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130-394: A thesis ( pl. : theses ), or dissertation (abbreviated diss. ), is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings. In some contexts, the word thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelor's or master's course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate . This
260-407: A Higher National Certificate (HNC), may allow students to enter directly into the second year of a Bachelor's program, provided that the course they completed is the same as the one they are applying for. In South Africa, grades (also known as "marks") are presented as a percentage, with anything below 50% considered a failure. Students who receive a failing grade may have the opportunity to rewrite
390-457: A doctoral degree are called theses or dissertations . At French-language universities, for the fulfillment of a master's degree, students can present a " mémoire "' or a shorter " essai "' (the latter requires the student to take more courses). For the fulfillment of a doctoral degree, they may present a "thèse" or an "essai doctoral" (here too, the latter requires more courses). All these documents are usually synthetic monograph related to
520-415: A peer-reviewed journal . To pursue a doctor of philosophy degree, students must have completed a relevant master's degree. They are required to carry out a supervised scientific study for a minimum of three years and publish at least two scientific first-author papers in peer-reviewed journals relevant to their area of study. Currently, Kenya is implementing a Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) that follows
650-727: A 2–6–3–3 education system to replace the existing 8–4–4 system which allows confirmation of undergraduate degrees upon successful completion. The CBC system was introduced in 2017. Since the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region in 1997 and the Bologna Declaration in 1999, higher education systems in Europe have been undergoing harmonisation through
780-420: A 4-year bachelor's degree is sometimes called a major paper . High-quality research papers presented as the empirical study of a "postgraduate" consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis (Honours Seminar Thesis). Major papers presented as the final project for a master's degree are normally called thesis ; and major papers presenting the student's research towards
910-499: A Bachelor of Arts (BA) and a Master of Arts (MA). Management degrees are also classified under 'arts' but are nowadays considered a separate stream, with degrees of Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Master of Business Administration (MBA). Science refers to the basic sciences and natural science ( Biology , Physics , Chemistry , etc.); the corresponding degrees are Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Master of Science (MSc). Information Technology degrees are conferred specially in
1040-660: A C+ (55–59%) on the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). Students pursuing a degree in engineering, such as B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering or B.Sc. Electrical and Electronics Engineering , are required to join programs that are accredited by the Engineers Board of Kenya and the Commission for University Education. The B.Sc. degree in engineering typically takes five years to complete. A degree in medicine or surgery may take six to seven years, while
1170-480: A bogus institution or simply invented, is often covered by fraud laws. Depending on the culture and the degree earned, degrees may be indicated by a pre-nominal title , post-nominal letters , a choice of either, or not indicated at all. In countries influenced by the UK, post-nominal letters are the norm, with only doctorates granting a title, while titles are the norm in many northern European countries. Depending on
1300-427: A candidate must write magistrsko delo (Master's thesis) that is longer and more detailed than the undergraduate thesis. The required submission for the doctorate is called doktorska disertacija (doctoral dissertation). In pre Bologna programmes students were able to skip the preparation and presentation of a Master's thesis and continue straightforward towards doctorate. Academic degree An academic degree
1430-541: A college degree, but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely on a distance learning basis through the use of an Internet-connected computer, rather than attending college in a traditional campus setting. Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide, and the need for people to have flexible school schedules that enable them to work while attending school have led to
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#17327805688741560-695: A committee and gaining their approval. Most of the norms and rules of writing a thesis or a dissertation are influenced by the French higher education system. In Italy there are normally three types of thesis. In order of complexity: one for the Laurea (equivalent to the UK Bachelor's Degree), another one for the Laurea Magistrale (equivalent to the UK Master's Degree) and then a thesis to complete
1690-465: A comprehensive collection of Canadian theses at Library and Archives Canada (LAC) through a partnership with Canadian universities who participate in the program. Most theses can also be found in the institutional repository of the university the student graduated from. At most university faculties in Croatia, a degree is obtained by defending a thesis after having passed all the classes specified in
1820-445: A copy of the dissertation will become a permanent part of the library collection), paper size , order of components, and citation style, will be checked page by page by the accepting officer before the thesis is accepted and a receipt is issued. However, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the character size and the page formatting, and leave much freedom for
1950-531: A country abbreviation with the university's name. For example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' or 'Newc (UK)' and 'Newc (Aus.) are commonly used to denote degrees conferred by these universities where the potential for confusion exists, and institution names are given in this form in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. Abbreviations used for degrees vary between countries and institutions, e.g. MS indicates Master of Science in
2080-527: A credit-based system for degrees, with different levels of National Qualifications Framework (NQF) ratings corresponding to each degree level. For example, an undergraduate degree in Science is rated at NQF level 6, while an additional year of study in that discipline would result in an NQF level 8 (honours degree) rating. In Kenya, the first undergraduate degree is pursued after students have completed four years of secondary school education and attained at least
