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180-461: Béjaïa owes its existence to its port, which also makes it prosperous. It is located in a sickle-shaped bay protected from the swell of offshore winds (northwest facing) by the advance of Cape Carbon (to the west of the city). The city is backed by Mount Gouraya located in a northwest position. This port site, in one of the most beautiful bays of the Maghreb and Mediterranean coast , is dominated in

360-561: A bus station. Bus lines connect it to the cities of the Algerian south, including Hassi Messaoud , Ouargla, Ghardaïa , Laghouat , Djelfa and Bou Saâda . The commune of Béjaïa is served by several national roads. Some of them run through valleys and gorges that constitute natural passage areas: national road 9 (Sétif road) , which passes along the coast then the Kherrata gorges to Sétif, and national road 24 (Béjaïa road), which crosses

540-513: A culture focused on compassion with the burial of individuals in cave-sanctuary-necropolises and the use of clay pottery dated from 18,000 to 11,000 BC. These deposits are typical of the so-called Iberomaurusian archaeological culture . The city contains remains from the Bronze Age. The oldest known remains are a "hanout" which is a form of Libyc tomb . Long attributed to the Punic culture , it

720-421: A few families and still others lived on isolated farms spread over the countryside. There were also areas where the pattern was a mix of two or more of those systems. Unlike in the late Roman period, there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat, and it was possible for a free peasant's family to rise into the aristocracy over several generations through military service to

900-601: A king to rule over them all. By the late sixth century, this arrangement had been replaced by a permanent monarchy, the Kingdom of the Lombards . The invasions brought new ethnic groups to Europe, although some regions received a larger influx of new peoples than others. In Gaul for instance, the invaders settled much more extensively in the north-east than in the south-west. Slavs settled in Central and Eastern Europe and

1080-712: A lack of substitutes inherently or de facto (such as Mahdia in Tunisia, Honaïne in Algeria, radically Sijilmasa in Morocco, etc.), Bejaia thus begins its decline in this context of a combination of circumstances of reconfiguration of world trade in favor of new maritime routes dominated at first by the Portuguese and the Dutch to the detriment of the previous caravan routes and what was related to them. The Spanish , in

1260-629: A man named Mourad, then a certain Bou Setta, were thwarted. A new expedition resulted in the capture of the city in 1833, after fierce resistance from its inhabitants. However, the French failed to conquer the surrounding area. The city and its region put up fierce resistance to the French colonial presence; moreover, like the Spanish in the 16th century, the French were content with a limited occupation until 1846. Various defensive works were built around

1440-567: A powerful lord. Roman city life and culture changed greatly in the early Middle Ages. Although Italian cities remained inhabited, they contracted significantly in size. Rome, for instance, shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to around 30,000 by the end of the 6th century. Roman temples were converted into Christian churches and city walls remained in use. In Northern Europe, cities also shrank, while civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials. The establishment of new kingdoms often meant some growth for

1620-466: A practical skill rather than a sign of elite status. In the 4th century, Jerome (d. 420) dreamed that God rebuked him for spending more time reading Cicero than the Bible . By the 6th century, Gregory of Tours (d. 594) had a similar dream, but instead of being chastised for reading Cicero, he was chastised for learning shorthand . By the late 6th century, the principal means of religious instruction in

1800-518: A predominantly Latin culture and was Christianized. The Romans set up various hydraulic networks that would be reused in the Hammadid era . The Toudja aqueduct dates from the reign of Antoninus Pius. But the city did not know the importance of the development of Hippo (Annaba) which flourished more under the Romans. Augustus also founded Tubusuptus, the current ruins of Tiklat, a few kilometres away on

1980-474: A small foothold in southern Spain. Justinian's reconquests have been criticised by historians for overextending his realm and setting the stage for the early Muslim conquests , but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian's successors were due not just to over-taxation to pay for his wars but to the essentially civilian nature of the empire, which made raising troops difficult. In the Eastern Empire

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2160-663: Is a rivalry and intellectual exchanges between Tlemcen , the Zeneta and Béjaïa, the Sanhaja . This tolerance of the city is nuanced by one of the versions of the story of the death of Ramon Llull. Indeed, according to one version, he was stoned by the Bougiotes who had accused him of wanting to convert them to Christianity when other versions affirm that he was simply shipwrecked on his return to Mallorca from Tunis. In 1202, Leonardo Fibonacci, an Italian mathematician, brought back

2340-562: Is attested in various urban and peri-urban sites. The Ali Bacha cave station would represent the oldest settlement site around 40,000 to 20,000 BC. On the Aiguades site, the equipment and furniture found evoke a period around 10,000 BC and therefore Neolithic . The region is also rich in archaeological deposits such as the Afalou caves where some of the oldest burials of modern men, known as Mechta-Afalou men , have been found, which testifies to

2520-463: Is closely monitored for fear of seeing it compete with that of Algiers; the Algiers fleet comes to winter in its coves where it is naturally sheltered. The city therefore sees its decline accentuated after the departure of the Spanish. The inhabitants maintain a small merchant fleet of about twenty chebeks or feluccas which trade when the weather is favorable with Algiers, Oran, Bouna and Tunis to export

2700-477: Is generally humid with a slight seasonal temperature change. Average temperatures are generally mild and vary from 11.1 °C in winter to 24.5 °C in summer. In addition to the Soummam River, which sufficiently meets agricultural needs in the surroundings of the city, Béjaïa is located in the maritime Kabylie and benefits from a fairly favorable rainfall compared to the rest of the country. The rainfall in

2880-720: Is in fact much older, its dating is interdetermined. The advantageous site, sheltered from the winds by Cape Carbon, was surely occupied very early. The first trace of historical mention appears in the 5th century BC in the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax . The region was part of the kingdom of Numidia . In addition, the Punic influence is present: the Carthaginians traveled the North African coasts to trade and establish trading posts called emporioe . Jugurtha's defeat by

3060-654: Is itself subdivided into the Early , High , and Late Middle Ages . Population decline , counterurbanisation , the collapse of centralized authority, invasions, and mass migrations of tribes , which had begun in Late Antiquity , continued into the Early Middle Ages. The large-scale movements of the Migration Period , including various Germanic peoples , formed new kingdoms in what remained of

3240-672: Is no universally agreed upon end date. Depending on the context, events such as the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Christopher Columbus 's first voyage to the Americas in 1492, or the Protestant Reformation in 1517 are sometimes used. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period. For Spain, dates commonly used are the death of King Ferdinand II in 1516,

3420-744: Is underway to ease congestion on the Béjaïa road, the main axis between the capital and the east of the country, and to connect the city and its port, one of the most important in Algeria, to the Algerian East-West highway . Béjaïa has a railway station, the terminus of the Beni Mansour-Bejaia line , created in 1889 and on which a railcar runs linking the stations in the region: Beni Mansour, Tazmalt, Allaghan, Akbou , Lazib Ben Cherif, Ighzer Amokrane , Takriets, Sidi Aich , Ilmaten and El Kseur, The interconnection, at Beni Mansour, with

3600-587: Is unknown, it occupies a significant place in the Mediterranean without however being preponderant compared to the European merchant fleets. It is frequented by Latin merchants, Pisans and Genoese , Andalusians and later Catalans . These traders from the south of Europe gave it various names in Romance languages : Bugia, Buzia, Bugea, Buzana. It was at this time that the city's wax, exported to Europe for

3780-471: The fyrd , which were led by the local elites. In military technology, one of the main changes was the return of the crossbow , which had been known in Roman times and reappeared as a military weapon during the last part of the Early Middle Ages. Another change was the introduction of the stirrup, which increased the effectiveness of cavalry as shock troops. A technological advance that had implications beyond

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3960-717: The Alans , Vandals , and Suevi crossed into Gaul ; over the next three years they spread across Gaul and in 409 crossed the Pyrenees Mountains into modern-day Spain. The Migration Period began, when various peoples, initially largely Germanic peoples , moved across Europe. The Franks , Alemanni , and the Burgundians all ended up in northern Gaul while the Angles , Saxons , and Jutes settled in Britain , and

