remains is called a cenotaph . A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb , or the tomb may be considered to be within the mausoleum. The word mausoleum (from the Ancient Greek : μαυσωλεῖον ) derives from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (near modern-day Bodrum in Turkey), the grave of King Mausolus ,

528-482: A peace treaty with the separatist group in the Casamance region. This, however, has yet to be implemented. There was a round of talks in 2005, but the results have not yet yielded a resolution. In March 2012, the incumbent president Abdoulaye Wade lost the presidential election and Macky Sall was elected as the new President of Senegal. President Macky Sall was re-elected in 2019 elections . The presidential term

594-596: A population of around 18 million. The state is a unitary presidential republic ; since the country's foundation in 1960, it has been recognized as one of the most stable countries on the African continent. On the 2023 V-Dem Democracy Indices , Senegal is ranked 52nd in electoral democracy worldwide and 4th in electoral democracy in Africa . The state was formed as part of the independence of French West Africa from French colonial rule . Because of this history, French

660-604: A reward for installing new roads and street lamps in Touba while in office, the Khalife-Général declared a ndiggël (a binding command issued by the Khalife-Général to all members of the Mouride Brotherhood) that proclaimed that all men must vote for Diouf. Although multiple Khalife-Général have issued ' ndiggël politique ' in support of a presidential candidate in previous elections, several marabouts of

726-585: A simple, ascetic life. The spread in sub-Saharan Africa of the marabout's role from the eighth through thirteenth centuries created in some places a mixture of roles with pre-Islamic priests and divines. Thus many fortune tellers and self-styled spiritual guides take the name "marabout" (something rejected by more orthodox Muslims and Sufi brotherhoods alike). The recent diaspora of West Africans (to Paris in particular) has brought this tradition to Europe and North America, where some marabouts advertise their services as fortune tellers. An eshu of Quimbanda , Marabô,

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792-524: A venerated saint, and such places have become holy centers and places of pious reflection. Note zāwiyas are not places of formal pilgrimage, which are limited in Islam to the Hajj and to Jerusalem , but are rather places of reflection and inspiration for the pious. In Morocco: In Algeria : In Tunisia : In France : Mausolea A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as

858-814: A violent separatist movement in the southern region of the Casamance. Nevertheless, Senegal's commitment to democracy and human rights strengthened. Abdou Diouf served four terms as president. During the Gulf War , over 500 Senegalese participated in the Battle of Khafji and the unexpected Liberation of Kuwait campaign , under the command of the U.S.-led coalition. In the presidential election of 1999, opposition leader Abdoulaye Wade defeated Diouf in an election deemed free and fair by international observers. Senegal experienced its second peaceful transition of power , and its first from one political party to another. On 30 December 2004 President Wade announced that he would sign

924-476: Is Aïssata Tall Sall . She took office in November 2020. Historically, Senegal has been close to France, its former colonizer, but this had caused a great amount of tension with the people and was one of the reasons why former President Macky Sall lost support. Senegalese often complained that Sall was consistently giving French companies priority contracts to extract Senegal's natural resources rather than giving

990-785: Is believed to have carried this esoteric and shamanic role into Brazil. Contemporary marabouts in Senegal advertise on television and have hot lines. Marabouts have been prominent members of Wolof society since the arrival of Sufi brotherhoods from the Maghreb in the 15th century. Their advanced knowledge of the Quran and esteemed reputation have often allowed them to act as traders, priests, judges, or magicians in conjunction with their roles of community religious leaders. Additionally, because of their ability to read and write, village chiefs would frequently appoint marabouts as secretaries or advisers as

1056-711: Is known for the Paris–Dakar Rally . The country of Senegal is named after the Senegal River . The name of the river may derive from a Portuguese transliteration of the name of the Zenaga , also known as the Sanhaja . Alternatively, it could be a combination of the supreme deity in Serer religion ( Rog Sene ) and o gal meaning body of water in the Serer language . French author and priest David Boilat put forward

1122-573: Is pronounced amrabadh in Tarifit . Marabouts are known as sidi ( سيدي ) in Maghrebi Arabic . Many cities in Morocco got their names from local marabouts, and the name of those cities usually begins with "Sidi" followed by the name of the local marabout. Modern Standard Arabic for "saint" is " walī " ( ولي ). A marabout may also refer to a tomb ( Arabic : قُبّة qubba "dome") of