2210-428: A curated collection of articles . An ordinary monograph has a title page , an abstract , a table of contents , comprising the various chapters like introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and bibliography or more usually a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the many different areas of study (arts, humanities, social sciences, technology, sciences, etc.) and
2340-468: A degree in education or management takes around four years. For students pursuing a master's degree, they must have completed an undergraduate degree and attained at least a second-class honours upper division (60–69%) or lower division plus at least two years of relevant experience. Most master's degree programs take two years to complete. In an engineering master's degree program, students are typically required to publish at least one scientific paper in
2470-522: A doctoral degree paper ( doktorska disertacija ). In the Czech Republic, higher education is completed by passing all classes remaining to the educational compendium for given degree and defending a thesis. For bachelors programme the thesis is called bakalářská práce (bachelor's thesis), for master's degrees and also doctor of medicine or dentistry degrees it is the diplomová práce (master's thesis), and for Philosophiae doctor (PhD.) degree it
2600-409: A document continuously from the first page, independent of any printed page numbers. They, therefore, avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter and require a single sequence of Arabic numerals starting with 1 for the first printed page (the recto of the title page). Presentation requirements, including pagination, layout, type and color of paper, use of acid-free paper (where
2730-518: A few fields, such as medicine and dentistry, the Finnish system of higher education degrees is in compliance with the Bologna process. Universities award bachelor's degrees ( kandidaatti / kandidat ), Master's degrees ( maisteri / magister ) and doctoral degrees ( lisensiaatin tutkinto / licentiat examen and tohtorin tutkinto / doktorexamen ). In most fields, the system of doctoral degrees is two-tier,
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#17327805688742860-563: A few texts using Arabic numerals appeared outside of Italy. This suggests that the use of Arabic numerals in commercial practice, and the significant advantage they conferred, remained a virtual Italian monopoly until the late 15th century. This may in part have been due to language barriers: although Fibonacci's Liber Abaci was written in Latin, the Italian abacus traditions were predominantly written in Italian vernaculars that circulated in
2990-524: A few universities follow the United States model for theses and dissertations. Some public universities have both British and US style PhD programs. Branch campuses of British, Australian and Middle East universities in Malaysia use the respective models of the home campuses. In Pakistan, at undergraduate level the thesis is usually called final year project, as it is completed in the senior year of
3120-585: A higher status than the master's degree . This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th- and 19th-century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M.A.). The practice of using the term doctor for PhDs developed within German universities and spread across
3250-539: A placeholder known as sipos , represented as a circle or wheel, reminiscent of the eventual symbol for zero . The Arabic term for zero is ṣifr ( صفر ), transliterated into Latin as cifra , which became the English word cipher . From the 980s, Gerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Sylvester II ) used his position to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in Barcelona in his youth. He
3380-504: A practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge , as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrews , Glasgow , Aberdeen and Edinburgh . In medieval European universities , candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium ( grammar , rhetoric and logic ) and the quadrivium ( arithmetic , geometry , astronomy and music ), together known as
3510-461: A proliferation of online colleges that award associate's, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees. Bangladesh and India mostly follow the colonial era British system for the classification of degrees, however, Pakistan has recently switched to the US model of a two-year associate degree and a four-year bachelor's degree program. The arts, referring to the performing arts and literature, may confer
3640-418: A scale of 0 to 20. The minimum score for passing is set at 10 out of 20. This numerical system exclusively evaluates a student's academic accomplishments, serving as the determinant for admission into advanced programs. For instance, a student's grades obtained for their bachelor's degree are considered when they apply for a Master's program. Level 4 courses, which include the first year of a Bachelor's program or
3770-405: A similar structure: the term "Bachiller" was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as "Bachillerato" . The standard Spanish university 5-year degree was "Licenciado" , (although there were a few 3-year associate degrees called "diplomaturas" , from where the "diplomados" could move to study a related licenciatura ). The highest level was "Doctor". In
3900-406: A six year program and obligatory exam they achieve the title MUDr. (equivalent to MD degree in the United States of America) , or MDDr. for dentists and MVDr. for veterinary physicians . They can also get a "big doctorate" ( Ph.D. ) after another three or four years of study. Bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and small doctorates in the form of letters (Bc., Mgr., Ing., ...) are listed before
4030-558: A student is required to write a thesis and to then defend the work publicly. The length of this manuscript usually is given in page count and depends upon educational institution, its departments, faculties, and fields of study At universities in Slovenia, an academic thesis called diploma thesis is a prerequisite for completing undergraduate studies. The thesis used to be 40–60 pages long, but has been reduced to 20–30 pages in new Bologna process programmes. To complete Master's studies,
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4160-446: A thesis of 9 credits, at least one publication is normally considered enough for the awarding of the degree with project and is considered mandatory for the awarding of a degree with thesis. A written report and a public thesis defense is mandatory, in the presence of a board of senior researchers, consisting of members from an outside organization or a university. A PhD candidate is supposed to accomplish extensive research work to fulfill
4290-407: A thesis. This project is mostly given as a prerequisite writing course to the actual thesis and is accomplished in the term period before; supervision is provided by one professor assigned to a class. This project is later to be presented in front of an academic panel, often the entire faculty of an academic department, with their recommendations contributing to the acceptance, revision, or rejection of