4140-616: The Algiers-Skikda line , allows access to the entire Algerian railway network by direct links to the Algerian capital, to the west, and to Sétif , to the south-east. A regional train specifically linking Béjaïa to its outskirts is also in service; it was designed to open up the east of the region. The line would benefit from about fifteen daily round trips and should serve the stations of the Beni Mansour-Bejaia line. Bejaia has an international airport located 5 km south of

4320-529: The Benedictine Rule for Western monasticism during the 6th century, detailing the administrative and spiritual responsibilities of a community of monks led by an abbot . Monks and monasteries had a deep effect on the religious and political life of the Early Middle Ages, in various cases acting as land trusts for powerful families, centres of propaganda and royal support in newly conquered regions, and bases for missions and proselytisation. They were

4500-476: The Berber toponym ( Kabyle variant ) Bgayet , notably by transliteration (see Transcription and transliteration) of the sound ǧ in dj (ج). This Berber name — which would have originally been Tabgayet , but whose initial t marking the feminine gender would have fallen into disuse — would come from the words tabegga, tabeɣayt, meaning "wild brambles and blackberries". The name Béjaïa would thus originally have

4680-591: The Carolingian Empire during the later 8th and early 9th centuries. It covered much of Western Europe but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions: Vikings from the north, Magyars from the east, and Saracens from the south. During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and

4860-531: The Desert Fathers of Egypt and Syria . Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on community experience of the spiritual life, called cenobitism , which was pioneered by Pachomius (d. 348) in the 4th century. Monastic ideals spread from Egypt to Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries through hagiographical literature such as the Life of Anthony . Benedict of Nursia (d. 547) wrote

5040-676: The French form of this transcription of the Arabic name. Gradually it will be applied to the designation of the wax that was imported in the Middle Ages for the manufacture of candles in Europe; they are from then on commonly designated in French by the word "bougie". The city is part of the Soummam 's drainage basin . Béjaïa and the lower Soummam Valley enjoy a Mediterranean climate . It

5220-527: The Gouraya National Park . The urban area covers an area of 12,022 hectares. Béjaïa is located 220 km east of the capital Algiers, 93 km east of Tizi Ouzou, 81.5 km northeast of Bordj Bou Arreridj , 70 km northwest of Sétif and 61 km west of Jijel. The geographic coordinates of the commune at the central point of its capital are 36° 45′ 00″ North and 5° 04′ 00″ East, respectively. Béjaïa is transliteration from an Arabic toponym derived from

5400-584: The Gregorian chant in liturgical music for the churches. An important activity for scholars during this period was the copying, correcting, and dissemination of basic works on religious and secular topics, with the aim of encouraging learning. New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced. Grammarians of the period modified the Latin language, changing it from the Classical Latin of

5580-714: The Macedonian dynasty . Commerce revived and the emperors oversaw the extension of a uniform administration to all the provinces. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors John I (r. 969–976) and Basil II (r. 976–1025) to expand the frontiers of the empire on all fronts. The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning, a process known as the Macedonian Renaissance . Writers such as John Geometres ( fl. early 10th century) composed new hymns, poems, and other works. Missionary efforts by both Eastern and Western clergy resulted in

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5760-486: The Medieval Warm Period climate change allowed crop yields to increase. Manorialism , the organisation of peasants into villages that owed rent and labour services to the nobles , and feudalism , the political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rent from lands and manors , were two of the ways society was organized in

5940-517: The Romans changed the latter's alliance into a suzerainty; Augustus divided the territory into provinces constituting Caesarean Mauretania, and, according to Pliny the Elder , Saldae (the ancient name of the city) was a Roman colony founded with the first annexations in 33 BC. Eight years later, he returned the province of the city to Juba II in compensation for his hereditary states. The city acquired

6120-525: The article wizard to submit a draft for review, or request a new article . Search for " Yemma Gouraya " in existing articles. Look for pages within Misplaced Pages that link to this title . Other reasons this message may be displayed: If a page was recently created here, it may not be visible yet because of a delay in updating the database; wait a few minutes or try the purge function . Titles on Misplaced Pages are case sensitive except for

6300-477: The monitor HMS Roberts was damaged. The following day, the anti-aircraft ship SS Tynwald was torpedoed and sank, while the transport Karanja was bombed and destroyed. On May 8, 1945, the repression led by the French colonial forces in Kherrata, where the navy was used for a naval bombardment of the coasts of the Béjaïa region, caused thousands of victims. During the Algerian War of Independence,

6480-472: The " Arabic numerals " and the algebraic notation. According to the versions, the inspiration for the Fibonacci sequence would be due to the observation of beekeepers and the reproduction of bees in the region or to a local mathematical problem concerning the reproduction of rabbits that he describes in his work Liber abaci . At that time the city had developed so much that, according to Leo Africanus , it

6660-468: The 17th-century German historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods: ancient, medieval, and modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is around 500, with the date of 476 first used by Bruni. Later starting dates are sometimes used in the outer parts of Europe. For Europe as a whole, 1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there

6840-478: The 5th and the 7th centuries, going first to England and Scotland and then on to the continent. Under such monks as Columba (d. 597) and Columbanus (d. 615), they founded monasteries, taught in Latin and Greek, and authored secular and religious works. The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of monasticism in the West. The shape of European monasticism was determined by traditions and ideas that originated with

7020-731: The 5th century. The Eastern Empire was marked by closer relations between the political state and Christian Church, with doctrinal matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe. Legal developments included the codification of Roman law ; the first effort—the Codex Theodosianus —was completed in 438. Under Emperor Justinian (r. 527–565), another compilation took place—the Corpus Juris Civilis . Justinian also oversaw

7200-641: The 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history . It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery . The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity , the medieval period, and the modern period . The medieval period

7380-685: The 6th and 7th centuries, all of them ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, who were descended from Clovis. The 7th century was a tumultuous period of wars between Austrasia and Neustria. Such warfare was exploited by Pippin (d. 640), the Mayor of the Palace for Austrasia who became the power behind the Austrasian throne. Later members of his family inherited the office, acting as advisers and regents. One of his descendants, Charles Martel (d. 741), won

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7560-633: The Almohads regained control of it. After the breakup of the Almohad Empire, Béjaïa returned to the orbit of the Hafsid Berbers of Tunis who became independent in June 1228. But in reality, due to the fragmentation and succession disputes, the emir or sultan of Béjaïa became independent from that of Tunis at the head of a real dissident kingdom over various periods, the last of which before

7740-588: The Arabs. The migrations and invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries disrupted trade networks around the Mediterranean. African goods stopped being imported into Europe, first disappearing from the interior and by the 7th century found only in a few cities such as Rome or Naples . By the end of the 7th century, under the impact of the Muslim conquests , African products were no longer found in Western Europe. The replacement of goods from long-range trade with local products

7920-536: The Bald received the western Frankish lands, comprising most of modern-day France. Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms between their descendants, eventually causing all internal cohesion to be lost. In 987 the Carolingian dynasty was replaced in the western lands, with the crowning of Hugh Capet (r. 987–996) as king. In the eastern lands the dynasty had died out earlier, in 911, with

8100-551: The Balkan Peninsula. The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in languages. Latin , the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by vernacular languages which evolved from Latin, but were distinct from it, collectively known as Romance languages . These changes from Latin to the new languages took many centuries. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but

8280-414: The Battle of Béjaïa (1555) with the help of the Kabyles of Koukou. The city was integrated into the State of the regency of Algiers and depended on the beylik of Constantine until 1830. The territorial division into three beyliks placed the city in a marginal position. The political dream of the Barbarossa to establish their capital in Béjaïa was abandoned; the regency was already established in Algiers, which

