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129-630: The use of dry docks in China goes at least as far back as the 10th century A.D. In 1088, Song dynasty scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095) wrote in his Dream Pool Essays : At the beginning of the dynasty (c. +965) the two Che provinces (now Chekiang and southern Chiangsu) presented (to the throne) two dragon ships each more than 200 ft. in length. The upper works included several decks with palatial cabins and saloons, containing thrones and couches all ready for imperial tours of inspection. After many years, their hulls decayed and needed repairs, but

258-465: A Phoenician devised a new method of launching it (the Tessarakonteres ), having dug a trench under it, equal to the ship itself in length, which he dug close to the harbour. And in the trench he built props of solid stone five cubits deep, and across them he laid beams crosswise, running the laces whole width of the trench, at four cubits' distance from one another; and then making a channel from

387-433: A college for boys), Sainte-Therese (historically a college for girls). The high schools educate 6,000 pupils into 11 lycées, with the mainstream education and technical school Aristide Briand having some 2,500 pupils, one of the largest lycée of France; an experimental lycée, public lycée managed jointly by the teachers and the pupils; the private lycée of Saint-Louis mainstream education; the hotel private lycée Sainte-Anne;

516-519: A constant target of Allied air forces, in the face of determined Luftwaffe fighter opposition to raids by United States Army Air Forces Eighth Air Force bombers. On 3 January 1943 Colonel Curtis LeMay led 85 Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses of the 1st Bombardment Wing against the U-boat pens at Saint-Nazaire, on the Eighth Air Force's sixth raid against the facility. LeMay also introduced

645-794: A decade, GERD stabilized at 2.07% of GDP in 2015. China devoted 5.1% of total research spending to basic research in 2015, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. This is up from 4.8%, on average, over the past decade, but less than in 2004 (6.0%). The prolonged policy focus on experimental development has resulted in enterprises contributing three-quarters of Chinese research spending (77% of total expenditure on R&D in 2015). Enterprises focus on experimental development, which accounted for as much as 97% of their total research expenditure by 2015. Business enterprises contributed 60% of GERD in 2000 and 74% in 2008. In 2004, 74% of GERD went on experimental development. China aims to increase

774-414: A dock for a vessel of such a size might have had a volume of 750,000 gallons of water. Before the 15th century, when the hull below the waterline needed attention, careening was practised: at high tide the vessel was floated over a beach of hard sand and allowed to rest on one side when the tide receded. An account of 1434 described how a site near Southampton with a bottom of soft mud was selected for

903-568: A drydock and towed to their final place on the seabed. A dry dock may also be used for the prefabrication of the elements of an immersed tube tunnel, before they are floated into position, as was done with Boston's Silver Line . Science and technology in China#Ancient and imperial China Science and technology in China have developed rapidly since the 1980s to the 2020s, with major scientific and technological progress over

1032-466: A few localities, and poorly judged bureaucratic subsidizing of technologies that soon become out-dated. As of 2010, China's national R&D programmes encompassed the: The major national programs received 15-20% of government R&D spending in 2010. They funded research, after a stated competitive proposal procedure, in universities, institutes, and enterprise. Important project may receive funding from several programs. The programs have arguably had

1161-410: A high cost. A floating dry dock is a type of pontoon for dry docking ships, possessing floodable buoyancy chambers and a U-shaped cross-section. The walls are used to give the dry dock stability when the floor or deck is below the surface of the water. When valves are opened, the chambers fill with water, causing the dry dock to float lower in the water. The deck becomes submerged and this allows

1290-422: A higher status occupation. Also, industrialized Shanghai which has done important educational reforms may not be representative for the rest of China. While there was no evidence of cheating or technical problems with the testing, Shanghai attracts many immigrants from the rest of China may have allowed particularly good students to study in the city. The OECD director of the testing, Andreas Schleicher , said that

1419-618: A major harbour on the right bank of the Loire estuary , near the Atlantic Ocean. The town is at the south of the second-largest swamp in France, called "la Brière ". Given its location, Saint-Nazaire has a long tradition of fishing and shipbuilding . The Chantiers de l'Atlantique , one of the largest shipyards in the world, constructed notable ocean liners such as SS  Normandie , SS  France , RMS  Queen Mary 2 and

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1548-645: A major submarine base for the Kriegsmarine , Saint-Nazaire was subject to a successful British raid in 1942 and was heavily bombed by the Allies until 1945. Being one of the Atlantic pockets , Saint-Nazaire was one of the last territories in Europe to be liberated from German occupation, on 11 May 1945. The town was one of the most damaged in France during World War II . Archaeologists believe that Saint-Nazaire

1677-546: A memo to General John Pershing offering a compromise: American medical authorities would control designated brothels operated solely for American soldiers. Pershing passed the proposal to Raymond Fosdick , who on giving it to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker promptly responded: "For God's sake, Raymond, don't show this to the president or he'll stop the war." Only after the signing of the Armistice in November 1918, when

1806-632: A miracle, was deterred and the village thenceforth took the name of Sanctus Nazarius de Sinuario. After this point, the history of Saint-Nazaire, like much of Europe during the Dark Ages, is not well documented. Battles occurred, such as in 1380 when Jehan d'Ust defended the city in the name of John V, Duke of Brittany (known in France as Jean IV) against the Castilian fleet during the Hundred Years' War . After this time, Saint-Nazaire became

1935-732: A number of ropes attached to the superstructure. The Saint-Nazaire 's Chantiers de l'Atlantique owns one of the biggest in the world: 1,200 by 60 metres (3,940 ft × 200 ft). The Alfredo da Silva Dry Dock in Almada , Portugal , was closed in 2000. The largest roofed dry dock is at the German Meyer Werft Shipyard in Papenburg , Germany , it is 504 m long, 125 m wide and stands 75 m tall. Harland and Wolff Heavy Industries in Belfast , Northern Ireland ,