4420-413: A university (with a Masters or PhD degree) depending on the university's examination rules. Required word length, complexity, and contribution to scholarship varies widely across universities in the country. In Poland, a bachelor's degree usually requires a praca licencjacka (bachelor's thesis) or the similar level degree in engineering requires a praca inżynierska (engineer's thesis/bachelor's thesis),
4550-409: Is 180, 210, or 240 ECTS-points. The academic degrees available at universities are: Historically, the Finnish higher education system is derived from the German system. The current system of higher education comprises two types of higher education institutions, the universities and the polytechnics , many of whom refer to themselves as universities of applied sciences (UAS). With the exception of
4680-499: Is a much later creation and was not introduced in England before 1900. Studies in what once was called philosophy are now classified as sciences and humanities . George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in medieval Islamic madrasas in the 9th century was the origin of the doctorate that later appeared in medieval European universities. Alfred Guillaume , Syed Farid al-Attas and Devin J. Stewart agree that there
4810-558: Is a qualification awarded to a student upon successful completion of a course of study in higher education , usually at a college or university . These institutions often offer degrees at various levels, usually divided into undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. The most common undergraduate degree is the bachelor's degree , although some educational systems offer lower-level undergraduate degrees such as associate and foundation degrees. Common postgraduate degrees include engineer's degrees , master's degrees and doctorates . In
4940-408: Is a resemblance between the ijazah and the university degree. However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory. Devin J. Stewart finds that the ijazat al-ifta , license to teach Islamic law and issue legal opinions, is most similar to the medieval European university degree in that it permits entry into certain professions. A key difference was that the granting authority of the ijaza
5070-613: Is a standard list of abbreviations for university names given in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. In practice, many variations are used and the Yearbook notes that the abbreviations used may not match those used by the universities concerned. For some British universities it is traditional to use Latin abbreviations, notably 'Oxon' and 'Cantab' for the universities of Oxford and Cambridge respectively, in spite of these having been superseded by English 'Oxf' and 'Camb' in official university usage, particularly in order to distinguish
5200-452: Is a statement or opinion that may or may not be true depending on the evidence and/or proof that is offered (152b32). The purpose of the dissertation is thus to outline the proofs of why the author disagrees with other philosophers or the general opinion. A thesis (or dissertation) may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph , with or without appended papers, respectively, though many graduate programs allow candidates to submit
5330-416: Is accomplished in the last term alone and is defended once. In most universities, a thesis is required for the bestowment of a degree to a candidate alongside a number of units earned throughout their academic period of stay, though for practice and skills-based degrees a practicum and a written report can be achieved instead. The examination board often consists of three to five examiners, often professors in
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5460-466: Is based on the Latin gradus ("step"). The naming of degrees eventually became linked to the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as "masters", but those in theology , medicine and law were known as "doctors". As a study in the arts or grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed
5590-504: Is called a soutenance . Since 2023, at the end of the admission process, the doctoral student takes an oath of commitment to the principles of scientific integrity In the presence of my peers. With the completion of my doctorate in [research field], in my quest for knowledge, I have carried out demanding research, demonstrated intellectual rigour, ethical reflection, and respect for the principles of research integrity. As I pursue my professional career, whatever my chosen field, I pledge, to
5720-870: Is covered by the Doctorate [ fr ] degree ( French : Doctorat ; Dutch : Doctoraat ) that covers a 3-to-7-year-long PhD , depending on whether the doctoral student has teaching responsibilities in addition to conducting research or not (typically 6 years for teaching assistants and 4 years for research-only mandates). The Czech Republic has implemented the Bologna process, and functionally has three degrees: Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (4 years after Master). The Czech Republic also has voluntary academic titles called "small doctorates" (e.g. RNDr. for natural sciences, PhDr. for philosophy, JUDr. for law etc.) which are achieved after passing an additional exam. Medical students do not get bachelor's or master's degrees, but instead attend
5850-590: Is dissertation dizertační práce . Thesis for so called Higher-Professional School (Vyšší odborná škola, VOŠ) is called absolventská práce . The following types of thesis are used in Finland (names in Finnish/Swedish): In France, the academic dissertation or thesis is called a thèse and it is reserved for the final work of doctoral candidates. The minimum page length is generally (and not formally) 100 pages (or about 400,000 characters), but
5980-412: Is mostly mandatory for the completion of a degree . Undergraduate students usually begin to write their final assignment in their third, fourth or fifth enrollment year, depends on the requirements of their respective disciplines and universities. In some universities, students are required to write a proposal skripsi or proposal tesis (thesis proposal) before they could write their final assignment. If
6110-519: Is no contemporary evidence of this, and the myth is difficult to reconcile with any digits past 4. The first mentions of the numerals from 1 to 9 in the West are found in the 976 Codex Vigilanus , an illuminated collection of various historical documents covering a period from antiquity to the 10th century in Hispania . Other texts show that numbers from 1 to 9 were occasionally supplemented by
6240-465: Is often earned with multiple levels of a Latin honors remark for the thesis ranging from summa cum laude (best) to rite (duly). A thesis can also be rejected with a Latin remark ( non-rite , non-sufficit or worst as sub omni canone ). Bachelor's and master's theses receive numerical grades from 1.0 (best) to 5.0 (failed). In India the thesis defense is called a viva voce ( Latin for "by live voice") examination ( viva in short). Involved in