8460-474: The Battle of Poitiers in 732, halting the advance of Muslim armies across the Pyrenees. Great Britain was divided into small states dominated by the kingdoms of Northumbria , Mercia , Wessex , and East Anglia which descended from the Anglo-Saxon invaders. Smaller kingdoms in present-day Wales and Scotland were still under the control of the native Britons and Picts . Ireland was divided into even smaller political units, usually known as tribal kingdoms, under

8640-479: The Bougiote jurist Al Ghobrini who founded the Sultanate of Kuku . In Constantine it was Abou Bakr, brother of the former sultan, who proclaimed himself sultan over all of eastern Algeria. These various protagonists, rivals among themselves, each hoped to reconquer the city and unify its former dependencies. It was at this time that in a Maghreb where the old states were in decline that the Barbarossa brothers appeared, Greek corsairs converted to Islam who settled in

8820-459: The Byzantine Empire, as the assumption of the imperial title by the Carolingians asserted their equivalence to the Byzantine state. There were several differences between the newly established Carolingian Empire and both the older Western Roman Empire and the concurrent Byzantine Empire. The Frankish lands were rural in character, with only a few small cities. Most of the people were peasants settled on small farms. Little trade existed and much of that

9000-467: The Byzantine Empire, which he sealed with the marriage of his son Otto II (r. 967–983) to Theophanu (d. 991), daughter of an earlier Byzantine Emperor Romanos II (r. 959–963). By the late 10th century Italy had been drawn into the Ottonian sphere after a period of instability; Otto III (r. 996–1002) spent much of his later reign in the kingdom. The western Frankish kingdom was more fragmented, and although kings remained nominally in charge, much of

9180-462: The Christian period as nova (or "new"). Petrarch regarded the post-Roman centuries as " dark " compared to the "light" of classical antiquity . Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People (1442), with a middle period "between the fall of the Roman Empire and the revival of city life sometime in late eleventh and twelfth centuries". Tripartite periodisation became standard after

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9360-422: The Church had widened to the extent that the cultural and religious differences were greater than the similarities. The formal break, known as the East–West Schism , came in 1054, when the papacy and the patriarchy of Constantinople clashed over papal supremacy and excommunicated each other, which led to the division of Christianity into two Churches—the Western branch became the Roman Catholic Church and

9540-499: The Church had become music and art rather than the book. Most intellectual efforts went towards imitating classical scholarship, but some original works were created, along with now-lost oral compositions. The writings of Sidonius Apollinaris (d. 489), Cassiodorus (d. c.  585 ), and Boethius (d. c. 525) were typical of the age. Changes also took place among laymen, as aristocratic culture focused on great feasts held in halls rather than on literary pursuits. Clothing for

9720-448: The Dnieper River in modern Ukraine to the Adriatic Sea. By 1018, the last Bulgarian nobles had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire. Few large stone buildings were constructed between the Constantinian basilicas of the 4th century and the 8th century, although many smaller ones were built during the 6th and 7th centuries. By the beginning of the 8th century, the Carolingian Empire revived the basilica form of architecture. One feature of

9900-534: The Early Middle Ages are mostly illuminated manuscripts and carved ivories , originally made for metalwork that has since been melted down. Objects in precious metals were the most prestigious form of art, but almost all are lost except for a few crosses such as the Cross of Lothair , several reliquaries , and finds such as the Anglo-Saxon burial at Sutton Hoo and the hoards of Gourdon from Merovingian France, Guarrazar from Visigothic Spain and Nagyszentmiklós near Byzantine territory. There are survivals from

10080-411: The Eastern Mediterranean and remained a major power. The empire's law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or "Code of Justinian", was rediscovered in Northern Italy in the 11th century. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions. Monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks , under the Carolingian dynasty , briefly established

10260-455: The Eastern branch the Eastern Orthodox Church . The ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Empire survived the movements and invasions in the west mostly intact, but the papacy was little regarded, and few of the Western bishops looked to the bishop of Rome for religious or political leadership. Many of the popes prior to 750 were more concerned with Byzantine affairs and Eastern theological controversies. The register, or archived copies of

10440-427: The Eastern emperors to pay tribute. They remained a strong power until 796. An additional problem to face the empire came as a result of the involvement of Emperor Maurice (r. 582–602) in Persian politics when he intervened in a succession dispute . This led to a period of peace, but when Maurice was overthrown, the Persians invaded and during the reign of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641) controlled large chunks of

10620-405: The Emir An Nasir maintained regular correspondence with Pope Gregory VII and asked him to appoint a bishop for his city. The arrival of scholars made Béjaïa a leading city in the field of science; its influence extended beyond the Mediterranean and reached Europe. An Andalusian culture mixed with traditional oriental inspiration, secular sciences developed as did sacred sciences. Unlike the Qal'a in

10800-436: The European population remained rural peasants. Many were no longer settled in isolated farms but had gathered into small communities, usually known as manors or villages. These peasants were often subject to noble overlords and owed them rents and other services, in a system known as manorialism . There remained a few free peasants throughout this period and beyond, with more of them in the regions of Southern Europe than in

10980-441: The Frankish King Charles the Simple (r. 898–922) to settle in what became Normandy . The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual Magyar assault until the invader's defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. The breakup of the Abbasid dynasty meant that the Islamic world fragmented into smaller political states, some of which began expanding into Italy and Sicily, as well as over

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11160-466: The Franks and Celtic Britons set up small polities. Francia was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king of whom much is known is Childeric I (d. 481). His grave was discovered in 1653 and is remarkable for its grave goods , which included weapons and a large quantity of gold. Under Childeric's son Clovis I (r. 509–511), the founder of the Merovingian dynasty , the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. The Britons, related to

11340-425: The German tried to annex all of East Francia. Louis the Pious died in 840, with the empire still in chaos. A three-year civil war followed his death. By the Treaty of Verdun (843), a kingdom between the Rhine and Rhone rivers was created for Lothair to go with his lands in Italy, and his imperial title was recognised. Louis the German was in control of Bavaria and the eastern lands in modern-day Germany. Charles

11520-431: The Great (d. 526) and set up a kingdom marked by its co-operation between the Italians and the Ostrogoths, at least until the last years of Theodoric's reign. The Burgundians settled in Gaul, and after an earlier realm was destroyed by the Huns in 436, formed a new kingdom in the 440s. Between today's Geneva and Lyon , it grew to become the realm of Burgundy in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. Elsewhere in Gaul,

11700-410: The Hammadid sovereigns will make it the capital of the Central Maghreb and the Algerian madinat at tarikh (the city of history). An original political fact on the scale of the ancient Maghreb, it is a coastal capital. It becomes one of the main cultural and scientific centers of the western Mediterranean and an important commercial center for Europe. If the precise state of the Bougiotte merchant fleet

11880-433: The Hammadids. The city retained its strategic importance under the Almohads; it became a provincial capital. The caliph Abd el Mumin appointed a member of his own family as governor of the city, a testament to its strategic importance. The city's port housed the caliph's fleet and that of the Hammadids, which he had seized. In 1183, for a brief period, the Banu Ghaniya (remnants of the Almoravid dynasty ) seized Bejaia before

12060-438: The High Middle Ages. This period also saw the collapse of the unified Christian church, with the East-West Schism of 1054 . The Crusades , first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims . Kings became the heads of centralised nation-states , reducing crime and violence but making the ideal of a unified Christendom more distant. Intellectual life

12240-402: The Highlands, was under threat from raids by the Hilalian Arab nomads who, from the Middle East , had launched a second wave of Arab invasions into the Maghreb. He gave the city the name An Nasiriya , which it would struggle to keep in the face of its toponym Béjaïa, which was already well established in usage. As Ibn Khaldun reports, this is due to the fact that the toponym Bejaïa is linked to

12420-403: The Italian peninsula was conquered by the Ostrogoths . The Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart, had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories. The Byzantine emperors maintained a claim over the territory, but while none of the new kings in the west dared to elevate himself to the position of emperor of