1188-415: Is the official language, but it is understood by only a minority of the population. Over 30 languages are spoken in Senegal. Wolof is the most widely spoken one, with 80% of the population speaking it as a first or second language, acting as Senegal's lingua franca alongside French. Like other African nations, the country includes a wide mix of ethnic and linguistic communities , with the largest being

1254-531: The Berber languages and in general refers to Sufi Muslim teachers who head a lodge or school called a zāwiya associated with a specific school or tradition, called a ṭarīqah "way, path" ( Arabic : طريقه ). However, Charles de Foucauld and Albert Peyriguère , both living as Catholic hermits among Berbers in the Maghreb, were called marabouts by the local population due to their saintly lives. The pronunciation of that word varies by language. For example, it

1320-717: The Casamance in the 19th century. It was only in the 1850s that the French began to expand onto the Senegalese mainland, after they abolished slavery and began promoting an abolitionist doctrine, adding native kingdoms like the Waalo, Cayor, Baol, and Jolof. French colonists under Governor Louis Faidherbe progressively invaded and took over all the kingdoms, except the Serer Kingdoms of Sine and Saloum . Yoro Dyao

1386-587: The Casamance conflict . The 2012 presidential election was controversial due to President Wade's candidacy, as the opposition argued he should not be considered eligible to run again. Several youth opposition movements, including M23 and Y'en a Marre , emerged in June 2011. In the end, Macky Sall of the Alliance for the Republic won, and Wade conceded the election to Sall. This peaceful and democratic transition

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1452-579: The Casamance conflict . In the early 21st century, violence has subsided and President Macky Sall held talks with rebels in Rome in December 2012. Abdou Diouf was president between 1981 and 2000. He encouraged broader political participation, reduced government involvement in the economy, and widened Senegal's diplomatic engagements, particularly with other developing nations. Domestic politics on occasion spilled over into street violence, border tensions, and

1518-749: The Community of Sahel–Saharan States . Senegal is the 84th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index . The Armed Forces of Senegal consist of about 17,000 personnel in the army, air force , navy, and gendarmerie. The Senegalese military receives most of its training, equipment, and support from France and the United States, and to a lesser extent Germany. Military noninterference in political affairs has contributed to Senegal's stability since independence. Senegal has participated in many international and regional peacekeeping missions. Most recently, in 2000, Senegal sent

1584-707: The French Sudan merged to form the Mali Federation , which became fully independent on 20 June 1960, as a result of a transfer of power agreement signed with France on 4 April 1960. Due to internal political difficulties, the Federation broke up on 20 August 1960 when Senegal and French Sudan (renamed the Republic of Mali ) each proclaimed independence. Léopold Sédar Senghor was elected Senegal's first president in August 1960. Pro-African, Senghor advocated

1650-515: The Futa Jallon . Here, Sufi believers follow a marabout, elsewhere known as a murshid "Guide". Marabout was also adopted by French colonial officials, and applied to most any imam , Muslim teacher, or secular leader who appealed to Islamic tradition. Today marabouts can be traveling holy men who survive on alms, religious teachers who take in young talibes at Qur'anic schools, or distinguished religious leaders and scholars, both in and out of

1716-570: The Khalife-Général , have continued to play influential roles in Senegalese politics. Some have questioned the utility of having clientelist relationships between marabouts and government officials in a modern democracy. The new "grandson" generation of marabouts has cultivated a more independent and secular political outlook and have proven that they are willing to question the authority of their predecessors. In Senegal's 1988 presidential election, Khalife-Général Abdou Lahatte Mbakke supported Abdou Diouf for reelection. Both as public endorsement and as

1782-463: The Niger Delta , retained traditions of having an eastern origin. Senegal joined with The Gambia to form the nominal Senegambia Confederation on 1 February 1982. However, the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peace talks, a southern separatist group ( Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance or MFDC) in the Casamance region has clashed sporadically with government forces since 1982 in

1848-654: The Persian satrap of Caria , whose large tomb was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . Mausolea were historically, and still may be, large and impressive constructions for a deceased leader or other person of importance. However, smaller mausolea soon became popular with the gentry and nobility in many countries. In the Roman Empire , these were often in necropoles or along roadsides:

1914-668: The Republic of Senegal , is the westernmost country in West Africa , situated on the Atlantic Ocean coastline. It borders Mauritania to the north , Mali to the east , Guinea to the southeast and Guinea-Bissau to the southwest . Senegal nearly surrounds The Gambia , a country occupying a narrow sliver of land along the banks of the Gambia River , which separates Senegal's southern region of Casamance from