6370-458: Is often given in page count and depends upon departments, faculties, and fields of study. A bachelor's thesis is often 40–60 pages long, a diploma thesis and a master's thesis usually 60–100. The required submission for a doctorate is called a Dissertation or Doktorarbeit . The submission for a Habilitation , which is an academic qualification, not an academic degree, is called Habilitationsschrift , not Habilitationsarbeit . A doctoral degree
6500-564: Is regulated by the three communities of Belgium , all have common and comparable systems of degrees that were adapted to the Bologna structure during the 2000s . The primary 3-cycle structure is called BMD (Bachelor-Master-Doctorate; French : Bachelier-Master-Doctorat or Dutch : Bachelor-Master-Doctoraat ). In the first cycle, the Bachelor's degree is issued after 180 ECTS (3 years, EQF level 6). Other first cycle degrees include
6630-533: Is the typical arrangement in American English . In other contexts, such as within most institutions of the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland , the reverse is true. The term graduate thesis is sometimes used to refer to both master's theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, and
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#17327805688746760-410: Is usually several times longer (except for technical theses and for "exact sciences" such as physics and maths). To complete a master's degree in research, a student is required to write a mémoire , the French equivalent of a master's thesis in other higher education systems. The word dissertation in French is reserved for shorter (1,000–2,000 words), more generic academic treatises. The defense
6890-601: The Bologna Process , which is based on a three-cycle hierarchy of degrees: Bachelor's / Licence – Master's – Doctorate . This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system previously used in some countries and is combined with other elements such as the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) and the use of Diploma Supplements to make comparisons between qualifications easier. The European Higher Education Area (EHEA)
7020-562: The Education Reform Act 1988 , many educational institutions other than universities have been granted degree-awarding powers, including higher education colleges and colleges of the University of London , many of which are now effectively universities in their own right. In many countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution, identifying
7150-508: The Latin dissertātiō , meaning "discussion". Aristotle was the first philosopher to define the term thesis. A 'thesis' is a supposition of some eminent philosopher that conflicts with the general opinion...for to take notice when any ordinary person expresses views contrary to men's usual opinions would be silly. For Aristotle, a thesis would therefore be a supposition that is stated in contradiction with general opinion or express disagreement with other philosophers (104b33-35). A supposition
7280-422: The Latin magister , "master" (typically indicating a teacher), entitling one to teach these subjects. Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of Law , Medicine or Theology and earn first a bachelor's and then master's or doctor's degree in these subjects. Thus, a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which
7410-485: The Liberal Arts , and who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Arts . The term "bachelor" comes from the Latin baccalaureus , a term previously used to describe a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a knight . Further study and, in particular, successful participation in, and moderation of, disputations would earn one the Master of Arts degree, from
7540-497: The Magister and doctorate , both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching. In universities, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild . The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Master of Arts" was seven years. This was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time
7670-548: The Oxbridge MA from an earned MA. Other Latin abbreviations commonly used include 'Cantuar' for Lambeth degrees (awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury ), 'Dunelm' for Durham University , 'Ebor' for the University of York and 'Exon' for the University of Exeter . The Ancient universities of Scotland and the University of London have abbreviations that are the same in English and Latin. (See Universities in
7800-658: The early church when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles , church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible . The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved by the church which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by
7930-682: The viva are two examiners, one guide (student guide) and the candidate. One examiner is an academic from the candidate's own university department (but not one of the candidate's supervisors) and the other is an external examiner from a different university. In India, PG Qualifications such as MSc Physics accompanies submission of dissertation in Part I and submission of a Project (a working model of an innovation) in Part II. Engineering and Designing qualifications such as BTech, B.E., B.Des, MTech, M.E. or M.Des also involves submission of dissertation. In all
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#17327805688748060-470: The Bachelor's Thesis is called TCC or Trabalho de Conclusão de Curso (Final Term / Undergraduate Thesis / Final Paper). In Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine an academic dissertation or thesis is called what can be literally translated as a "master's degree work" (thesis), whereas the word dissertation is reserved for doctoral theses ( Candidate of Sciences ). To complete both bachelor's and master's degree,
8190-465: The D.D. has gradually become less common outside theology and is now mostly used for honorary degrees, with the title "Doctor of Theology" being used more often for earned degrees. Studies outside theology , law , and medicine were then called " philosophy ", due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical observation. The degree title of Doctor of Philosophy
8320-511: The Dottorato di Ricerca (PhD). Thesis requirements vary greatly between degrees and disciplines, ranging from as low as 3–4 ECTS credits to more than 30. Thesis work is mandatory for the completion of a degree. In Kazakhstan, a bachelor's degree typically requires a bachelor's diploma work (kz "бакалаврдың дипломдық жұмысы"), while the master's and PhD degree require a master's/doctoral dissertation (kz "магистрлік/докторлық диссертация"). All
8450-451: The EHEA. In Austria , there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees: The two-cycle degree system was phased out by 2010, with a few exceptions. However, some of the established degree naming has been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes. While higher education