12600-619: The Late Middle Ages and beginning the early modern period . The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history : classical civilisation or Antiquity , the Middle Ages and the Modern Period . The "Middle Ages" first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or "middle season". In early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum , or "middle age", first recorded in 1604, and media saecula , or "middle centuries", first recorded in 1625. The adjective "medieval" (or sometimes "mediaeval" or "mediæval"), meaning pertaining to

12780-421: The Lekhmis plain, following the influx of rural people, particularly from Kabylie. Béjaïa, like other cities in Soummam, was one of the centers of Berber identity claims during the Berber Spring of 1980; and in 2001, during the Black Spring. If it struggles to establish itself as the economic capital of Little Kabylia, it is undeniably the cultural capital of Kabylia, in competition with Tizi-Ouzou. The opening of

12960-614: The Lombards, which freed the papacy from the fear of Lombard conquest and marked the beginnings of the Papal States . The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 is regarded as a turning point in medieval history, marking a return of the Western Roman Empire, since the new emperor ruled over much of the area previously controlled by the Western emperors. It also marks a change in Charlemagne's relationship with

13140-405: The Mediterranean, pottery remained prevalent and appears to have been traded over medium-range networks, not just produced locally. The various Germanic states in the west all had coinages that imitated existing Roman and Byzantine forms. Gold continued to be minted until the end of the 7th century in 693-94 when it was replaced by silver in the Merovingian kingdom. The basic Frankish silver coin

13320-466: The Middle Ages, derives from medium aevum . Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the " Six Ages " or the " Four Empires ", and considered their time to be the last before the end of the world. When referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being "modern". In the 1330s, the Italian humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua (or "ancient") and to

13500-841: The Middle East than Europe, losing control of sections of the Muslim lands. Umayyad descendants took over the Iberian Peninsula, the Aghlabids controlled North Africa, and the Tulunids became rulers of Egypt. By the middle of the 8th century, new trading patterns were emerging in the Mediterranean; trade between the Franks and the Arabs replaced the old Roman economy . Franks traded timber, furs, swords and slaves in return for silks and other fabrics, spices, and precious metals from

13680-830: The Pyrenees into the southern parts of the Frankish kingdoms. Efforts by local kings to fight the invaders led to the formation of new political entities. In Anglo-Saxon England , King Alfred the Great (r. 871–899) came to an agreement with the Viking invaders in the late 9th century, resulting in Danish settlements in Northumbria, Mercia, and parts of East Anglia. By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had conquered Northumbria, and restored English control over most of

13860-676: The Rhine and eastwards, leaving Charles West Francia with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps. Louis the German (d. 876), the middle child, who had been rebellious to the last, was allowed to keep Bavaria under the suzerainty of his elder brother. The division was disputed. Pepin II of Aquitaine (d. after 864), the emperor's grandson, rebelled in a contest for Aquitaine , while Louis

14040-681: The Roman Empire into a more flexible form to fit the needs of the Church and government. By the reign of Charlemagne, the language had so diverged from the classical Latin that it was later called Medieval Latin . Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs, but was unable to do so as only one son, Louis the Pious (r. 814–840), was still alive by 813. Just before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned Louis as his successor. Louis's reign of 26 years

14220-443: The Romans and the invaders are often similar, and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects. Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was also based on Roman intellectual traditions. An important difference was the gradual loss of tax revenue by the new polities. Many of the new political entities no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rents. This meant there

14400-427: The Romans. Count Theodosius arrived with troops from Europe to put down the revolt; he had difficulty overcoming the insurgents. The Vandals in turn entered North Africa from Spain in 429. Led by Geneseric, they carried iron to all the coastal towns. They made Saldae the capital of their new states until 439 and the capture of Carthage. The struggles between the supporters of Arianism and those of Catholicism weakened

14580-602: The Soummam valley, Bouira, then Algiers to the west, or Bordj Bou Arreridj to the east. Others run through steeper terrain: national road 12 (Tizi Ouzou road), passing through the Yakouren forest and its mountains then Azazga , Tizi-Ouzou to Boumerdès , and national road 75 (Batna road), passing through Barbacha and the mountains of Petite Kabylie to reach Sétif and join the Highlands to Batna . A highway construction project

14760-768: The Spanish conquest extended over the entire 15th century, at which time it was called the "kingdom de Bougie " . Trade remained active with the Christian states and the city was one of the main reception points for Andalusian refugees fleeing the Reconquista . Like the tragic fate suffered at the turn of the 15th century by many caravanserais and several medieval cities of the Sahara and the Maghreb coast, sometimes radically, those characterized by an economy significantly linked to trans-Saharan-Mediterranean trade as well as by

14940-506: The Spanish garrison was increasingly reduced; it numbered 500 men in 1555. The former possessions of Béjaïa were fragmented, which hindered the reconquest of the city. In Kabylie, El Abbès, the son of the Sultan of Béjaïa, founded his principality around the Kalâa of Ait Abbès , taking part of the city's elites; on the west bank of the Soummam he was in competition with Belkadi, descendant of

15120-521: The Spanish. Béjaïa quickly became a strategic objective; the Barbarossa gradually ousted the Hafsids from Constantine and Annaba. Charles V used the city as a fallback after the disastrous 1541 expedition against Algiers. The Barbarossa would never achieve their goal of retaking Béjaïa during their lifetime. It was one of their successors, the beylerbey Salah Raïs, who finally entered the city after

15300-636: The Vandals went on to cross the strait of Gibraltar after which they conquered the province of Africa . In the 430s the Huns began invading the empire; their king Attila (r. 434–453) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451, and Italy in 452. The Hunnic threat remained until Attila's death in 453, when the Hunnic confederation he led fell apart. These invasions by the tribes completely changed

15480-455: The West were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented landholding patterns, but in other areas large contiguous blocks of land were the norm. These differences allowed for a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others having a great deal of autonomy. Land settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements that numbered as many as 700 inhabitants. Others lived in small groups of

15660-627: The Western Roman Empire. In the 7th century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire —came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate , an Islamic empire, after conquest by Muhammad's successors . Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire, Rome's direct continuation, survived in

15840-567: The acceptance of figurative monumental sculpture in Christian art , and by the end of the period near life-sized figures such as the Gero Cross were common in important churches. During the later Roman Empire, the principal military developments were attempts to create an effective cavalry force as well as the continued development of highly specialised types of troops. The creation of heavily armoured cataphract -type soldiers as cavalry

16020-467: The background by the Babors mountain range. Another advantage is that the city is the outlet of the Soummam valley , a geographical corridor facing southwest. However, since the time when the city was a capital, there has been a divorce between the city and the region ( Kabylia ) linked to the difficulty of securing a hinterland. On a macro-regional scale, the city has its back to the region: its position at

16200-518: The banks of the Nasava (Soummam) . From the 1st century, the revolt of Tacfarinas involved all the Numidian populations of the region; he invested the Soummam valley, took Tiklat and reached Saldae . He was finally pushed back by the proconsul Dollabella. In the 4th century, in the mountains near Saldae, Firmus gathered the " Quinquegentians " (current Kabyle tribes of Djurdjura) and led them against

16380-417: The basilica is the use of a transept , or the "arms" of a cross-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long nave . Other new features of religious architecture include the crossing tower and a monumental entrance to the church , usually at the west end of the building. Carolingian art was produced for a small group of figures around the court, and the monasteries and churches they supported. It

16560-464: The bay and developed the city's port and outer harbor. Urban planning work (development of the seafront and major roads) left its mark on its urban fabric. It gradually regains its role as an outlet for Kabylia, and as an export port for local agricultural products. Algerian inhabitants still maintain their coastal shipping activity. In 1906, the Cape Carbon lighthouse was built, it is the highest in