2064-540: A population of over 100 million. In 2024, China is still ranked 11th. China was a global scientific and technological leader up until the early years of the Ming dynasty . Ancient and medieval Chinese discoveries and Chinese innovations such as papermaking , printing , the compass , and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions ) contributed to the economic development of ancient and medieval East Asia,

2193-555: A roof, to prevent spy satellites from taking pictures of the dry dock and any vessels that may be in it. During World War II , the German Kriegsmarine used fortified dry docks to protect its submarines from Allied air raids (see submarine pen ). An advantage of covered dry docks is that work can take place in any weather; this is frequently used by modern shipyards for construction especially of complex, high-value vessels like cruise ships, where delays would incur

2322-667: A series of central government initiatives designed to promote "indigenous innovation" and technological development more generally in China. These include the National Medium- and Long-Term Program for Science and Technology Development (2006–20), the Strategic Emerging Industries initiative, the Internet Plus initiative, and the Made in China 2025 Program, among others. Through these initiatives,

2451-460: A ship to be moved into position inside. When the water is pumped out of the chambers, the dry dock rises and the ship is lifted out of the water on the rising deck, allowing work to proceed on the ship's hull. A large floating dry dock involves multiple rectangular sections. These sections can be combined to handle ships of various lengths, and the sections themselves can come in different dimensions. Each section contains its own equipment for emptying

2580-490: A similar role to CAS for social sciences and philosophy. There are also many more narrow academies such as the Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences . The National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) gives grants to individual researchers after peer-review . The People's Liberation Army General Armaments Department directs military R&D. The national scientific and academic organizations affiliated to

2709-475: A small Italian book printed in Venice in 1560, called Descrittione dell'artifitiosa machina . In the booklet, an unknown author asks for the privilege of using a new method for the salvaging of a grounded ship and then proceeds to describe and illustrate his approach. The included woodcut shows a ship flanked by two large floating trestles, forming a roof above the vessel. The ship is pulled in an upright position by

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2838-540: A strong effect but have also been involved in scandals, corruption and fraud. They have been accused mainly of producing derivative works rather than driving innovation and it has been claimed that they ignore merit in selecting projects in favor of cronyism . China is trying to improve its efficiency through measures such as more peer-review and evaluations. In 2014, the China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund

2967-409: A temporary revetted bank of rock and clay that had to be dug away by hand (an operation taking typically 29 days, working night and day to accord with the tides) to allow the passage of a ship. Emptying was by a pump, possibly in the form of a bucket-chain powered by horses. This dry dock currently holds First World War monitor HMS M33 . Possibly the earliest description of a floating dock comes from

3096-610: Is a covered, floating drydock that is also submersible to support the secret transfer of a mechanical lifting device underneath the Glomar Explorer ship, as well as the development of the Sea Shadow stealth ship . The Great Balance Dock , built in New York City in 1854, was the largest floating drydock in the world when it was launched. It was 325 feet (99 m) long and could lift 8,000 tons, accommodating

3225-747: Is an alliance of nine elite Chinese universities which receive a high amount of national research funding and produce a large share of national research output. Chinese universities contribute an unusually large share of patents. The universities receive about half of R&D money from private enterprises. Eight out of nine members of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) have engineering degrees, including CCP general secretary Hu Jintao . 2.25 million students have studied abroad since 1978. 340,000 were studying abroad in 2011 which

3354-434: Is believed to be the imperial examination system, which deprived the incentives that encouraged up-and-coming Chinese intellectuals to actively engage in scientific and technological endeavors. The absence of motivating factors rooted in the imperial examinations stifled the development of scientific and technological innovation and resulted in a stagnation of Chinese scientific and technological creativity and development over

3483-584: Is built upon the remnants of Corbilo , an Armorican Gaulish city populated by the Namnetes tribe, which (according to the Greek navigator Pytheas ) was the second-largest Gaulish city, after Massilia (now Marseille ). Archeology suggests that the area has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic period, as evidenced by the presence of monuments like the tumulus of Dissignac , the dolmen located in

3612-496: Is greatly respected and feared has been argued to stifle creative debate. China in a 2006 report outlined policies for improving innovation. They include 20 large megaprojects in areas such as nanotechnology, high-end generic microchips, aircraft, biotechnology, and new drugs. This is combined with a more bottom-up approach on a Silicon Valley model consisting of small start-ups, venture capital , and cooperation between industry and universities. It has also been argued that China

3741-830: Is however relatively variable from one year to the next. The sunshine is 1,892 hours a year. Saint-Nazaire receives mainly southwestern sector winds related to the Atlantic depressions and northeastern sector winds when the weather is more stable. The annual average wind of 4.5 m / s and there are 60 days per year of strong wind. The primary schools of Saint-Nazaire (Carnot, Jean-Jaurès, Lamartine, Jules Ferry, Ferdinand Bush, Boncourt, etc.) educate nearly 8,000 pupils in 30 school complexes. The junior schools have nearly 7,000 pupils in 12 colleges: public colleges Albert Vinçon; Pierre Norange; Manon Roland; Jean de Neyman; Jean Moulin, accommodate around 1,350 pupils each. Private colleges include: Saint-Louis (1,000 pupils, boarding school; historically

3870-677: Is still low compared to major developed nations like the United States and Japan but the gap is rapidly closing. The number of doctorate awards in science and engineering have increased tenfold since the early 1990s. The number of students in general at universities increased from 1 million to 5.4 million during the 1998-2007 period. In 2009 alone, China produced over 10,000 PhD engineering graduates, and as many as 500,000 BSc graduates in engineering, mathematics, information technology, and computer science – more than any other country. The C9 League , pitched as China's Ivy League ,

3999-706: Is the case for other diasporas and their homelands, have played a substantial role in contributing to China's scientific and technological development. The Chinese diaspora have been seen as a key conduit for channelling and facilitating expertise, investment, trade, and modern technology transfers to the country through their engagement in both commercial activities and public non-profit cooperation. By using 'Brain Gain' to attract highly educated overseas Chinese to return to China to work, China has made significant improvements in its innovation ecosystem although there are some limitations to how sustainable this technique may be. One of