8580-476: The Master of Arts, although the highest degree was often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor of Theology/Divinity, depending on the place. The earliest doctoral degrees ( theology – Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), law – Legum Doctor (LL.D., later D.C.L.) and medicine – Medicinæ Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all higher University study into these three fields. Over time,
8710-450: The Pope. Among educational institutions, St David's College, Lampeter , was granted limited degree awarding powers by royal charter in the nineteenth century, despite not being a university. The University College of North Staffordshire was also granted degree awarding powers on its foundation in 1949, despite not becoming a university (as the University of Keele ) until 1962. Following
8840-924: The Shang dynasty numeral system was also decimal based and positional . While positional Chinese numeral systems such as the counting rod system and Suzhou numerals had been in use prior to the introduction of modern Arabic numerals, the externally-developed system was eventually introduced to medieval China by the Hui people . In the early 17th century, European-style Arabic numerals were introduced by Spanish and Portuguese Jesuits . The ten Arabic numerals are encoded in virtually every character set designed for electric, radio, and digital communication, such as Morse code . They are encoded in ASCII (and therefore in Unicode encodings ) at positions 0x30 to 0x39. Masking all but
8970-458: The UK and countries whose educational systems are based on the British system, honours degrees are divided into classes: first, second (broken into upper second, or 2.1, and lower second, or 2.2) and third class. The doctorate ( Latin : doceo , "I teach") first appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach ( Latin : licentia docendi ) at a medieval university. Its roots can be traced to
9100-422: The US and places following American usage, but Master of Surgery in the UK and most Commonwealth countries, where the standard abbreviation for Master of Science is MSc. Common abbreviations include BA and MA for Bachelor and Master of Arts , BS/BSc and MS/MSc for Bachelor and Master of Science , MD for Doctor of Medicine and PhD for Doctor of Philosophy . An online degree is an academic degree (usually
9230-510: The United Kingdom § Post-nominal abbreviations for a more complete list and discussion of abbreviations for British universities.) Confusion can result from universities sharing similar names, e.g. the University of York in the UK and York University in Canada or Newcastle University in the UK and the University of Newcastle in Australia. In this case, the convention is to include
9360-425: The West and became familiar with the communal use of Arabic numerals. Peter also covertly travelled throughout Northern Europe from 1697 to 1698 during his Grand Embassy and was likely informally exposed to Western mathematics during this time. The Cyrillic system was found to be inferior for calculating practical kinematic values, such as the trajectories and parabolic flight patterns of artillery. With its use, it
9490-596: The Western Arabic numerals. The Western Arabic numerals came to be used in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus from the 10th century onward. Some amount of consistency in the Western Arabic numeral forms endured from the 10th century, found in a Latin manuscript of Isidore of Seville 's Etymologiae from 976 and the Gerbertian abacus, into the 12th and 13th centuries, in early manuscripts of translations from
9620-492: The academic world. The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat (cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have completed their secondary education and allows the student to attend university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded a licence , much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. Spain had
9750-463: The actual typographic details. The thesis committee (or dissertation committee ) is a committee that supervises a student's dissertation. In the US, these committees usually consist of a primary supervisor or advisor and two or more committee members, who supervise the progress of the dissertation and may also act as the examining committee, or jury, at the oral examination of the thesis ( see § Thesis examinations ). At most universities,
9880-579: The advantages of positional notation was widely influential. Likewise, Fibonacci's use of the Béjaïa digits in his exposition ultimately led to their widespread adoption in Europe. Fibonacci's work coincided with the European commercial revolution of the 12th and 13th centuries centered in Italy. Positional notation facilitated complex calculations (such as currency conversion) to be completed more quickly than
10010-544: The advisor) or other experts with a PhD degree (generally at least half of them must be external to the university where the candidate defends the thesis, but it may depend on the university). Each university / faculty defines the length of these documents, and it can vary also in respect to the domains (a thesis in fields like philosophy, history, geography, etc., usually has more pages than a thesis in mathematics, computer science, statistics, etc.) but typical numbers of pages are around 60–80 for MSc and 150–250 for PhD. In Brazil
10140-484: The body of the thesis . Correspondingly to the academic degree, the last phase of an academic thesis is called in Spanish a defensa de grado , defensa magistral or defensa doctoral in cases in which the university candidate is finalizing their licentiate , master's , or PhD program , respectively. According to a committee resolution, the dissertation can be approved or rejected by an academic committee consisting of
10270-427: The cases, the dissertation can be extended for summer internship at certain research and development organizations or also as PhD synopsis. In Indonesia , the term thesis is used specifically to refer to master's theses. The undergraduate thesis is called skripsi , while the doctoral dissertation is called disertasi . In general, those three terms are usually called as tugas akhir (final assignment), which
10400-455: The city of Toledo . Calculations were originally performed using a dust board ( takht , Latin: tabula ), which involved writing symbols with a stylus and erasing them. The use of the dust board appears to have introduced a divergence in terminology as well: whereas the Hindu reckoning was called ḥisāb al-hindī in the east, it was called ḥisāb al-ghubār 'calculation with dust' in
10530-562: The colonial Dutch system for the classification of degrees. However, Indonesia has been dropping the Dutch titles and developing its own distinctions. Sri Lanka , like many other commonwealth countries, follows the British system, but with its own distinctions. Degrees are approved by the University Grants Commission . Tunisia's educational grading system, ranging from elementary school to Ph.D. programs, operates on
10660-416: The committee is chosen by the student in conjunction with their primary adviser, usually after completion of the comprehensive examinations or prospectus meeting, and may consist of members of the comps committee. The committee members are doctors in their field (whether a PhD or other designation) and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on