16740-564: The caliph of his movement and of a new state (the Almohads ), near Béjaïa around 1118. Mohammad Ibn Tumart preached a return to the sources of Islam from Mellala , a town located 10 km from Béjaïa. Years before, the Almohad guide was said to have been driven out by the people of Bejaia, whom he had strongly criticized for their morals. The political movement he founded was the basis of the Almohad Empire, which seized Bejaia in 1152 and deposed

16920-1428: The city in 2008 in the latest census was 177,988. The northern terminus of the Hassi Messaoud oil pipeline from the Sahara, Béjaïa is the principal oil port of the Western Mediterranean. Exports, aside from crude petroleum, include iron , phosphates , wines , dried figs , and plums . The city also has textile and cork industries. Yemma Gouraya Look for Yemma Gouraya on one of Misplaced Pages's sister projects : [REDACTED] Wiktionary (dictionary) [REDACTED] Wikibooks (textbooks) [REDACTED] Wikiquote (quotations) [REDACTED] Wikisource (library) [REDACTED] Wikiversity (learning resources) [REDACTED] Commons (media) [REDACTED] Wikivoyage (travel guide) [REDACTED] Wikinews (news source) [REDACTED] Wikidata (linked database) [REDACTED] Wikispecies (species directory) Misplaced Pages does not have an article with this exact name. Please search for Yemma Gouraya in Misplaced Pages to check for alternative titles or spellings. You need to log in or create an account and be autoconfirmed to create new articles. Alternatively, you can use

17100-407: The city of Byzantium as the newly renamed eastern capital, Constantinople . Diocletian's reforms strengthened the governmental bureaucracy, reformed taxation, and strengthened the army, which bought the empire time but did not resolve the problems it was facing: excessive taxation, a declining birthrate, and pressures on its frontiers, among others. Civil war between rival emperors became common in

17280-688: The city sees part of the trade escape it in its eastern and western areas of influence. he town is overlooked by the mountain Yemma Gouraya  [ fr ] . Other nearby scenic spots include the Aiguades beach and the Pic des Singes (Peak of the Monkeys); the latter site is a habitat for the endangered Barbary macaque , which prehistorically had a much broader distribution than at present. All three of these geographic features are located in

17460-523: The city was targeted by the English led by Édouard Sprague who bombarded it to stop the corsair attacks on their ships. During this entire period, the city was not maintained, and the descriptions of various travelers reflect the deterioration of the buildings and the lack of repair. Sidi M'hamed Amokrane, a marabout, son of the Sultan of Aït Abbas, Sidi Naceur Amokrane (or Mokrani), settled near Béjaïa around 1630, before going to Jijel. He moved his zaouïa from

17640-1488: The city. It was first called "Bejaia - Soummam Airport" between 1982 and 1999, named after the Soummam River which flows into the Mediterranean near Bejaia. It was inaugurated in 1982 for domestic flights and in 1993 for international flights. It was renamed " Bejaia - Soummam - Abane Ramdane Airport" in 1999, in homage to the Algerian politician who played a key role in the history of the Algerian War of Independence .   Numidia (202 BC-25 BC )   Mauretania (27 BC–44 AD)   Roman Empire (44–395)   Western Roman Empire (395–430s)   Vandal Kingdom (430s–534)   Byzantine Empire (534–674)   Umayyad Caliphate (674–685)   Byzantine Empire (685–698)   Umayyad Caliphate (698–700)   Jarawa (700–702)   Umayyad Caliphate (702–741)   Berbers (741–771)   Abbasid Caliphate (771–790s)   Aghlabids (790s–909)   Fatimid Caliphate (909–977)   Zirid dynasty (977–1014)   Hammadid dynasty (1014–1152)   Almohad Caliphate (1152–1232)   Hafsid dynasty (1232–1285) [REDACTED] Emirate of Béjaïa (1285–1510) [REDACTED] Hispanic Monarchy (1510–1555) [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire , regency of Algiers (1555–1833) [REDACTED] France , french Algeria (1833-1962) [REDACTED]   Algeria (1962–present) The presence of man

17820-599: The conquest of North Africa sundered maritime connections between those areas. Increasingly, the Byzantine Church differed in language, practices, and liturgy from the Western Church. The Eastern Church used Greek instead of the Western Latin. Theological and political differences emerged, and by the early and middle 8th century issues such as iconoclasm , clerical marriage , and state control of

18000-743: The construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and the reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals and Italy from the Ostrogoths, under Belisarius (d. 565). The conquest of Italy was not complete, as a deadly outbreak of plague in 542 led to the rest of Justinian's reign concentrating on defensive measures rather than further conquests. At the Emperor's death, the Byzantines had control of most of Italy , North Africa, and

18180-551: The control of kings. There were perhaps as many as 150 local kings in Ireland, of varying importance. The Carolingian dynasty , as the successors to Charles Martel are known, officially took control of the kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria in a coup of 753 led by Pippin III (r. 752–768). A contemporary chronicle claims that Pippin sought, and gained, authority for this coup from Pope Stephen II (pope 752–757). Pippin's takeover

18360-638: The conversion of the Moravians , Bulgars , Bohemians , Poles , Magyars, and Slavic inhabitants of the Kievan Rus' . These conversions contributed to the founding of political states in the lands of those peoples—the states of Moravia , Bulgaria , Bohemia , Poland , Hungary, and the Kievan Rus'. Bulgaria, which was founded around 680, at its height reached from Budapest to the Black Sea and from

18540-769: The death of Louis the Child , and the selection of the unrelated Conrad I (r. 911–918) as king. The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings , who also raided the British Isles and settled there as well as in Iceland. In 911, the Viking chieftain Rollo (d. c. 931) received permission from

18720-401: The death of Queen Isabella I of Castile in 1504, or the conquest of Granada in 1492. Historians from Romance-speaking countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: an earlier "High" and later "Low" period. English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the Middle Ages into three intervals: "Early", "High", and "Late". In the 19th century,

18900-691: The description given by the Andalusian geographer Al Bakri, before the policy of the Hammadids gave a decisive boost to the city. In the 10th century, the city was only a small fishing port. In 1067, the Berber sovereign of the Hammadid dynasty , An Nasir (1062-1088), ruling over the Central Maghreb, developed the city and made it his capital. Indeed, his first capital, the Qal'a of Banu Hammad , in

19080-578: The disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople on 9 August 378. In addition to the threat from such tribal confederacies in the north, internal divisions within the empire, especially within the Christian Church, caused problems. In 400, the Visigoths invaded the Western Roman Empire and, although briefly forced back from Italy, in 410 sacked the city of Rome . In 406

19260-442: The early Carolingian period, with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry. The use of militia-type levies of the free population declined over the Carolingian period. Although much of the Carolingian armies were mounted, a large proportion during the early period appear to have been mounted infantry , rather than true cavalry. One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies, known as

19440-531: The elites was richly embellished with jewels and gold. Lords and kings supported entourages of fighters who formed the backbone of the military forces. Family ties within the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour. These ties led to the prevalence of the feud in aristocratic society, examples of which included those related by Gregory of Tours that took place in Merovingian Gaul. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with

19620-591: The emergence of Islam in Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad (d. 632). After his death, Islamic forces conquered much of the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia, starting with Syria in 634–635, continuing with Persia between 637 and 642, reaching Egypt in 640–641, North Africa in the later seventh century, and the Iberian Peninsula in 711. By 714, Islamic forces controlled much of

19800-403: The empire than tax-payers. The Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) split the empire into separately administered eastern and western halves in 286; the empire was not considered divided by its inhabitants or rulers, as legal and administrative promulgations in one division were considered valid in the other. In 330, after a period of civil war, Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) refounded

19980-573: The empire to Christianity , a gradual process that lasted from the 2nd to the 5th centuries. In 376, the Goths , fleeing from the Huns , received permission from Emperor Valens (r. 364–378) to settle in the Roman province of Thracia in the Balkans . The settlement did not go smoothly, and when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Goths began to raid and plunder. Valens, attempting to put down