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4128-459: Is the most prestigious professional science organization in China with China's scientific elite being members. It directs many research institutes, research programs, graduate training programs, and gives influential advice. The Chinese Academy of Engineering (CAE) gives important advice but unlike the CAS does not have research institutes of its own. The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) has

4257-608: Is the site of a large dry dock 556 by 93 metres (1,824 ft × 305 ft). The massive cranes are named after the Biblical figures Samson and Goliath . Dry Dock 12 at Newport News Shipbuilding at 662 by 76 metres (2,172 ft × 249 ft) is the largest dry dock in the United States. The largest floating-dock in North America is named The Vigorous. It is operated by Vigor Industries in Portland, OR, in

4386-577: Is the world leader in making small, innovative improvements to existing designs. One example is continual improvements to the design of power supplies making them gradually smaller, less expensive, and more energy efficient. This may not create completely new products or create headlines but may be more important for creating employment. A 2016 NBER paper found that the Chinese economy is becoming increasingly innovative. The study found that rising labor costs in China and "expanded market opportunities in

4515-520: The Area bombing directive . To minimize civilian casualties during air attacks, the Allies devised a plan to force an evacuation of the town. For three days in 1943, British Royal Air Force and American aircraft dropped scores of leaflets warning the population of a planned fire-bombing raid. At the end of the third day, the raid came and burned the entire city to the ground. Casualties were light as most of

4644-946: The China Association for Science and Technology are also important forces in scientific and technological research. The Society of Chinese Scientific Journalism presides over the Society of Chinese Technical Communication, China's first government approved technical communication association. Since 2002, the group has held annual conferences. Research is carried out by governmental research institutes, in higher learning institutions, and by private enterprises. Local governments have become increasingly important in R&;D funding and may now contribute up to half of government spending. Intense rivalry for research and high-tech industry has been argued to sometimes create wasteful subsidized overcapacity, dispersal of efforts better centralized in

4773-507: The Clyde -built cruise liner, later converted to troopship, RMS  Lancastria , which was attacked and sunk by German Junkers Ju 88 bombers, mainly from Kampfgeschwader 30 , taking with her around 4,000 victims. This is the worst disaster in British maritime history and the worst loss of life for British forces in the whole of World War II. Winston Churchill banned all news coverage of

4902-505: The Han dynasty , Confucian philosophers held a strong focus by placing an overemphasis on literature, the arts, and public administration, while scientific and technological pursuits were looked down upon in terms of prestige and respectability and regarded to be unworthy endeavors that were fell far beneath their social pay grade as such domains of inquiry were seen as trivial or restricted to limited practical applications. One contributing factor

5031-687: The International Mathematical Olympiad , the International Physics Olympiad and the International Chemistry Olympiad . China's rank based on number of Gold Medals in last 10 years(2014-2023): China has become one of the world's biggest sources for research and development personnel. Between 2000 and 2008, the number of engineers and scientists more than doubled to 1.59 million. Relative to population size this

5160-534: The National Defense at Saint-Nazaire, and marched out with his contingent, though they saw no active service due to lack of ammunition (their private store having been commandeered by the state). In 1873, he moved to the bar of Rennes , following the establishment of the Third Republic in 1871. On 30 March 1894, a strike occurred at the forging mills of Trignac in opposition to a reduction of

5289-660: The National Natural Science Foundation of China participated in many cooperative international organizations. Chinese researchers held 281 leading posts on international organizations' expert committees and held 293 executive member-director or higher level positions. In the early 1980s foreign companies began transferring technology by licensing agreements and sales of equipment. Later in the 1980s many multinational corporations started transferring technology by entering into joint ventures with Chinese companies in order to expand in China. China in

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5418-727: The Pont de Saint-Nazaire , which crosses the Loire. Paris is then accessed via the A10/A11 in Nantes. Valves, Lorient, Quimper and Brest are accessed via the N165. A project to review a second crossing of the Loire between Nantes and Saint Nazaire is being considered, planned to be constructed and operational by 2025. Saint-Nazaire railway station is served by both the TGV and regional trains and buses of

5547-748: The Self-Strengthening Movement . After the Communist victory in 1949 science and technology research was organized based on the model of the Soviet Union . It was characterized by a bureaucratic organization led by non-scientists, research according to the goals of central plans, separation of research from production, specialized research institutes, concentration on practical applications, and restrictions on information flows. Researchers should work as collectives for society rather than as individuals seeking recognition. Many studied in

5676-527: The TER Pays de la Loire . TGV (high speed train) connection to Paris, Lyon , Marseille , Lille , and Strasbourg , with trains to Paris via the LGV Atlantique taking just over 2 hours. TER Pays de la Loire provides links to Nantes , Angers , Le Mans , La Roche sur Yon , and other regional cities and towns. Saint-Nazaire airport is located 5 km (3 mi) south-east of Saint-Nazaire, in

5805-481: The ballast and to provide the required services, and the addition of a bow section can facilitate the towing of the dry dock once assembled. For smaller boats, one-piece floating dry docks can be constructed or converted out of an existing obsolete barge, potentially coming with their own bow and steering mechanism. Shipyards operate floating dry docks as one method for hauling or docking vessels. Floating drydocks are important in locations where porous ground prevents

5934-459: The combat box defensive formation, echeloning three-plane elements within a squadron , and squadrons within a group, to concentrate defensive firepower against fighter opposition. Only 76 aircraft found and hit the target, and during the mission seven bombers were shot down and 47 damaged. As a result of the raid, on 14 January 1943 under directive (S.46239/?? A.C.A.S. Ops), the Allies implemented incendiary bomb tactics against U-boat pens, under

6063-527: The commune of Montoir-de-Bretagne . It has an annual capacity of approximately 150,000 passengers, and is the operational and maintenance base for Eagle Aviation France . International travel is via Nantes Atlantique Airport , the biggest airport in western France, linking with several French and European cities as well as Montreal in Canada (seasonally) and some cities in North Africa. A new airport