10790-529: The contemporary spread of the Latin alphabet —and have become common in the writing systems where other numeral systems existed previously, such as Chinese and Japanese numerals. Positional decimal notation including a zero symbol was developed in India , using symbols visually distinct from those that would eventually enter into international use. As the concept spread, the sets of symbols used in different regions diverged over time. The immediate ancestors of
10920-470: The culture and the purpose of the listing, only the highest degree, a selection of degrees, or all degrees might be listed. The awarding institution may be shown and it might be specified if a degree was at honours level, particularly where the honours degree is a separate qualification from the ordinary bachelor's degree. For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities , there
11050-612: The customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it. The Liber Abaci ' s analysis highlighting
11180-449: The defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student. The role of the thesis supervisor is to assist and support a student in their studies, and to determine whether a thesis is ready for examination. The thesis is authored by the student, not the supervisor. The duties of the thesis supervisor also include checking for copyright compliance and ensuring that
11310-424: The degree of licentiate is an independent academic degree but completing the degree of doctor does not require completion of a licentiate degree. The polytechnics (universities of applied sciences) have the right to award bachelor's and master's degrees; the degree titles are distinct from the titles used for university degrees. Arabic numerals The ten Arabic numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are
11440-408: The degree programme. In the Bologna system, the bachelor's thesis, called završni rad (literally "final work" or "concluding work") is defended after 3 years of study and is about 30 pages long. Most students with bachelor's degrees continue onto master's programmes which end with a master's thesis called diplomski rad (literally "diploma work" or "graduate work"). The term dissertation is used for
11570-454: The degree, the name project usually implies that the work carried out is less extensive than a thesis and bears lesser credit hours too. The undergraduate level project is presented through an elaborate written report and a presentation to the advisor, a board of faculty members and students. At graduate level however, i.e. in MS, some universities allow students to accomplish a project of 6 credits or
11700-406: The differences between them. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory and comprehensive review of the appended published and unpublished article documents. Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of a thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the previous research literature impinging on the topic of
11830-632: The digits now commonly called "Arabic numerals" were introduced to Europe in the 10th century by Arabic speakers of Spain and North Africa, with digits at the time in wide use from Libya to Morocco. In the east from Egypt to Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula, the Arabs were using the Eastern Arabic numerals or "Mashriki" numerals: ٠, ١, ٢, ٣, ٤, ٥, ٦, ٧, ٨, ٩ . Al-Nasawi wrote in the early 11th century that mathematicians had not agreed on
11960-565: The dissertation requirements with international publications being a mandatory requirement. The defense of the research work is done publicly. In the Philippines, an academic thesis is named by the degree, such as bachelor/undergraduate thesis or masteral thesis. However, in Philippine English , the term doctorate is typically replaced with doctoral (as in the case of "doctoral dissertation"), though in official documentation
12090-476: The doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree . Today the terms "master" (from the Latin magister , lit. ' teacher ' ), "Doctor", and "Professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the Medieval university , they were equivalent terms. The use of them in the degree name was a matter of custom at a university. Most universities conferred
12220-491: The ecclesiastic scholastic. This right remained a point of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the Pope to the University of Paris in 1231 where it became a universal license to teach ( licentia ubique docendi ). While the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree ( Baccalaureus ), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to
12350-435: The exam, depending on the criteria established by their institution. Degrees in almost any field of study can be pursued at one of the institutions in the country, with certain institutions being known for excelling in specific fields. Major fields of study across the country include Arts , Commerce , Engineering , Law , Medicine , Science , and Theology . The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) has developed
12480-628: The field of computer science , and include Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (B.Sc.IT.) and Master of Science in Information Technology (M.Sc.IT.). The engineering degree in India follows two nomenclatures, Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.) and Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.). Both represent bachelor's degree in engineering . In Pakistan, engineering degrees are Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) and Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.S./B.Sc. Engineering). Both are
12610-520: The first time in a royal document of 1456. By the mid-16th century, they had been widely adopted in Europe, and by 1800 had almost completely replaced the use of counting boards and Roman numerals in accounting. Roman numerals were mostly relegated to niche uses such as years and numbers on clock faces. Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals, Cyrillic numerals , derived from the Cyrillic alphabet , were used by South and East Slavs . The system
12740-472: The form of the numerals, but most of them had agreed to train themselves with the forms now known as Eastern Arabic numerals. The oldest specimens of the written numerals available are from Egypt and date to 873–874 AD. They show three forms of the numeral "2" and two forms of the numeral "3", and these variations indicate the divergence between what later became known as the Eastern Arabic numerals and
12870-431: The former is still used. The terms thesis and dissertation are commonly used interchangeably in everyday language yet it is generally understood that a thesis refers to bachelor/undergraduate and master academic work while a dissertation is named for doctorate work. The Philippine system is influenced by American collegiate system, in that it requires a research project to be submitted before being allowed to write