20160-447: The empire, including Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia until Heraclius' successful counterattack. In 628 the empire secured a peace treaty and recovered all of its lost territories. In Western Europe, some of the older Roman elite families died out while others became more involved with ecclesiastical than secular affairs. Values attached to Latin scholarship and education mostly disappeared, and while literacy remained important, it became

20340-486: The empire. Such movements were aided by the refusal of the Western Roman elites to support the army or pay the taxes that would have allowed the military to suppress the migration. The emperors of the 5th century were often controlled by military strongmen such as Stilicho (d. 408), Aetius (d. 454), Aspar (d. 471), Ricimer (d. 472), or Gundobad (d. 516), who were partly or fully of non-Roman background. When

20520-453: The end of the Soummam places it at the interface between Grande and Petite Kabylie . But these two groups are closed in on themselves and seek inland capitals ( Tizi Ouzou , Akbou , Kherrata , etc.) by turning away from the coast. The city has, in a way, weak local roots; the rural proximity of the city is limited to four or five communes. On a micro-regional scale, Béjaïa is the outlet of a central Algeria , going from Algiers to Skikda ,

20700-454: The entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the " Dark Ages ", but with the adoption of these subdivisions, use of this term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages, at least among historians. The Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent during the 2nd century AD; the following two centuries witnessed the slow decline of Roman control over its outlying territories. Economic issues, including inflation, and external pressure on

20880-635: The entire region; the Byzantines then found there a pretext and an opportunity to intervene. The city then fell under Byzantine domination, from the conquests of Belisarius in 533. The heavy Byzantine oppression also soon gave rise to the population's desire for revolt until the Arab conquest of North Africa . Seen by the Umayyad Arab conquerors who came from Kairouan, the mountains around Béjaïa were nicknamed el 'adua ("the enemy") to designate

21060-435: The executive power of Algiers, was often besieged during insurrectional conflicts between the various confederations of the region. During the great revolt of 1806, led by the sheriff Ben el Harche, the city was besieged without success. In 1823, the tribes of Bibans and Soummam seized the caid of the city. In 1825, the agha Yahia, commander of the troops from Algiers, invaded the city and launched operations of repression against

21240-430: The first character; please check alternative capitalizations and consider adding a redirect here to the correct title. If the page has been deleted, check the deletion log , and see Why was the page I created deleted? Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemma_Gouraya " Middle Ages In the history of Europe , the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from

21420-635: The frontiers combined to create the Crisis of the Third Century , with emperors coming to the throne only to be rapidly replaced by new usurpers. Military expenses increased steadily during the 3rd century, mainly in response to the war with the Sasanian Empire , which revived in the middle of the 3rd century. The army doubled in size, and cavalry and smaller units replaced the Roman legion as

21600-513: The hinterland, it is considered a cultural and "modern" city for its time; A "Berber city living in the oriental style", many illustrious scholars came from it or settled there throughout its medieval period: Al Madani (10th century), Ibn Hammad , Yahia Zwawi , Leonardo Fibonacci (12th century), Ramon Llull and Ibn Khaldoun (13th century). Scholars came to complete their training in the city as they did in Cairo , Tunis or Tlemcen . Hundreds of students, some of European origin, crowded into

21780-399: The imperial officials called missi dominici , who served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters. Charlemagne's court in Aachen was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes referred to as the " Carolingian Renaissance ". Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, as well as liturgical and scriptural studies. The English monk Alcuin (d. 804)

21960-415: The king of the united Austrasia and Neustria. Charles, more often known as Charles the Great or Charlemagne , embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion in 774 that unified a large portion of Europe, eventually controlling modern-day France, northern Italy, and Saxony . In the wars that lasted beyond 800, he rewarded allies with war booty and command over parcels of land. In 774, Charlemagne conquered

22140-500: The large brooches in fibula or penannular form that were a key piece of personal adornment for elites, including the Irish Tara Brooch . Highly decorated books were mostly Gospel Books and these have survived in larger numbers , including the Insular Book of Kells , the Book of Lindisfarne , and the imperial Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram , which is one of the few to retain its " treasure binding " of gold encrusted with jewels. Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for

22320-406: The last decisions of the colonial administration was to build an oil pipeline from Hassi Messaoud, with the city as a terminal depot and oil port. In 1959, Béjaïa was the most important oil port in Algeria, which was a source of income. In 1962, it was integrated into the wilaya of Sétif, before becoming the seat of its own wilaya in 1974. The city experienced a demographic boom, and an urbanization of

22500-415: The letters, of Pope Gregory the Great (pope 590–604) survived, and of those more than 850 letters, the vast majority were concerned with affairs in Italy or Constantinople. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where Gregory had sent the Gregorian mission in 597 to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Irish missionaries were most active in Western Europe between

22680-417: The line of Western emperors ceased, many of the kings who replaced them were from the same background. Intermarriage between the new kings and the Roman elites was common. This led to a fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes, including the popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than was common in the Roman state. Material artefacts left by

22860-517: The main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin classics were copied in monasteries in the Early Middle Ages. Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects, written by authors such as Bede (d. 735), a native of northern England who wrote in the late 7th and early 8th centuries. The Frankish kingdom in northern Gaul split into kingdoms called Austrasia , Neustria , and Burgundy during

23040-410: The main tactical unit. The need for revenue led to increased taxes and a decline in numbers of the curial , or landowning, class, and decreasing numbers of them willing to shoulder the burdens of holding office in their native towns. More bureaucrats were needed in the central administration to deal with the needs of the army, which led to complaints from civilians that there were more tax-collectors in

23220-503: The making of candles, gave the word "bougie" to French and the word "basane" to designate skins; lexical borrowing of the transcribed names of the city (respectively Bougie and Buzana). The city exported beeswax and skins in quantity, tannic barks for working leather (the iscorzia di Bugiea was famous in the 14th century), alum, cereals, raisins, wool and cotton from Biskra and M'sila , metals and pottery. The city also imported various goods such as metals, fabric, dyes and medicinal herbs. It

23400-401: The middle of the 4th century, diverting soldiers from the empire's frontier forces and allowing invaders to encroach. For much of the 4th century, Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier classical period , with a widening gulf between the rich and poor, and a decline in the vitality of the smaller towns. Another change was the Christianisation , or conversion of

23580-436: The migrations of the Slavs added Slavic languages to Eastern Europe. As Western Europe witnessed the formation of new kingdoms, the Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early 7th century. There were fewer invasions of the eastern section of the empire; most occurred in the Balkans. Peace with the Sasanian Empire , the traditional enemy of Rome, lasted throughout most of

23760-464: The military was the horseshoe , which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain. The High Middle Ages was a period of tremendous expansion of population . The estimated population of Europe grew from 35 to 80 million between 1000 and 1347, although the exact causes remain unclear: improved agricultural techniques, the decline of slaveholding, a more clement climate and the lack of invasion have all been suggested. As much as 90 per cent of

23940-462: The monuments of ancient Saldae were in ruins. Several hypotheses supported by local traditions explain this state: the city would have experienced 7 earthquakes or a similar number of enemy attacks. It seems established that in the 10th century, the city is in the hands of the Sanhadja Berbers, from whom came the Zirid and Hammadid dynasties which will reign over the Central Maghreb. It is then a town essentially populated by Andalusians, in accordance with

24120-420: The name Béjaïa would rather come from that of the tribe that inhabited the city: the "Bedjaïa". The three centuries that followed the conquest are obscure due to the lack of accounts of its situation; The city is part of the Aghlabid territory, then that of the Kutama-Fatimids where it knows a certain effervescence. It seems that when the Hammadid sovereign An Nasir founded his capital An Nasirya there, in 1067,

24300-498: The name of the Berber tribe populating this place. Before acquiring its status as capital, the city experienced remarkable dynamism, particularly on the cultural level; it was in fact the port at the crossroads of the Qal'a of Banu Hammad , and Al Andalus . Scholars and traders passed through it and it was the outlet of the triq sultan, the royal road from the High Plateaus to the Mediterranean and even an outlet for trans-Saharan trade . The Kalbids emirs of Sicily were inspired by

