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64-628: The Dahae may have been the Dāha- ( 𐬛𐬁𐬵𐬀 ) or Dåŋha- ( 𐬛𐬂𐬢𐬵𐬀 ) people mentioned in the Yašt s as one of the five peoples following the Zoroastrian religion, along with the Aⁱriia- ( 𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌𐬌𐬀 ), Tūⁱriia- ( 𐬙𐬏𐬌𐬭𐬌𐬌𐬀 ), Saⁱrima- ( 𐬯𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌𐬨𐬀 ), and Sāinu- ( 𐬯𐬁𐬌𐬥𐬎 ), although this identification is uncertain. The Iranologist János Harmatta has identified

128-443: A Persian, is the equivalent of slavery." At the age of 16 or 17, they began their mandatory 10 years of national service, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing for prizes, and hunting. Afterwards, they served in the military for around 25 years, after which they were elevated to the status of elders and advisers to the king. Families in this time, including Xerxes', would intermarry. This account of education among

192-580: A dedication in the Zoroastrian calendar . The exceptions are Drvaspa and Vanant . The twenty-one yasht s of the collection (notes follow): Xerxes I Xerxes I ( / ˈ z ɜː r k ˌ s iː z / ZURK -seez c.  518 – August 465 BC), commonly known as Xerxes the Great , was a Persian ruler who served as the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire , reigning from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC. He

256-578: A military campaign). Xerxes suppressed the revolt in January 484 BC and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of Egypt, replacing the previous satrap Pherendates , who was reportedly killed during the revolt. The suppression of the Egyptian revolt expended the army, which had been mobilized by Darius over the previous three years. Xerxes, therefore, had to raise another army for his expedition into Greece, which took another four years. There

320-489: A part of the primary liturgy, they do not count among the twenty-one hymns of the Yasht collection. All the hymns of the Yasht collection "are written in what appears to be prose, but which, for a large part, may originally have been a (basically) eight-syllable verse, oscillating between four and thirteen syllables, and most often between seven and nine." Most of the yazata s that the individual Yasht s praise also have

384-687: A plan to dethrone the Achaemenids . Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes , to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered

448-654: A statue from the city, but that this was the golden statue of a man rather than the statue of the god Marduk . Though mentions of it are lacking considerably compared to earlier periods, contemporary documents suggest that the Babylonian New Year's Festival continued in some form during the Achaemenid period. Because the change in rulership from the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to

512-518: Is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther , which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz , William Rainey Harper , and Michael V. Fox , consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel . It

576-532: Is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus ' play The Persians , first performed in Athens in 472 BC, only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus 's Histories , written later in

640-407: Is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon following the two revolts. According to ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city. The Esagila was allegedly subject to great damage, and Xerxes allegedly carried the statue of Marduk away from the city, possibly bringing it to Iran and melting it down (classical authors hold that

704-669: Is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran . Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans , a parody of the first 300 movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms . Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in 300 appears in the South Park episode " D-Yikes! " Other works dealing with

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768-458: Is skeptical. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly , Thebes and Argos . Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals . More recent estimates place

832-696: The Yasna liturgy that "venerate by praise" are—in tradition—also nominally called yasht s. These "hidden" Yashts are: the Barsom Yasht ( Yasna 2), another Hom Yasht in Yasna 9–11, the Bhagan Yasht of Yasna 19–21, a hymn to Ashi in Yasna 52, another Sarosh Yasht in Yasna 57, the praise of the (hypostasis of) "prayer" in Yasna 58, and a hymn to the Ahurani in Yasna 68. Since these are

896-577: The Assyrians , Phoenicians , Babylonians , Egyptians , Jews , Macedonians , European Thracians , Paeonians , Achaean Greeks , Ionians , Aegean islanders , Aeolians , Greeks from Pontus , Colchians , Sindhis and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus , Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of

960-732: The Ionian Revolt . In 480 BC, Xerxes personally led a large army and crossed the Hellespont into Europe. He achieved victories at Thermopylae and Artemisium before capturing and razing Athens . His forces gained control of mainland Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth until their defeat at the Battle of Salamis . Fearing that the Greeks might trap him in Europe, Xerxes retreated with