1980-574: The Wolof , Fula , and Serer people . Senegalese people are predominantly Muslim . Senegal is classified as a heavily indebted poor country , with a relatively low ranking on the Human Development Index (170th out of 191). Most of the population lives on the coast and works in agriculture or other food industries ; other major industries include mining, tourism, and services. The country does not have notable natural resources, but

2046-456: The via Appia Antica retains the ruins of many private mausolea for kilometres outside Rome . When Christianity became dominant, mausolea were out of use. Later, mausolea became particularly popular in Europe and its colonies during the early modern and modern periods . A single mausoleum may be permanently sealed. A mausoleum encloses a burial chamber either wholly above ground or within

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2112-491: The "grandson" generation openly rejected the command by voting for the opposition instead. These marabouts believed that the ndiggël violated their secular political rights, which was a sentiment shared among many other Mourides in Touba. In 1997, a rural council of Touba Mosquée in Senegal issued a set of new taxes meant to fund an ambitions development project in the holy city. City merchants promptly voiced their displeasure of

2178-551: The French. Various European powers—Portugal, the Netherlands, and Great Britain—competed for trade in the area from the 15th century onward. In 1677, France gained control of what had become a minor departure point in the Atlantic slave trade : the island of Gorée next to modern Dakar, used as a base to purchase slaves from the warring chiefdoms on the mainland. European missionaries introduced Christianity to Senegal and

2244-500: The Northern African countries were added to the index in 2009, Senegal's 2008 position was retroactively downgraded to 15th place (with Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco placing ahead of Senegal). As of 2012 , Senegal's Ibrahim Index rank has declined another point to 16th of 52 African countries. On 22 February 2011, Senegal severed diplomatic ties with Iran , saying it supplied rebels with weapons which killed Senegalese troops in

2310-501: The Sahara, often are called marabouts. Those who devote themselves to prayer or study, either based in communities, religious centers, or wandering in the larger society, are named marabouts. In Senegal and Mali , these Marabouts rely on donations to live. Often there is a traditional bond to support a specific marabout that has accumulated over generations within a family. Marabouts normally dress in traditional West African robes and live

2376-421: The Senegal's presidential election over candidate of the ruling coalition, becoming the youngest president in Senegal's history. Senegal is a republic with a presidency; the president is elected every five years as of 2016, previously being seven years from independence to 2001, five years from 2001 to 2008, and seven years again from 2008 to 2016, by adult voters. The first president, Léopold Sédar Senghor ,

2442-804: The Sufi brotherhoods which dominate spiritual life in Senegambia. In the Muslim brotherhoods of Senegal , marabouts are organized in elaborate hierarchies; the highest marabout of the Mourides , for example, has been elevated to the status of a Caliph or ruler of the faithful ( Amir al-Mu'minin ). Older, North African based traditions such as the Tijaniyyah and the Qadiriyyah base their structures on respect for teachers and religious leaders who, south of

2508-502: The agreement to convene a World Constituent Assembly. Senegal is subdivided into 14 regions, each administered by a Conseil Régional (Regional Council) elected by population weight at the Arrondissement level. The country is further subdivided by 45 Départements , 113 Arrondissements (neither of which have administrative function) and by Collectivités Locales , which elect administrative officers. Regional capitals have

2574-657: The basis of its development lies in education, where almost half the state's budget is spent. Senegal is a member state of the African Union , the United Nations, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , and the Community of Sahel–Saharan States . In the world of motor sports , Senegal

2640-453: The contracts to whoever offered Senegal the best deal. They also believed France was pushing Macky Sall to run for an unconstitutional third term. After debating whether to run a third time for months, Sall did not. Senegal enjoys mostly cordial relations with its neighbors. In spite of clear progress on other issues with Mauritania (border security, resource management, economic integration, etc.), an estimated 35,000 Mauritanian refugees (of

2706-519: The empires to the east; the Jolof Empire of Senegal was also founded during this time. In the Senegambia region, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved , typically as a result of being taken captive in warfare. In the 14th century the Jolof Empire grew more powerful, having united Cayor and the kingdoms of Baol , Siné , Saloum , Waalo , Futa Tooro and Bambouk , or much of present-day West Africa. The empire

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2772-421: The estimated 40,000 who were expelled from their home country in 1989) remain in Senegal. Morocco–Senegal relations have also been courteous, as the new Bassirou Diomaye Faye invited the king of Morocco on his swearing ceremony in 2024. Senegal is well integrated with the main bodies of the international community, including the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the African Union (AU), and