6192-583: The mass media , should actively promote respect for knowledge and human talents. Since the 1990s, China has concentrated on building physical infrastructure such as roads and ports. During the 2010s, a policy was implemented requiring technology transfer as a condition for foreign companies wanting entry into the Chinese market. However, China has shifted its growing focus towards prioritizing indigenous innovation to meet its national scientific and technological requirements. During this period China has succeeded in developing an innovation infrastructure, founded on

6321-584: The sinking of Bismarck , the need for the Allies to take the Joubert dry dock out of operation was increased. On 28 March 1942, a force of 611 British Commandos and the Royal Navy launched the St Nazaire Raid against the shipyards of Saint-Nazaire, codenamed Operation Chariot . An obsolete American-built destroyer HMS  Campbeltown was used as a ram-ship loaded with explosives. It and

6450-562: The 1,000-foot AFDB-1 and the 850-foot AFDB-3 . The latter, an Advance Base Sectional Dock which saw action in Guam , was mothballed near Norfolk , Virginia , and was eventually towed to Portland , Maine , to become part of Bath Iron Works ' repair facilities. A downside of floating dry docks is that unscheduled sinkings and off-design dives may take place, as with the Russian dock PD-50 in 2018. The " Hughes Mining Barge ", or HMB-1,

6579-811: The 1990s introduced increasingly sophisticated regulations of foreign investment by which access to the Chinese market was traded for technology transfer. The entry of China into the World Trade Organization in 2001 required this practice stop but critics argue that it continues. Chinese critics have argued such technology transfer may be useful for catching up but does not create new, cutting-edge technologies. China has increasingly encouraged multinational corporations to create R&D centers in China. Chinese critics have argued that foreign owned R&D mainly benefits foreign companies and removes many talented Chinese researchers from indigenous companies and institutions. Chinese supporters have argued that

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6708-557: The Breton language in the Loire region is Donges , to the east of Saint-Nazaire. According to the late-6th-century writer Gregory of Tours , the Roman Church sheltered the remains of the martyr Nazarius in a local basilica. According to legend, the Breton chief Waroch II sent an emissary to seize these relics. The plot was foiled when the emissary fractured his skull upon the lintel of the church door. Waroch, interpreting this as

6837-573: The Chinese government are seen as crucial foundations for bolstering the nation's socioeconomic competitiveness and development, projecting its geopolitical influence, and elevating its national prestige and international reputation. As per the Global Innovation Index in 2022, China was considered one of the most competitive in the world, ranking eleventh in the world, third in the Asia & Oceania region, and second for countries with

6966-450: The Chinese market as well as it being essential for maintaining global competitiveness to make use the many available Chinese engineers and scientists. China is now ranked first when multinational corporations are asked in which nation future R&D centers are most likely to be located. A 2005 report found serious shortcomings to China's national innovation system. There were problems with services to help turn S&T work into results and

7095-432: The Chinese state has intervened in the economy in a variety of ways to promote national technological development and reduce reliance on other countries. Prioritized industries and firms are protected and guided. There are systematic efforts to replace foreign technology and intellectual properties with indigenous technology. Foreign companies are given many incentives for technology transfer and for moving R&D to China. At

7224-539: The Commandos succeeded in destroying the gates and machinery of the Joubert drydock, preventing its further use by the Germans during the war. Of the 600+ navy and commando personnel, 220 returned, half were wounded. Five Victoria Crosses and 69 other decorations were awarded. The Joubert dry dock was not brought back into operation until 1948. The U-boat threat to supply convoys across the Atlantic made Saint-Nazaire

7353-540: The Germans could no longer conduct major submarine operations from the bases without a supply line, the SHAEF commander, U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower decided to simply bypass these ports, and the Allied armies focused their resources on the invasion of Germany. Saint-Nazaire and the other two German "pockets" remained under German control until after the last day of the war in Europe, 8 May 1945. The town of St. Nazaire

7482-580: The Guérande peninsula. The eastern part of the town is on the alluvial terrain between the Brière and the Loire estuary. The western part, more extensive, corresponds to the extension of the hillside of Guérande: the relief is hilly and of higher altitude, where one finds a granite and metamorphic base. Geologically, Saint-Nazaire is located in the Armorican massif. In close proximity to the Atlantic Ocean,

7611-606: The Middle East and Europe. Chinese scientific activity began to neuter and wane around the fourteenth century. Unlike in Europe and other parts of the Western World , Western engineers and scientists did not attempt to reduce observations of nature to mathematical laws and nor did they not form a scholarly community with criticisms and progressive research. In the Chinese Confucian cultural ethos dating back to

7740-699: The People's Republic of China oversees education as well as research institutes at universities. Several other ministries such as the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of the People's Republic of China , the Ministry of Health of the People's Republic of China , and the Ministry of Agriculture of the People's Republic of China are also involved in S&;T. The National Planning Office of Philosophy and Social Sciences directs planning for social sciences and philosophy. The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)

7869-500: The Saint-Nazaire casino went bankrupt and was resold to the town of Nantes: the site was redeveloped in 1935 as the first home of the current Saint-Louis school. As a result of the national general strike of June 1936, to ensure completion of the nationally prestigious project SS Normandie , the government nationalised the various private shipyards into one state-owned entity, the 1861-founded Chantiers de l'Atlantique . After

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7998-409: The Soviet Union which also transferred technology. China began a formal computing development program in 1956 when it launched the Twelve-Year Science Plan and formed the Beijing Institute of Computing Technology under the Chinese Academy of Sciences . Beginning in 1964, China through the Third Front construction built a self-sufficient industrial base in its hinterlands as a strategic reserve in

8127-411: The Swan Island industrial area along the Willamette River. A graving dock is the traditional form of dry dock. It is a narrow basin, usually made of earthen berms and concrete, closed by gates or a caisson . A vessel is floated in with the gates open, then the gates are closed and the water is pumped out, leaving the craft supported on blocks. The keel blocks as well as the bilge block are placed on