1024-619: The Iranian plateau and joined the Persian people who lived in its southwestern part, with the Greek historian Herodotus later referring to the Daoi as one of the nomadic Persian tribes, along with the Mardians , Dropicans, and Sagartians , although this identification is uncertain. The Dahā were in control of the traffic between Chorasmia in the north and Parthia and Hyrcania in

1088-641: The Old Iranian Xšaya-ṛšā ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by the first part xšaya , meaning "ruling", and the second ṛšā , meaning "hero, man". The name of Xerxes was known in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá and in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš . Xerxes would become a popular name among the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire. Xerxes' father was Darius the Great ( r.  522–486 BC ),

1152-547: The Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly . According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of

1216-735: The Saka groups and the Sogdians and Chorasmians , and immediately to the north of Hyrcania . During late 4th and early 3rd centuries BCE, the Dahae, and especially their constituent tribe of the Parni , had settled along the southern and southwestern fringes of the Karakum desert, and by the mid-3rd century BCE they had moved west and had settled along the southeastern shores of the Caspian Sea , in

1280-648: The Tachara at Persepolis , and continued the construction of the Palace of Darius at Susa . He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father. In 465 BC, Xerxes and his heir Darius were assassinated by Artabanus , the commander of the royal bodyguard. He was succeeded by his third son, who took the throne as Artaxerxes I . Xérxēs ( Ξέρξης ) is the Greek and Latin ( Xerxes , Xerses ) transliteration of

1344-912: The Dahae as being identical with the Massagetae or as one of their sub-groups. The oldest certain recorded mention of the Dahā is in the Daiva Inscription of the Achaemenid king Xerxes I along with the Sakā Haumavargā and the Sakā tigraxaudā . The Dahā fought within the left wing of the Achaemenid army along with the Bactrians and the Saka against Alexander the Great at Gaugamela in 331 BCE. The Dahae may have invaded Margiana and Areia around 300 BCE, and during this invasion they destroyed

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1408-702: The Dahae had settled in the 3rd century BCE became known as Dehestān ( دَهستان ) and Dahistān ( داهستان ) after them. Yasht The Yashts are a collection of twenty-one hymns in the Younger Avestan language. Each of these hymns invokes a specific Zoroastrian divinity or concept. Yasht chapter and verse pointers are traditionally abbreviated as Yt. The word yasht derives from Middle Persian 𐭩𐭱𐭲 yašt (“prayer, worship”) probably from Avestan 𐬫𐬀𐬱𐬙𐬀‎ (yašta, “honored”), from 𐬫𐬀𐬰‎ (yaz, “to worship, honor”), from Proto-Indo-European *yeh₂ǵ- or *Hyaǵ- , and several hymns of

1472-645: The Dahae were descendants of the Massagetae. The scholar Marek Jan Olbrycht, who has also identified the Massagetae with the Sakā tigraxaudā , however considers the Dahā as being a separate group from the Saka to which the Massagetae/ Sakā tigraxaudā belonged. The Dahae initially lived in the north-eastern part of the Persian Achaemenid Empire , in the arid steppes of the Karakum Desert near Margiana , alongside

1536-587: The Dahā with the Massagetae / Sakā tigraxaudā based on ancient Graeco-Roman authors' mention of the Sakā tigraxaudā as living between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, where Arrian also located the Massagetae and the Dahae. The scholars A. Abetekov and H. Yusupov have also suggested that the Dahā were a constituent tribe of the Massagetae. The scholar Y. A. Zadneprovskiy has instead suggested that

1600-567: The Great and Darius I . In the Age of Empires , Xerxes featured as a short swordsman. Gore Vidal , in his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through

1664-593: The Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis , but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt

1728-604: The Khotanese form daha . The Dahae were a nomadic people, and no known sedentary settlement can be attributed to them. The scholar David Gordon White has instead suggested that the name of the Dahae meant "Stranglers," and was derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *dhau , from which he also derived the name of the Dacians . A splinter Dahā might possibly have migrated at an early date across