2838-473: The executive. By 2014, it had recovered its Free status. In 2008, Senegal finished in 12th position on the Ibrahim Index of African Governance . The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African governance (limited to sub-Saharan Africa until 2008), based on a number of different variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to their citizens. When

2904-539: The famed Lawrence of Arabia . French and British diplomacy in the area were thrown into disarray. The Battle of Dakar (September 23–25, 1940) was an unsuccessful attempt by the Allies to capture the strategic port and overthrow the pro-German Vichy French administration in the colony. On 25 November 1958, Senegal became an autonomous republic within the French Community . In January 1959, Senegal and

2970-500: The fifth democratically elected president. Senegal has more than 80 political parties. The unicameral parliament consists of the National Assembly , which has 150 seats (a Senate was in place from 1999 to 2001 and 2007 to 2012). An independent judiciary also exists in Senegal. The nation's highest courts that deal with business issues are the constitutional council and the court of justice, members of which are named by

3036-494: The first round. On 2 April 2024, his successor Bassirou Diomaye Faye was sworn in. Senegal has been one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution . As a result, in 1968, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth . Léopold Sédar Senghor , then president of Senegal signed

3102-468: The future, which means political actors may have to adjust or fundamentally alter their clientelist relationships with marabouts and Khalife-Général . The term marabout appears during the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb . It is derived from the Arabic murābiṭ "one who is garrisoned": religious students and military volunteers who manned ribats at the time of the conquest. Today, marabout means "saint" in

3168-402: The judgment of marabouts is so influential, the success or failure of a politician would be almost entirely contingent on the support of more prominent marabouts. Because of this, politicians would try to appease marabouts by agreeing to promote their Sufi brotherhood's best interests in turn for their endorsement, with some politicians believing that winning an election would be impossible without

3234-464: The mighty French colonial empire , where the French decided to take revenge against Sine following their humiliating defeat at the Battle of Djilor . The Battle of Logandème was the first battle on Senegambian soil where the French decided to employ cannonball. In 1915, over 300 Senegalese came under Australian command, ahead of the taking of Damascus by Australians, before the expected arrival of

3300-846: The most trusted and revered source of leadership in Wolof communities. French colonizers had difficulties adjusting to ruling over Muslim societies. Particularly in West Africa, constructing institutions of colonial rule that did not favor certain constituencies while neglecting others proved to be a tricky task. The French opted for forms of indirect rule through the local aristocracy in an effort to maintain order and keep administrative costs down, but found that many subjects detested these colonial chiefs and rulers and tended to gravitate towards their local marabouts. Marabouts were admired for their transparency and righteousness as they were known to renounce political powers, while ensuring economic, social, and religious stability within their communities. Since

3366-479: The new taxes and threatened to kick the rural council, whose members were all appointed by the Mouride Khalife-Général, out of the city. Although tax revolts are not uncommon elsewhere, this incident was particularly noteworthy as the merchants' blatant refusal exhibited a departure from typical state-society relations in Senegal. Declining economic performance in Senegal may lead to more taxes in

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3432-539: The president. Currently, Senegal has a quasi-democratic political culture, one of the more successful post-colonial democratic transitions in Africa. Local administrators are appointed and held accountable by the president. Marabouts , religious leaders of the various Muslim brotherhoods of Senegal , have also exercised a strong political influence in the country especially during Wade's presidency. In 2009, Freedom House downgraded Senegal's status from "Free" to "Partially Free", based on increased centralisation of power in

3498-529: The rest of the country. It also shares a maritime border with Cape Verde . Senegal's economic and political capital is Dakar . Senegal is the westernmost country in the mainland of the Old World , or Afro-Eurasia . It owes its name to the Senegal River , which borders it to the east and north. The climate is typically Sahelian , though there is a rainy season . Senegal covers a land area of almost 197,000 square kilometres (76,000 sq mi) and has

3564-672: The same name as their respective regions: Senegal has a high profile in many international organizations and was a member of the UN Security Council in 1988–89 and 2015–2016. It was elected to the UN Commission on Human Rights in 1997. Friendly to the West, especially to the United States, Senegal has vigorously advocated for more assistance from developed countries to the Third World . The Foreign Minister of Senegal