8256-545: The Third Front region gradually declined. Rapprochement between the United States and China decreased the fear of invasion which motivated the Third Front construction. Through its distribution of infrastructure, industry, and human capital around the country, the Third Front created favorable conditions for subsequent market development and private enterprise. The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), which sought to remove perceived bourgeois influences and attitudes, caused large negative effects and disruptions. Construction of

8385-418: The Third Front slowed during its early stages. Among other measures it saw the scientific community and formal education attacked, intellectuals were sent to do manual labor, universities and academic journals were closed, most research ceased, and for nearly a decade China trained no new scientists and engineers. In 1966, China transitioned from vacuum-tube computers to fully transistorized computers . In

8514-401: The U-boat pens. Tours of the submarine are available to the public. After the construction of SS  France in 1961, the last Compagnie Générale Transatlantique liner and the subsequent closure of the Suez Canal , Chantiers de l'Atlantique began building large oil tankers, including Batillus , Bellamya , Pierre Guillaumat and Prairial . A new dry dock (Basin C) was planned for

8643-427: The United States Army could no longer plead military necessity as grounds for curtailing leave, did venereal disease rates among United States Army troops rise quickly. The post-war period brought about a period of economic depression for the shipbuilders, who consequently diversified into building seaplanes from 1922. In 1926 the district of Paimbœuf was merged with the district of Saint-Nazaire, thus reinforcing

8772-633: The United States due to visa restrictions, fear of lack of job opportunities, and belief that US growth will lag behind average world growth rates. 52% believed that the best job opportunities were in China which was in marked contrast with earlier surveys. 74% felt that the best days of China's economy was coming. 68% intended to start businesses. When they return, foreign educated students often provide crucial science and technology knowledge, management skills, and innovation abilities for scientific research and industry. The senior management in high-tech companies are often foreign educated. Overseas Chinese , as

8901-408: The West". In 1802, a road was built to develop the port, which extended by 1835 to a breakwater with a navigational lighthouse at its end. The development included new basins for ships to unload to barges that carried goods further up the river. This development moved the town into the area of the city which is now called the district of "Little Morocco". This development made the town the base for

9030-549: The allocation of national funding to support S&T was far from optimal. Sometimes researchers became short-sighted if they get too close to the market. Another serious problem was that companies facing severe competition looked first to purchase foreign technology rather than investing in developing technology and technology development capacity at home in China. Many of the patent applications came from medium-sized enterprises (70%) since small enterprises invest little in research. China's hierarchical, top-down society where authority

9159-449: The centre of the present-day city, and ancient bronzes found in the vicinity. According to the 15th-century chronicler Alain Bouchart , Brutus of Troy , the mythical ancestor of the Bretons, travelled to Saint-Nazaire to set foot upon the new homeland of his people. Historical accounts note that at the end of the Roman Empire , some Britons colonized the Loire estuary and later the peninsula containing Guérande . The farthest extent of

9288-504: The city became an important debarkment port of Allied troops, particularly in the latter stages for the United States Army . When they entered the war in 1917, they developed the town and port infrastructure, by adding additional drinking water storage ponds for the town's water treatment plants, and a refrigeration terminal to the docks for shipment and storage of meat and dairy products to supply their troops. However,

9417-489: The civilians had heeded the warning and fled to the safety of the countryside but after that point, except for the self-contained U-boat base, Saint-Nazaire remained abandoned until the end of the war. After D-day and the liberation of most of France in 1944, German troops in Saint-Nazaire's submarine base refused to surrender, and they holed up (as did their counterparts in the La Rochelle and Lorient bases). Since

9546-531: The climate of Saint-Nazaire is, as with the rest of the Loire-Atlantique, of temperate oceanic type, with Cfb designation in Köppen climate classification . This climate is very much influenced by the Loire estuary. The winters are mild, and summer is warm. Snowfall is rare, but rain is frequent (116 days a year with precipitation) but not very intense, the annual rainfall being 789 mm. Precipitation

9675-455: The coming decades. It described S&T as the chief productive force and affecting economic development, social progress, national strength, and living standards. S&T should become closely associated with market needs. Not only Soviet style institutes should do research but also universities and private industries. State institutions should form joint ventures with Chinese or foreign venture capital in order for S&T developments to reach

9804-540: The construction of tankers over 1,000,000 tonnes but this fell through with the reopening of the Suez Canal. RMS  Queen Mary 2 was constructed at Chantiers de l'Atlantique in 2003. The town of Saint-Nazaire is located on the north bank of the Loire estuary (its territory includes the tip of Chémoulin which marks the end of the estuary), 50 km west of Nantes. It is near the marshes of Brière, an important regional natural park with many animal and plant species,

9933-438: The country was on track to meet its target. The research firm Battelle estimates that China's GERD will exceed that of the United States by 2023. However, several convergent factors cast doubt over the accuracy of Battelle's prediction: the deceleration in China's rate of economic growth in 2014, the considerable drop in industrial production since 2012 and the major stock market slide in mid-2015. After progressing rapidly for

10062-530: The cruise ship MS  Symphony of the Seas , the largest passenger ship in the world until 2022. Saint-Nazaire was a small village until the Industrial Revolution but became a large town in the second half of the 19th century, thanks to the construction of railways and the growth of the seaport. Saint-Nazaire progressively replaced upstream Nantes as the main haven on the Loire estuary. As

10191-461: The disaster on learning of it and it remains largely forgotten by history. A Lancastria memorial is located near the U-boat pens in Saint-Nazaire. The ball turret gunner of an American B-17F bomber fell 20,000 ft (6,100 m) onto the glass roof of the train station, even though his parachute had been destroyed by German flak while still in his plane. The US airman, Alan Magee , survived

10320-483: The establishment of over 100 science and technology parks in many parts of the country, along with encouragement of entrepreneurship outside the state-owned sector. Yip and McKern argue that Chinese firms have evolved through three phases as their innovation capabilities have matured and that by 2017 many of them are of world standard. They are now strong competitors in the China market and increasingly in foreign markets, where they are establishing local operations. While