1792-611: The Persian Empire or the Biblical story of Esther have also featured or alluded to Xerxes, such as the video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey and the film One Night with the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor Luke Goss . He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade ), although Civilization IV replaces him with Cyrus

1856-536: The Persian elite is supported by Xenophon 's description of the 5th-century BC Achaemenid prince Cyrus the Younger , with whom he was well-acquainted. Stoneman suggests that this was the type of upbringing and education that Xerxes experienced. It is unknown if Xerxes ever learned to read or write, with the Persians favoring oral history over written literature. Stoneman suggests that Xerxes' upbringing and education

1920-514: The Persian force at around 60,000 combatants. At the Battle of Thermopylae , a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium , large storms had destroyed ships from

1984-560: The Persian offensive on Greece for good. After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis . He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw

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2048-421: The Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae , has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture . He

2112-478: The Persians at Marathon . From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos , provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace , and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont . Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including

2176-649: The Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa . In August 465 BC, Artabanus , the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch , Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes , his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had

2240-525: The age of 64. Artobazan claimed that he should take the crown as the eldest of all Darius' children, while Xerxes argued for his own claim on the grounds that he was the son of Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that Cyrus had won the Persians their freedom. Xerxes' claim was supported by a Spartan king in exile who was present in Persia at the time, the Eurypontid king Demaratus , who also argued that

2304-412: The age of seven, they learned how to ride and hunt; after reaching the age of fourteen, they were each taught by four teachers from aristocratic backgrounds, who taught them how to be "wise, just, prudent, and brave." Persian princes also learned the basics of the Zoroastrian religion, and were taught to be truthful, to be courageous, and to have self-restraint. The dialogue further added that "fear, for

2368-408: The bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum ; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship

2432-470: The city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer , known as the Perserschutt . The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth . Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus ), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to

2496-540: The completion of the Apadana , the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana . He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed

2560-398: The eldest son did not universally have the best claim to the crown, citing Spartan law, which stated that the first son born while the father is king was the heir to the kingship. Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes as a result of his consideration of the particular prestige that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed. Artobazan

2624-502: The fifth century BC, centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great ( r.  336–323 BC ). Xerxes

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2688-530: The great authority of Atossa and his accession to royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or by any subject nation. At the time of Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing in some of his domains. A revolt occurred in Egypt , which seems dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the army to restore order (which also gave him the opportunity to begin his reign with

2752-412: The greater part of his army back to Asia, leaving behind Mardonius to continue his campaign. Mardonius was defeated at Plataea the following year, effectively ending the Persian invasion. After returning to Persia, Xerxes dedicated himself to large-scale construction projects, many of which had been left unfinished by his father. He oversaw the completion of the Gate of All Nations , the Apadana and

2816-431: The incumbent monarch of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit himself not a member of the family of Cyrus the Great , the founder of the empire. Xerxes' mother was Atossa , a daughter of Cyrus. Darius and Atossa married in 522 BC, and Xerxes was born around 518 BC. According to the Greek dialogue First Alcibiades , which describes typical upbringing and education of Persian princes, they were raised by eunuchs . Starting at

2880-405: The invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster . Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of

2944-405: The lands to the north of Hyrcania . Two other Dahae tribes, the Xanthioi and the Pissouroi, lived further east till the regions to the north of Areia. The name of the Dahae, attested in the Old Persian form Dahā , is derived from a Saka language name meaning "man," based on the common practice among various peoples of calling themselves "man" in their own languages. This term is attested in

3008-445: The murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus , whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism , it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda , whom he saw as

3072-403: The north of Hyrcania. Two other Dahae tribes, the Xanthioi and the Pissouroi, lived further east till the regions to the north of Areia. During the middle of the 3rd century itself, the Parni had moved into Hyrcania , where they lived along the Ochus river. Their leader, Arsaces , would found the Parthian Empire . During the 2nd century BCE, both the Dahae ( 大益 Dayi ) who still lived in