24480-429: The natives of Britannia  – modern-day Great Britain – settled in what is now Brittany . Other monarchies were established by the Visigothic Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula , the Suebi in northwestern Iberia, and the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa . In the sixth century, the Lombards settled in Northern Italy , replacing the Ostrogothic kingdom with a grouping of duchies that occasionally selected

24660-412: The neighboring city of Jijel . They joined the various attempts to retake the city from the Spanish thanks to their expertise in navigation. They eventually founded their own state around Algiers, based partly on corsair activity, and rapidly extended their influence over northern Algeria by gradually entering the Ottoman orbit and presenting themselves in the eyes of the population as direct competitors of

24840-455: The organization of the FLN and the ALN created for the first time a Kabyle administrative territory, the wilaya III; Béjaïa is part of this group. The Soummam congress, which is the political meeting of the FLN which sets the political-military line of the Algerian national movement in the war, takes place in Ouzellaguen, in the Bougiote hinterland. On the eve of the Algerian War in 1954, it had 30,000 inhabitants, including 6,200 Europeans. One of

25020-452: The other hand, heritage and culture are also an issue because they are threatened in the long term. The exceptional site also raises the environmental question and that of pollution linked to domestic and industrial activities. In the early 1990s, the increase in population combined with the lack of planning and the inadequacy of public policies degraded the living environment of the city, despite certain assets for its future. The population of

25200-415: The palaces of Bejaïa to establish those of Palermo . The city, more than a recognized or appreciated place, was a place of obligatory passage; It is a real crossroads on the road from Al Andalus to the East (especially for pilgrims going to Mecca ) but also from Europe to Africa. It is a place of meetings and exchanges of knowledge between local communities, from Europe and the East. The establishment of

25380-478: The payment of some sort of compensation . Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers of men, with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Merovingian Gaul. In Anglo-Saxon society the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by abbesses of monasteries. Only in Italy does it appear that women were always considered under

25560-467: The peninsula in a region they called Al-Andalus . The Islamic conquests reached their peak in the mid-eighth century. The defeat of Muslim forces at the Battle of Tours in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate and its replacement by the Abbasid Caliphate . The Abbasids moved their capital to Baghdad and were more concerned with

25740-408: The political and demographic nature of what had been the Western Roman Empire. By the end of the 5th century the western section of the empire was divided into smaller political units, ruled by the tribes that had invaded in the early part of the century. The deposition of the last emperor of the west, Romulus Augustulus , in 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire. By 493

25920-406: The political field has allowed the emergence of groups, associations, artistic and cultural events of all types. The University Center, by its presence, supports the movement and it is planned to install the Tamazight language institute in Béjaïa. This rapid expansion of the city is also a challenge in terms of urban planning; the city is indeed struggling to ensure a hinterland due to the relief. On

26100-532: The political power devolved to the local lords. Missionary efforts to Scandinavia during the 9th and 10th centuries helped strengthen the growth of kingdoms such as Sweden , Denmark , and Norway , which gained power and territory. Some kings converted to Christianity, although not all by 1000. Scandinavians also expanded and colonised throughout Europe. Besides the settlements in Ireland, England, and Normandy, further settlement took place in what became Russia and Iceland . Swedish traders and raiders ranged down

26280-419: The protection and control of a male relative. Peasant society is much less documented than the nobility. Most of the surviving information available to historians comes from archaeology ; few detailed written records documenting peasant life remain from before the 9th century. Most of the descriptions of the lower classes come from either law codes or writers from the upper classes. Landholding patterns in

26460-471: The region can range from 800 mm to 1,200 mm, but some local sources tend to be depleted due to increased demand. The city also draws its water resources from the mountainous hinterland and from various springs, such as that of Toudja , which was connected in ancient times by an aqueduct to the ancient city (Saldae). The city of Béjaïa is linked to Algiers, Tizi Ouzou , Bouira, Sétif, Jijel and several Kabyle localities by an important road network. It has

26640-423: The region's produce. In winter, this fleet is stationed on the beach of Dar senâa under the Casbah and is not refloated until spring. The goods exported are oil, wax, dried figs, and leather; fabrics and cereals are imported. These ships could transport wood for the karasta: the exploitation of wood for the shipbuilding of Algiers. Corsair activity continued during this period, particularly with that of Jijel. In 1671,

26820-470: The rivers of the Russian steppe, and even attempted to seize Constantinople in 860 and 907 . Christian Spain, initially driven into a small section of the peninsula in the north, expanded slowly south during the 9th and 10th centuries, establishing the kingdoms of Asturias and León . In Eastern Europe, Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor Basil I (r. 867–886) and his successors Leo VI (r. 886–912) and Constantine VII (r. 913–959), members of

27000-419: The same Berber root as other names of cities in the Maghreb, such as Dougga ( Thouga ) and Béja ( Vaga ) in Tunisia or Ksar Baghaï ( Bagaï ) in the Aurès . In medieval Romance languages , Bugaya (from Arabic Bugāya ; in Spanish Bujía and in Italian Bugía is the name given to the city that supplied a large quantity of beeswax for the manufacture of candles. Bougie will be

27180-530: The schools and mosques where theologians, jurists, philosophers and scholars taught. The main places of medieval knowledge were the Great Mosque, Madinat al-`Ilm (the City of Sciences), the Khizana Sultaniya and the Sidi Touati Institute. The jurist Al Ghobrini (1246-1314), qadi of the city, described the scholars of Béjaïa as "princes of science", among whom were Abu Madyan , Abd al-Haq al-Isbili , al-Qurashi and Abu Tamim Ben Gebara . These scholars met in audiences where they consulted on various subjects. There

27360-449: The slow infiltration of the Balkans by the Slavs added a further difficulty for Justinian's successors. It began gradually, but by the late 540s Slavic tribes were in Thrace and Illyrium , and had defeated an imperial army near Adrianople in 551. In the 560s the Avars began to expand from their base on the north bank of the Danube ; by the end of the 6th-century, they were the dominant power in Central Europe and routinely able to force

27540-430: The southern part of Great Britain. In northern Britain, Kenneth MacAlpin (d. c. 860) united the Picts and the Scots into the Kingdom of Alba . In the early 10th century, the Ottonian dynasty had established itself in Germany , and was engaged in driving back the Magyars. Its efforts culminated in the coronation in 962 of Otto I (r. 936–973) as Holy Roman Emperor . In 972, he secured recognition of his title by

27720-447: The spillway of the Highlands and a supply port for two million people. But the connection is complex: to the south-east, trade with Sétif is only possible through the steep gorges of Kherrata ; another route takes the Soummam, then to the east the Iron Gates and the climb towards Bordj Bou Arreridj, it is this route that is taken by the national road and the railway. These topographical constraints mean that, despite its strong dynamism,

27900-431: The square, particularly on the heights. The city took part in several uprisings and insurrections, such as that of the sheriff Boubaghla, and especially the great revolt of Sheikh El Mokrani and Sheikh Aheddad in 1871. At the time of the French conquest, the city was no more than a very modest town of around 2,000 inhabitants. The city was made a fully-fledged commune by decree of 17 June 1854. The French partially filled in

28080-476: The stubborn resistance they were the seat of. Information on this period is scattered, or contradictory; it seems that the city was conquered relatively late, around the year 708. An unlikely hypothesis would have it that the name Béjaïa comes from this period from the Arabic word بقاية ( Baqâyâ : "the remains, the survivors") because it would have served as a fallback for the Christian and Jewish populations of Constantine and Sétif. According to Ibn Khaldoun,

28260-427: The surrounding Berbers. The city could no longer serve as a relay for trade with the hinterland and Abu Bakr, Abdelaziz's brother and sultan, tried to retake the city in 1512 from his new capital, Constantine (using the Zianid siege system of the 14th century). The Spanish were content to control a perimeter forming a sort of triangle between Bordj Abdelkader, the Casbah and Bordj Moussa. The city outside these limits