10449-561: The event of war with the Soviet Union or the United States. The Third Front construction was primarily carried out in secret, with the location for Third Front projects following the principle of “close to the mountains, dispersed, and hidden” ( 靠山, 分散, 隐蔽 ; kàoshān, fēnsàn, yǐnbì ). From 1964-1974, China invested more than 40% of its industrial capacity in Third Front regions. After Nixon's China trip in 1972, investment to

10578-433: The existence of a small fleet of fisheries and fishing vessels. Saint-Nazaire suffered heavily from the downsizing of shipbuilding activity in western Europe in the 1960s and 1970s, after the completion of the national passenger liner, SS France . For a long time in the 1980s, Saint-Nazaire remained an economically depressed area with unemployment rates above 20%. Today, the local economy is more diversified and its situation

10707-541: The fall. A German military surgeon was able to save his nearly severed arm. The airman credited his survival to a prayer to God as he recovered consciousness during his fall. Following the surrender of France to German forces later in June 1940, the port immediately became a base of operations for the Kriegsmarine and was as such the target of Allied operations. A heavily fortified U-boat Saint-Nazaire submarine base

10836-408: The first transatlantic telegraph lines were installed from France to South America, coming ashore at Saint-Nazaire. 1862 also saw the construction of major shipbuilding facilities, including those of Chantier Scott , which launched the first French metal-hulled ships. In 1868, Saint-Nazaire became a sub-prefecture of the town of Savenay . A second dock basin was created at Penhoët in 1881, to allow

10965-572: The first participation of Chinese student in an international student assessment test, the 2009 Programme for International Student Assessment , 15-year-old students from Shanghai ranked first in all of the three categories: mathematics, science, and reading. The Chinese students scored particularly well compared to other nations in mathematics. One explanation for the Chinese results may be a culture emphasizing education and competitive examinations and more time spent studying in part due to less participation in activities such as sports. Teaching has become

11094-421: The floor of the dock in accordance with the "docking plan" of the ship. Routine use of dry docks is for the "graving" i.e. the cleaning, removal of barnacles and rust, and re-painting of ships' hulls. Some fine-tuning of the ship's position can be done by divers while there is still some water left to manoeuvre the vessel. It is extremely important that supporting blocks conform to the structural members so that

11223-473: The foreign R&D serves as a role model and encouragement for indigenous companies and creates skilled communities from which labor and knowledge can easily flow to indigenous companies. In 2010 there were 1,200 such R&D centers and 400 out the Fortune 500 corporations had created such R&D centers. Corporations have argued that this is a necessity in order to adapt products for the local requirements of

11352-408: The handling of larger ships, but a lock gate built to access it cut the town in two, thus creating Old Saint-Nazaire and an artificial island called "Little Morocco". In early 1870, Nantes-born Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau joined the bar in Saint-Nazaire. In September he became, in spite of his youth, secretary to the municipal commission temporarily appointed to carry on the town's business. He organized

11481-637: The industry. S&T personal should become more occupationally mobile, pay should be linked to economic results, and age and seniority should become less important for personal decisions. Intellectual property rights should be respected. Information exchange should improve and there should be competition and open bidding on projects. The environment should be protected. Chinese indigenous S&T in certain key areas should be especially promoted. Public officials should improve their understanding of S&T and incorporate S&T in decision making. Society, including Communist Party youth organizations, labor unions and

11610-519: The influence of the city on the south bank of the Loire River. Although having built SS  Paris , between 1913 and 1921, and SS  Île de France between 1925 and 1926, as a result of the 1930s Great Depression the French government commissioned a series of state programs to aid national economic activity. The state-owned shipping company Compagnie Générale Transatlantique commissioned

11739-611: The invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany 's Wehrmacht army at the start of World War II , the combined forces of the French Army and the British Expeditionary Force failed to hold the oncoming onslaught. As part of Operation Aerial , Saint-Nazaire, like Dunkirk , became an evacuation point to England for the British, with those embarking including the writer John Renshaw Starr . On 17 June 1940 an estimated 9,000 British Army soldiers were embarked aboard

11868-608: The largest ships of its day. Apart from graving docks and floating dry docks, ships can also be dry docked and launched by: Some dry docks are used during the construction of bridges, dams, and other large objects. For example, the dry dock on the artificial island of Neeltje-Jans was used for the construction of the Oosterscheldekering , a large dam in the Netherlands that consists of 65 concrete pillars weighing 18,000 tonnes each. The pillars were constructed in

11997-588: The last four decades. From the 1980s to the 1990s, the Chinese government successively launched the 863 Program and the "Strategy for Rejuvenating the Country through Science and Education", which greatly promoted the development of China's science and technological institutions. Governmental focus on prioritizing the advancement of science and technology in China is evident in its allocation of funds, investment in research, reform measures, and enhanced societal recognition of these fields. These actions undertaken by

12126-458: The last several centuries. By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement. The causes of this early modern Great Divergence continue to be debated by scholars to this day. After being defeated repeatedly by Japan and Western nations in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of

12255-606: The mid-1960s through the late 1960s, China began a semiconductor program and was producing third-generation computers by 1972. After Mao Zedong 's death, S&T was established as one of the Four Modernizations in 1976. The new leader Deng Xiaoping , and architect of the Chinese economic reform , was a strong promoter of S&T and reversed the policies of the Cultural revolution. The Soviet inspired system

12384-623: The national policy. Efficiency of overall coordination has been questioned with various agencies seen as having overlapping missions and rivalries for resources and sometimes engaging in wasteful duplication. The Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China , formerly the State Science and Technology Commission, is the body primarily responsible for science and technology strategy and policy. It also administers national research programs, S&T development zones, and international cooperation. The Ministry of Education of

12513-503: The next three years. Other reports stated that the Chinese government would be increasing subsidies for tech firms. In its Medium and Long-Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006–2020), China fixed itself the target of devoting 2.5% of GDP to research and development by 2020. Between 2003 and 2012, gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD) rose from 1.13% to 1.98% of GDP, suggesting that