3136-441: The replacement of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is possible that the festival's traditional rituals and events had changed considerably. Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians , Naxians , and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt , the burning of Sardis , and their victory over

3200-405: The retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon , a key province of the empire , required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius , who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending

3264-433: The south. According to the Babylonian historian Berossus , the founder of the Persian Achaemenid Empire , Cyrus , died fighting against the Dahae. According to the Iranologist Muhammad Dandamayev , Berossus identified the Dahae rather than the Massagetae as Cyrus's killers because they had replaced the Massagetae as the most famous nomadic tribe of Central Asia long before Berossus's time, although some scholars identified

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3328-402: The statue was made entirely of gold, which would have made melting it down possible). Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive from an anti-Persian sentiment among the Babylonians. It is doubtful if the statue was removed from Babylon at all and some have even suggested that Xerxes did remove

3392-425: The steppes and the Parthian Empire ( 安息 Anxi ), as well as the Chorasmians ( 驩潛 Huanqian ), and Sogdians ( 蘇薤 Suxie ) sent embassies to the Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty which was ruling China . Interesting fact that currently lands of ancient Dahae are known as Mangystau Region of Kazakhstan and are inhabited by Adai- one of Kazakh tribes ( Jüz ). The lands to the north of Hyrcania where

3456-412: The summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and other nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat , and was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege of Babylon. The precise cause of the unrest in Babylon is uncertain. It may have been due to tax increases. Prior to these revolts, Babylon had occupied a special position within the Achaemenid Empire ; the Achaemenid kings had held

3520-465: The supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. By queen Amestris : By unknown wives or mistresses : Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources

3584-478: The titles of " King of Babylon " and " King of the Lands ," implying that they perceived Babylonia as a somewhat separate entity within their empire, united with their own kingdom in a personal union . After the revolts, however, Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the Neo-Babylonian Empire 's territory) into smaller sub-units. Based on texts written by classical authors, it

3648-408: The towns of Alexandreia and Heracleia located in these respective two countries. During late 4th and early 3rd centuries BCE, the Dahae, and especially their constituent tribe of the Parni , had settled along the southern and southwestern fringes of the Karakum desert, and by the mid-3rd century BCE they had moved west and had settled along the southeastern shores of the Caspian Sea , in the lands to

3712-408: Was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice against Xerxes during his reign. The first revolt broke out in June or July of 484 BC and was led by a rebel of the name Bel-shimanni . Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during his reign only account for a period of two weeks. Two years later, Babylon produced another rebel leader, Shamash-eriba . Beginning in

3776-429: Was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son " born in the purple " after Darius' rise to the throne. Furthermore, while Artobazan's mother was a commoner, Xerxes' mother was the daughter of the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC when he was about 32 years old. The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth, due again in part to

3840-632: Was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria " Ombra mai fù " opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus ( Artabano ), execution of crown prince Darius ( Dario ), revolt by Megabyzus ( Megabise ), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto Artaserse (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci , and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach . The historical novel Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes

3904-460: Was played by David Farrar in the film The 300 Spartans (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels 300 and Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander by Frank Miller , as well as the film adaptation 300 (2007) and its sequel 300: Rise of an Empire (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro , in which he

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3968-434: Was possibly not much different from that of the later Iranian kings, such as Abbas the Great , king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century AD. Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal palace of Babylon . While Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt began in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palaces at Susa and Persepolis. The king

4032-420: Was required by Persian law to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions; when Darius decided to leave for Egypt (487–486 BC), he prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his royal palace at Persepolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa , as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health; he died in October 486 BC at

4096-524: Was the son of Darius the Great and Atossa , a daughter of Cyrus the Great . In Western history, Xerxes is best known for his invasion of Greece in 480 BC, which ended in Persian defeat. Xerxes was designated successor by Darius over his elder brother Artobazan and inherited a large, multi-ethnic empire upon his father's death. He consolidated his power by crushing revolts in Egypt and Babylon , and renewed his father's campaign to subjugate Greece and punish Athens and its allies for their interference in

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