13000-406: The fully capitalized term Arabic Numerals for Eastern Arabic numerals . In contemporary society, the terms digits , numbers and numerals often implies only these symbols, although that can only be inferred from context. Europeans first learned of Arabic numerals c. the 10th century , though their spread was a gradual process. After Italian scholar Fibonacci of Pisa encountered
13130-527: The given degree. Examinations for PhD and Habilitation degrees are public. In Portugal and Brazil, a dissertation ( dissertação ) is required for completion of a master's degree. The defense is done in a public presentation in which teachers, students, and the general public can participate. For the PhD, a thesis ( tese ) is presented for defense in a public exam. The exam typically extends over 3 hours. The examination board typically involves 5 to 6 scholars (including
13260-485: The greatest of my ability, to continue to maintain integrity in my relationship to knowledge, in my methods and in my results. In Germany, an academic thesis is called Abschlussarbeit or, more specifically, the basic name of the degree complemented by -arbeit (rough translation: -work ; e.g., Diplomarbeit , Masterarbeit , Doktorarbeit ). For bachelor's and master's degrees, the name can alternatively be complemented by -thesis instead (e.g., Bachelorthesis ). Length
13390-439: The initial topic. In addition, the presentation of the research project will help the candidate choose their primary thesis adviser. An undergraduate thesis is completed in the final year of the degree alongside existing seminar (lecture) or laboratory courses, and is often divided into two presentations: proposal and thesis presentations (though this varies across universities), whereas a master thesis or doctorate dissertation
13520-688: The major points of the Lisbon Recognition Convention in national legislation. Since 2008, the European Union has been developing the European Qualifications Framework (EQF). This is an eight-level framework designed to allow cross-referencing of the various national qualifications frameworks. While it is not specific to higher education , the top four levels (5–8) correspond to the short cycle, first cycle, second cycle, and third cycle of
13650-470: The master's degree requires a praca magisterska (master's thesis). The academic dissertation for a PhD is called a dysertacja or praca doktorska . The submission for the Habilitation is called praca habilitacyjna or dysertacja habilitacyjna . Thus the term dysertacja is reserved for PhD and Habilitation degrees. All the theses need to be "defended" by the author during a special examination for
13780-644: The most commonly used symbols for writing numbers. The term often also implies a positional notation using the numerals, as well as the use of a decimal base, in particular when contrasted with other systems such as Roman numerals . However, the symbols are also used to write numbers in other bases such as octal , as well as for writing non-numerical information such as trademarks or license plate identifiers. They are also called Western Arabic numerals , Western digits , European digits , Ghubār numerals or Hindu–Arabic numerals . The Oxford English Dictionary uses lowercase Arabic numerals for it, while using
13910-434: The numerals in his calendrical tables to calculate the dates of Easter more easily in his text Computus emendatus . Leonardo Fibonacci was a Pisan mathematician who had studied in the Pisan trading colony of Bugia , in what is now Algeria , and he endeavored to promote the numeral system in Europe with his 1202 book Liber Abaci : When my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in
14040-493: The numerals in the Algerian city of Béjaïa , his 13th-century work Liber Abaci became crucial in making them known in Europe. However, their use was largely confined to Northern Italy until the invention of the printing press in the 15th century. European trade, books, and colonialism subsequently helped popularize the adoption of Arabic numerals around the world. The numerals are used worldwide—significantly beyond
14170-1006: The one-year Advanced Bachelor's degree [ fr ; nl ] degree ( French : Bachelier de spécialisation , lit. 'Specialized Bachelor'; Dutch : Bachelor-na-bachelor , lit. 'Bachelor-after-bachelor') and the Brevet (in the French-speaking Community only) for short-cycle higher education programmes. Bachelor's degrees are followed in the second cycle ( EQF level 7) by Master's degrees [ fr ] that last two years, completing an extra 120 ECTS credits. The master's degree can be followed by an Advanced Master's degree [ fr ; nl ] ( French : Master de spécialisation , lit. 'Specialized Master'; Dutch : Master-na-master , lit. 'Master-after-master') that lasts one year (60 ECTS). The third cycle of Belgium's higher education
14300-545: The past, degrees have been directly issued by the authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In Great Britain , Lambeth degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury . The Archbishop of Canterbury's right to grant degrees is derived from the Peter's Pence Act 1533 , which empowered the Archbishop to grant dispensations previously granted by
14430-829: The person's name, and Doctor's degrees (Ph.D.) are listed after name (e.g. MUDr. Jan Novák, Ph.D.). The Czech Republic previously had more degrees that were awarded. Before the adoption of the Bologna Process, the lowest degree that would normally be studied at universities in Denmark was equivalent to a master's degree ( kandidatgrad ). Officially, a bachelor's degree was always obtained after 3 years' university studies. Various medium-length (2–4 years) professional degrees have been adopted, so they now have status as professional bachelor's degrees of varying length. As opposed to academic bachelor's degrees, they are considered to be "applied" degrees. A professional bachelor's degree
14560-603: The presentation of theses, for instance ISO 7144 . Other applicable international standards include ISO 2145 on section numbers, ISO 690 on bibliographic references, and ISO 31 or its revision ISO 80000 on quantities or units. Some older house styles specify that front matter (title page, abstract, table of content, etc.) must use a separate page number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals . The relevant international standard and many newer style guides recognize that this book design practice can cause confusion where electronic document viewers number all pages of
14690-471: The private collections of abacus schools or individuals. The European acceptance of the numerals was accelerated by the invention of the printing press , and they became widely known during the 15th century. Their use grew steadily in other centers of finance and trade such as Lyon. Early evidence of their use in Britain includes: an equal hour horary quadrant from 1396, in England, a 1445 inscription on
14820-497: The required minimum study period may thus vary significantly in duration. The word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is also used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek word θέσις , meaning "something put forth", and refers to an intellectual proposition . Dissertation comes from