3630-615: The support of a marabout. This political dynamic, based on patronage and exchanges, would lead to a somewhat of an alliance between marabouts and the French colonizers. Along with endorsing certain politicians in exchange for favors, French colonial administrators sought out marabouts and heads of Sufi brotherhoods to act as intermediaries between colonial administrators and West African Muslims to ensure appropriate allocation of power and resources to avoid any potential conflict. After Senegal gained its independence from France in 1960, marabouts and leaders of Sufi Brotherhoods (also marabouts), or

3696-491: The theory that the name derives from the Wolof phrase "sunuu gaal", which means "our canoe". Archaeological findings throughout the area indicate that Senegal was inhabited in prehistoric times and has been continuously occupied by various ethnic groups. Some kingdoms were created around the seventh century: Takrur in the sixth century, Namandiru and the Jolof Empire during the 13th and 14th centuries. Eastern Senegal

3762-409: The warrior marabouts, Muslim resistors turned to local marabouts for guidance and protection from their oppressors. After three decades of war and conflict, the warrior marabouts were gradually ousted from the Wolof states as French colonists began to take a tighter hold on the region. As confidence in the leadership abilities of chiefs and rulers declined as a result of the conflict, marabouts emerged as

3828-469: The years following the revolt, relations between marabouts and Wolof chiefs remained relatively calm until a period of militant Islam in the Wolof states in the middle of the 19th century. Militant marabouts primarily of Tukulor (l origin, called "warrior marabouts," completely rejected the authority of local chiefs and sought to install a theocratic Muslim state. As the authority of chiefs and royal armies were undermined by propaganda and military force used by

3894-513: Was Senghor's rival, ran for election in 1983 against Diouf, but lost. Senghor moved to France, where he died at the age of 95. In the 1980s, Boubacar Lam discovered Senegalese oral history that was initially compiled by the Tuculor noble, Yoro Dyâo , not long after World War I , which documented migrations into West Africa from the Nile Valley ; ethnic groups, from the Senegal River to

3960-402: Was a poet and writer, and was the first African elected to the Académie française . Senegal's second president, Abdou Diouf , later served as general secretary of the Organisation de la Francophonie . The third president was Abdoulaye Wade , a lawyer. The fourth president was Macky Sall , elected in March 2012 and reelected in February 2019 . On March 25, 2024, Bassirou Diomaye Faye became

4026-465: Was a voluntary confederacy of various states rather than being built on military conquest. The empire was founded by Ndiadiane Ndiaye, a part Serer and part Toucouleur, who was able to form a coalition with many ethnicities, but collapsed around 1549 with the defeat and killing of Lele Fouli Fak by Amari Ngone Sobel Fall. In the mid-15th century, the Portuguese landed on the Senegal coastline, followed by traders representing other countries, including

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4092-469: Was considerably more tolerant of opposition than most African leaders became in the 1960s. Nonetheless, political activity was somewhat restricted for a time. Senghor's party, the Senegalese Progressive Union (now the Socialist Party of Senegal ), was the only legally permitted party from 1965 until 1975. In the latter year, Senghor allowed the formation of two opposition parties that began operation in 1976—a Marxist party (the African Independence Party ) and

4158-425: Was hailed by many foreign observers, such as the EU as a show of "maturity". On 19 September 2012, lawmakers voted to do away with the Senate to save an estimated $ 15 million. In August 2017, the ruling party won a landslide victory in the parliamentary election . President Macky Sall's ruling coalition took 125 seats in the 165-seat National Assembly. In 2019 president Macky Sall easily won re-election in

4224-432: Was in command of the canton of Foss-Galodjina and was set over Wâlo (Ouâlo) by Louis Faidherbe, where he served as a chief from 1861 to 1914. Senegalese resistance to the French expansion was led in part by Lat-Dior , Damel of Cayor, and Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof (the Maad a Sinig , King of Sine), resulting in the famous Battle of Logandème ―the battle in which the Serer King of Sine went to war against

4290-403: Was once part of the Ghana Empire . Islam was introduced through Toucouleur and Soninke contact with the Almoravid dynasty of the Maghreb , who in turn propagated it with the help of the Almoravids and Toucouleur allies. This movement faced resistance from ethnicities of traditional religions, the Serers in particular. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the area came under the influence of

4356-495: Was reduced from seven years to five. Since 3 March 2021, Senegal has been rocked by a series of mass protests in response to the arrest of Ousmane Sonko for alleged rape and mishandling of the COVID-19 pandemic . In June 2023, the response to the protests turned increasingly violent, with Amnesty International counting 23 fatalities, most of which were caused by bullets fired by police or armed police collaborators. In March 2024, Opposition candidate Bassirou Diomaye Faye won

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