28440-447: The towns chosen as capitals. Although there had been Jewish communities in many Roman cities , the Jews suffered periods of persecution after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. Officially they were tolerated, if subject to conversion efforts, and at times were even encouraged to settle in new areas. Religious beliefs in the Eastern Roman Empire and Iran were in flux during the late sixth and early seventh centuries. Judaism

28620-487: The tribes of Soummam. In 1830, the French launched the conquest of Algeria. At first, the expedition was directed against Algiers. But very soon, the invaders sought to occupy the entire country, in particular Kabylie against which several expeditions were directed. Béjaïa, which had come under the control of the Mezzaïa tribe after the fall of the dey of Algiers, suffered several incidents involving French and English ships. In 1831, two expeditions aimed at imposing as its caïd

28800-433: The village of Ama'dan to the city where the Turks charged him with running the karasta. At the time of Al Warthilani (1713 – 1779), the city seems to be in the hands of three important figures: the cadi, the caid and the descendant of the marabout Mokrani. The caids asked the marabouts to pass under the laânaya (protection) of the troops of Béjaïa until Algiers. Indeed, the city located in the heart of Kabylie, independent of

28980-430: The wake of the Reconquista , carried out raids on the ports of North Africa. The city was taken by the Spaniard Pedro Navarro in 1510 from Sultan Abdelaziz. The Spanish put an end to the "kingdom of Bougie" in the central Maghreb. They made the city one of their trading posts which was maintained thanks to relations with Pisa and Genoa . But their harshness caused the flight of the local population, and conflicts with

29160-514: The west, Byzantine control of most of the Western Empire could not be sustained; the reconquest of the Mediterranean periphery and the Italian Peninsula ( Gothic War ) in the reign of Justinian (r. 527–565) was the sole, and temporary, exception. The political structure of Western Europe changed with the end of the united Roman Empire. Although the movements of peoples during this period are usually described as "invasions", they were not just military expeditions but migrations of entire peoples into

29340-435: The world due to its natural location (altitude 220 meters) and it has a range of 33 miles. During World War II , Operation Torch landed forces in North Africa , including a battalion of the British Royal West Kent Regiment at Béjaïa on 11 November 1942. That same day, at 4:40 PM, a German Luftwaffe air raid struck Béjaïa with thirty Ju 88 bombers and torpedo planes. The transports Awatea and Cathay were sunk and

29520-406: Was a fortified port and in which many developments had been carried out. The only major institution maintained during this period was that of the dar senâa, the shipyards or arsenals of the city which supplied ships to the regency. T he city, with a Turkish caïd, is seen above all as a city that could potentially compete with Algiers and is surrounded by hostile mountains. The rise of a corsair fleet

29700-438: Was a trend throughout the old Roman lands that happened in the Early Middle Ages. This was especially marked in the lands that did not lie on the Mediterranean, such as northern Gaul or Britain. Non-local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods. In the northern parts of Europe, not only were the trade networks local, but the goods carried were simple, with little pottery or other complex products. Around

29880-523: Was also a naval base for the Hammadids, and the starting point for naval expeditions to the "country of Rum" (from which Sicily was three days' sailing). The Hammadid fleet  [ fr ] played an important role in the western Mediterranean; it slowed down European advances, particularly those of the Normans of Sicily in the 12th century. The Hammadids attracted scholars from all backgrounds and practiced an open policy, particularly towards Europe. Jews and Christians benefited from favorable conditions;

30060-402: Was an active proselytising faith, and at least one Arab political leader converted to it. In addition Jewish theologians wrote polemics defending their religion against Christian and Islamic influences. Christianity had active missions competing with the Persians' Zoroastrianism in seeking converts, especially among residents of the Arabian Peninsula . All these strands came together with

30240-438: Was an important feature of the 5th-century Roman military. The various invading tribes had differing emphases on types of soldiers—ranging from the primarily infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies. During the early invasion period, the stirrup had not been introduced into warfare, which limited the usefulness of cavalry as shock troops because it

30420-420: Was dominated by efforts to regain the dignity and classicism of imperial Roman and Byzantine art , but was also influenced by the Insular art of the British Isles. Insular art integrated the energy of Irish Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Germanic styles of ornament with Mediterranean forms such as the book, and established many characteristics of art for the rest of the medieval period. Surviving religious works from

30600-408: Was invited to Aachen and brought the education available in the monasteries of Northumbria. Charlemagne's chancery —or writing office—made use of a new script today known as Carolingian minuscule , allowing a common writing style that advanced communication across much of Europe. Charlemagne sponsored changes in church liturgy , imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as

30780-434: Was less need for large tax revenues and so the taxation systems decayed. Warfare was common between and within the kingdoms. Slavery declined as the supply weakened, and society became more rural. Between the 5th and 8th centuries, new peoples and individuals filled the political void left by Roman centralised government. The Ostrogoths , a Gothic tribe, settled in Roman Italy in the late fifth century under Theoderic

30960-436: Was marked by scholasticism , a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities . The theology of Thomas Aquinas , the paintings of Giotto , the poetry of Dante and Chaucer , the travels of Marco Polo , and the Gothic architecture of cathedrals such as Chartres are among the outstanding achievements toward the end of this period and into the Late Middle Ages. The Late Middle Ages

31140-470: Was marked by difficulties and calamities including famine, plague, and war, which significantly diminished the population of Europe; between 1347 and 1350, the Black Death killed about a third of Europeans. Controversy, heresy , and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the interstate conflict, civil strife, and peasant revolts that occurred in the kingdoms. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding

31320-439: Was marked by numerous divisions of the empire among his sons and, after 829, civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire. Eventually, Louis recognised his eldest son Lothair I (d. 855) as emperor and gave him Italy. Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and Charles the Bald (d. 877), his youngest son. Lothair took East Francia , comprising both banks of

31500-410: Was not defendable by the weak Spanish garrison and was ruined. The spirit of the Inquisition influenced local Spanish politics, the Jews were driven out of the city and the urban elites, including the scholars, fled. The scholarly tradition then moved massively to the zaouïas of the Kabyle hinterland, the manuscripts were also moved and dispersed. The population of the city was in free fall, and even

31680-496: Was not possible to put the full force of the horse and rider behind blows struck by the rider. The greatest change in military affairs during the invasion period was the adoption of the Hunnic composite bow in place of the earlier, and weaker, Scythian composite bow. Another development was the increasing use of longswords and the progressive replacement of scale armour by mail armour and lamellar armour . The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during

31860-406: Was populated by several tens of thousands of people from all over the Maghreb, the Levant, Europe and Asia. The indigenous population of the city was mainly composed of Berbers from the Kabyle hinterland and the large community of Andalusian refugees. The population estimate at that time is put at 100,000 inhabitants by Al Idrissi. Mohammad Ibn Tumart met Abd al-Mu'min , the one who would become

32040-442: Was reinforced with propaganda that portrayed the Merovingians as inept or cruel rulers, exalted the accomplishments of Charles Martel, and circulated stories of the family's great piety. At the time of his death in 768, Pippin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles (r. 768–814) and Carloman (r. 768–771). When Carloman died of natural causes, Charles blocked the succession of Carloman's young son and installed himself as

32220-417: Was the denarius or denier , while the Anglo-Saxon version was called a penny . From these areas, the denier or penny spread throughout Europe from 700 to 1000 AD. Copper or bronze coins were not struck, nor were gold except in Southern Europe. No silver coins denominated in multiple units were minted. Christianity was a major unifying factor between Eastern and Western Europe before the Arab conquests, but

32400-409: Was with the British Isles and Scandinavia, in contrast to the older Roman Empire with its trading networks centred on the Mediterranean. The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor, as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called counts , who administered the counties the empire had been divided into. Clergy and local bishops served as officials, as well as

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