12642-783: The objectives of Chinese intelligence activity abroad is alleged to be industrial espionage as well gaining military technology . Also private companies have been accused of espionage. Intelligence agencies suspect that thousands of Western companies may have been affected by data breaches that can be traced back to China. The China Internet Information Center stated in a 2005 article that China had inter-governmental cooperative S&T agreements with 96 nations, cooperative S&T programs with 152 nations and regions, and participated in more than 1,000 international S&T cooperative organizations. NGO international exchanges and cooperative activities had increased. The China Association for Science and Technology and related organizations as well as

12771-562: The passenger steamships of the Nantes–Saint-Nazaire line, as well as making the town the alternative port for ships which could not access Nantes . In 1856, the first wet dock was dug in "Halluard City", making it possible for ships to moor and turn. This led to the construction of the town's first railway connection. In 1857, the Chemin de Fer de Paris à Orléans (railroad company of Orléans ) connected Saint-Nazaire to Nantes. In 1862,

12900-603: The presence of legal brothels ( Maisons Tolérée ) resulted in a diplomatic incident. As a result of strict reformist public health concerns at home, the American Expeditionary Force placed the Maisons Tolérée off limits, resulting in a dispute between the town's brothel owners backed by the mayor, versus the US Army forces. With the dispute escalating, Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau sent

13029-622: The private of mainstream education and technological college Our-Lady-in Espérance. The Cité Scolaire of Saint-Nazaire is one of largest of France, with nearly 4,000 high-school pupils. The University of Saint-Nazaire is a college of the University of Nantes , the second largest university in France with approximately 35,000 students, including nearly 5,000 on the university campus of Saint-Nazaire. The Route nationale N165 /N161 ( E60 route ) connects Saint-Nazaire to Nantes and Rennes via

13158-430: The province of Brittany. At the beginning of the 19th century, the port consisted only of one simple harbour. As the town was so far inland, its main economy was not based on commercial fishing but on its strategic location as the lowest possible navigation point for large ships and on supplying pilots for navigation further up the Loire. In 1800, the parish of Saint-Nazaire had 3,216 inhabitants. The modern Saint-Nazaire

13287-752: The rankings in reading, mathematics and science and China's school children are now the smartest in the world. Chinese high school students won multiple gold medals every year consistently at many International Science Olympiad Competitions like the International Biology Olympiad , the International Olympiad on Astronomy and Astrophysics , the International Olympiad in Informatics , the International Earth Science Olympiad ,

13416-425: The regime as Marxism loses influence. Some science and technology mega-projects has been seen as questionable trophy projects done for propaganda purposes with Chinese state-controlled media being filled with reports of Chinese achievements. In 2019, reports surfaced stating that the Chinese government has ordered all foreign PC hardware and operating systems that are installed in government offices to be replaced in

13545-898: The results were expected to produce astonishment and had been examined for accuracy by international experts after the OECD received the Shanghai scores. He also said that the results "refute the commonly held hypothesis that China just produces rote learning" and "Large fractions of these students demonstrate their ability to extrapolate from what they know and apply their knowledge very creatively in novel situations". He believes that China has moved away from learning by rote. According to Schleicher, Russia performs well in rote-based assessments, but not in PISA, whereas China does well in both rote-based and broader assessments. In 2018 four major regions ( Beijing , Shanghai , Jiangsu and Zhejiang ) in China topped

13674-528: The roof is an exhibition about Saint-Nazaire. The huge Joubert drydock built for SS Normandie was the only port on the Atlantic capable of servicing the German battleships Bismarck and Tirpitz . This made the port strategically important to both the Axis Powers and the Allies during World War II. After Operation Rheinübung on 18–27 May 1941, which resulted in the sinking of HMS  Hood and

13803-431: The same time the technological abilities of domestic companies are supported in various ways. Such policies have generated considerable conflict between China and developed countries, particularly the United States, although China has often proven flexible when its policies have been challenged. Nationalism and nationalistic achievements have been seen as becoming the main ideological justifications and societal glue for

13932-399: The sea he filled all the space which he had excavated with water, out of which he easily brought the ship by the aid of whatever men happened to be at hand; then closing the entrance which had been originally made, he drained the water off again by means of engines (organois); and when this had been done the vessel rested securely on the before-mentioned cross-beams. It has been calculated that

14061-589: The seat of a parish extending from Penhoët to Pornichet , part of the Viscountcy of Saint-Nazaire . Like the whole of Brittany, Saint-Nazaire formed part of the Duchy of Brittany until 1532, when it was annexed by France. In 1756, a fort was built on the order of the governor of Brittany to protect the town, which by then had 600 inhabitants. Until the French Revolution , Saint-Nazaire belonged to

14190-467: The second largest wetland in France after the Camargue. According to INSEE , Saint-Nazaire is the commune-center of an urban unit (commonly: agglomeration) which counted 186,760 inhabitants in 2018, gathering 17 communes of the Loire estuary. This unit is the urban center of the urban area of Saint-Nazaire (24 communes), which had 213,675 inhabitants in 2018 and extending over Brière and almost all of

14319-436: The share of basic research to 15% of total research spending by 2020. The State Council of the People's Republic of China is the top administrative organ in China. Immediately below it are several ministries and ministry level organisations involved with various aspects of science and technology. The State Council Science and Education Leading Group, consisting of the leaders of the major science bodies, attempts to organize

14448-527: The ship builders of Saint-Nazaire to construct a new large passenger ship, which as a result between 1928 and 1934 created the Albert Caquot –engineered the Louis Joubert dry dock  – at 1,200 m × 60 m (3,940 ft × 200 ft), the largest of its kind in the world at the time – necessary to be able to accommodate the construction of SS  Normandie . In 1932,

14577-476: The ship is finished, the gates are opened to allow water in, and the ship is carefully refloated. Modern graving docks are box-shaped, to accommodate newer, boxier ships, whereas old dry docks are often shaped like the ships expected to dock there. This shaping was advantageous because such a dock was easier to build, it was easier to side-support the ships, and less water had to be pumped away. Dry docks used for building naval vessels may occasionally be built with