14950-530: The same in curriculum , duration and pattern, and differ only in nomenclature. The engineering degree in Bangladesh is a Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.Sc. Engineering). Other degrees include the medical degree ( Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS)), dental degree ( Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS)) and computer application degrees ( Bachelor of Computer Application (BCA)) and Master of Computer Application (MCA). Indonesia follows
15080-420: The status of the individual wearing them. In many countries, degrees may only be awarded by institutions authorised to do so by the national or regional government. Frequently, governments will also regulate the use of the word university in the names of businesses. This approach is followed, for example, by Australia, the United Kingdom and Israel. The use of fake degrees by individuals, either obtained from
15210-526: The student has included in/with the thesis a statement attesting that he/she is the sole author of the thesis. In the Latin American docta , the academic dissertation can be referred to as different stages inside the academic program that the student is seeking to achieve into a recognized Argentine University , in all the cases the students must develop original contribution in the chosen fields by means of several paper work and essays that comprehend
15340-507: The student's research work. A typical undergraduate paper or essay might be forty pages. Master's theses are approximately one hundred pages. PhD theses are usually over two hundred pages. This may vary greatly by discipline, program, college, or university. A study published in 2021 found that in Québec universities , between 2000 and 2020, master's and PhD theses averaged 127.4 and 245.6 pages respectively. Theses Canada acquires and preserves
15470-402: The study, the methods used, and the findings of the project. Most world universities use a multiple chapter format: Degree-awarding institutions often define their own house style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. In addition to institution-specific house styles, there exist a number of field-specific, national, and international standards and recommendations for
15600-405: The thesis director and at least one evaluator. All the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities , writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers , term papers or essays . A longer paper or essay presented for completion of
15730-412: The thesis proposal is considered to fulfill the qualification by the academic examiners, students then may proceed to write their final assignment. In Iran , usually students are required to present a thesis ( Persian : پایاننامه pāyān-nāmeh ) in their master's degree and a dissertation ( رساله resāleh ) in their Doctorate degree, both of which requiring the students to defend their research before
15860-646: The tower of Heathfield Church, Sussex ; a 1448 inscription on a wooden lych-gate of Bray Church, Berkshire ; and a 1487 inscription on the belfry door at Piddletrenthide church, Dorset ; and in Scotland a 1470 inscription on the tomb of the first Earl of Huntly in Elgin Cathedral. In central Europe, the King of Hungary Ladislaus the Posthumous , started the use of Arabic numerals, which appear for
15990-445: The west. The numerals themselves were referred to in the west as ashkāl al‐ghubār 'dust figures' or qalam al-ghubår 'dust letters'. Al-Uqlidisi later invented a system of calculations with ink and paper 'without board and erasing' ( bi-ghayr takht wa-lā maḥw bal bi-dawāt wa-qirṭās ). A popular myth claims that the symbols were designed to indicate their numeric value through the number of angles they contained, but there
16120-421: The works are publicly presented to the special council at the end of the training, which thoroughly examines the work. PhD candidates may be allowed to present their work without a written thesis, if they provide enough publications in leading journals of the field, and one of which should be a review article specifically. Malaysian universities often follow the British model for dissertations and degrees. However,
16250-587: Was an individual professor whereas the university degree was granted by a corporate entity. The University of Bologna in Italy , regarded as the oldest university in Europe , was the first institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including medicine . The University of Paris used the term "master" for its graduates,
16380-517: Was difficult to keep pace with Arabic numerals in the growing field of ballistics , whereas Western mathematicians such as John Napier had been publishing on the topic since 1614. The Chinese Shang dynasty numerals from the 14th century B.C. predates the Indian Brahmi numerals by over 1000 years and shows substantial similarity to the Brahmi numerals. Similar to the modern Arabic numerals,
16510-516: Was formally established in 2010 and, as of September 2016, has 50 members. The implementation of the various elements of the EHEA varies between countries. Twenty-four countries have fully implemented a national qualifications framework, and a further ten have a framework but have not yet certified it against the overarching framework . In 38 countries, ECTS credits are used for all higher education programmes, and 31 countries have fully implemented diploma supplements. Only 11 countries have included all
16640-511: Was known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the astrolabe from Lupitus of Barcelona after he had returned to France. The reception of Arabic numerals in the West was gradual and lukewarm, as other numeral systems circulated in addition to the older Roman numbers. As a discipline, the first to adopt Arabic numerals as part of their own writings were astronomers and astrologists, evidenced from manuscripts surviving from mid-12th-century Bavaria. Reinher of Paderborn (1140–1190) used
16770-478: Was possible with the Roman system. In addition, the system could handle larger numbers, did not require a separate reckoning tool, and allowed the user to check their work without repeating the entire procedure. Late medieval Italian merchants did not stop using Roman numerals or other reckoning tools: instead, Arabic numerals were adopted for use in addition to their preexisting methods. By the late 14th century, only
16900-602: Was used in Russia as late as the early 18th century, although it was formally replaced in official use by Peter the Great in 1699. Reasons for Peter's switch from the alphanumerical system are believed to go beyond a surface-level desire to imitate the West. Historian Peter Brown makes arguments for sociological, militaristic, and pedagogical reasons for the change. At a broad, societal level, Russian merchants, soldiers, and officials increasingly came into contact with counterparts from
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