14706-428: The ship is not damaged when its weight is supported by the blocks. Some anti-submarine warfare warships have sonar domes protruding beneath the hull, requiring the hull to be supported several metres above the bottom of the dry dock, or depressions built into the floor of the dock, to accommodate the protrusions. Once the remainder of the water is pumped out, the ship can be freely inspected or serviced. When work on

14835-519: The ships could be protected from the elements and avoid the damage caused by undue exposure. The Greek author Athenaeus of Naucratis (V 204c-d) reports something that may have been a dry dock in Ptolemaic Egypt in the reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator (221-204 BC) on the occasion of the launch of the enormous Tessarakonteres rowing ship. However a more recent survey by Goodchild and Forbes does not substantiate its existence. But after that

14964-409: The ships were towed in above the beams. Then (breach now being closed) the water was pumped out by wheels so that the ships rested quite in the air. When the repairs were complete, the water was let in again, so that the ships were afloat once more (and could leave the dock). Finally the beams and pillars were taken away, and the whole basin covered over with a great roof so as to form a hangar in which

15093-661: The term "techno-nationalism" was originally applied to the United States in the 1980s, it has since been used to describe nationalistic technology policies in many countries, particularly in Asia. Chinese techno-nationalism is rooted in the country's humiliation at the hands of more advanced countries in the 19th century. Indeed, China's leaders (like those of other countries) have long seen scientific and technological development as vital for achieving economic affluence, national security, and national prestige. Lacking indigenous technological intellectual property and innovation are seen as key national problems. The 21st century has thus seen

15222-487: The use of conventional drydocks, such as at the Royal Naval Dockyard on the limestone archipelago of Bermuda . Another advantage of floating dry docks is that they can be moved to wherever they are needed and can also be sold second-hand. During World War II , the U.S. Navy used such auxiliary floating drydocks extensively to provide maintenance in remote locations. Two examples of these were

15351-399: The warship Grace Dieu , so that the hull would bed itself in and remain upright at low tide. A timber, brushwood and clay wall was then built up around the hull. The first early modern purpose-built European and oldest surviving dry dock still in use was commissioned by Henry VII of England at HMNB Portsmouth in 1495. This was a timber-lined excavation, with the seaward end closed off by

15480-467: The work force. What had seemed a small dispute escalated after a shooting in Fourmies , resulting in the town getting its national nickname of "Red City". Socialists flocked to the town in defense of the striking workers, joining in the declaration of the "Fusillade de Fourmies". In 1900, the commune of Pornichet was created by separating from the larger commune of Saint-Nazaire. During World War I ,

15609-539: The work was impossible as long as they were afloat. So in the Hsi-Ning reign period (+1068 to +1077) a palace official Huang Huai-Hsin suggested a plan. A large basin was excavated at the north end of the Chin-ming Lake capable of containing the dragon ships, and in it heavy crosswise beams were laid down upon a foundation of pillars. Then (a breach was made) so that the basin quickly filled with water, after which

15738-554: The world economy" were the main drivers behind innovations. The study also found that state-owned firms innovated less than private firms, even though state-owned firms received far greater subsidies. Saint-Nazaire Saint-Nazaire ( French: [sɛ̃ nazɛːʁ] ; Breton : Sant-Nazer/Señ Neñseir ; Gallo : Saint-Nazère/Saint-Nazaer ) is a commune in the Loire-Atlantique department in western France, in traditional Brittany . The town has

15867-526: Was an increase by 20% over the previous year. In total 818,400 have returned to China with this occurring in particular in recent years. 186,200 returned to China in 2011 which was an increase by 38% over the previous year. China offers several benefits for high-achieving foreign educated Chinese who return to China. Students are now also returning because increased job opportunities unlike previously when many stayed abroad due lack of jobs in China. A 2009 study found that only 10% of Chinese students plan to stay in

15996-399: Was built by Organisation Todt shortly after occupation, with a 9 m-thick (30 ft) concrete ceiling capable of withstanding almost any bomb in use at the time. The base provided a home during the war to many of the best-known U-boat staff, including: The base stands today as its extremely sturdy construction makes demolition uneconomical. The base is now used by cafes, a bar and on

16125-495: Was created by the administration of Napoleon III . The population of 3,216 in 1800 shows its battered history, with a mainly local (Brière), of Lower Brittany (of Morbihan in the Finistère-south), and minor representation from most other areas of France. From this point forward the population of Saint-Nazaire experienced exponential growth, which was reflected in its nickname of "Little Breton California", or " Liverpool of

16254-582: Was established in an effort to reduce dependence on foreign semiconductor companies. Based on the success of the Special Economic Zones of the People's Republic of China , China has created Economic and Technological Development Zones . They have the purposes of building up high-tech industries, attracting foreign investment, increasing exports, and improve the regional economy. They are considered to have been very successful and have been expanded from an initial fourteen to fifty-four. In

16383-438: Was planned that was to be situated 30 km (19 mi) to the north-west of Nantes in the commune of Notre-Dame-des-Landes . Called Aéroport du Grand Ouest , it was officially cancelled in 2018. The economy of the city is founded on the activity of the port, including export of manufactured goods but also on the services, being given sizeable size of the city. Commercial fishing has almost completely disappeared in spite of

16512-571: Was rebuilt in the late 1940s and 1950s in a minimalist functional style. One of the last of these buildings to be completed was the Hôtel de Ville which was completed in February 1960. The submarine base was used by the French Navy from 1945 to 1948. It then came under the control of various chemical companies and shipbuilders. As of 2016 , the French diesel submarine Espadon is moored within

16641-505: Was then gradually reformed. Media began promoting the value of S&T, scientific thinking, and scientific achievement. The third and fourth generations of leaders came almost exclusively from technical backgrounds. In March 1986, China launched the large-scale technology development plan, the 863 Project . The State Council of the People's Republic of China in 1995 issued the "Decision on Accelerating S&T Development" which described planned Science & Technology development for

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