Misplaced Pages

#25974

88-567: Animal Free Research UK ( AFRUK ), formerly the Dr Hadwen Trust , is a UK medical research charity that funds and promotes non-animal techniques to replace animal experiments . Established in 1970, the work undertaken by Animal Free Research UK develops reliable science whilst avoiding animal testing. Animal Free Research UK was established as the Dr Hadwen Trust for Humane Research in 1970 (registered charity number 261096). It

176-515: A Petri dish. The effectiveness of these systems is constantly being increased with various new materials that can be used to make it. An ideal material would be gas permeable but still be able to absorb molecules that would be expected to be found in various drugs The choice of the material for chips is still challenging. One of the major materials that can be possibly used in chips is known as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). However, due to lack of facilities for mass production and drug clearance issue,

264-403: A common goal and combine the research efforts of over 70 European universities, public research institutes and companies. The collaboration between these six research projects, the dissemination of results, the cooperation with other international research teams, and the continuous updating on research priorities will be facilitated by the coordination and support action project "COACH". SEURAT-1

352-725: A country . The OECD also created agencies such as the OECD Development Centre (1961), International Energy Agency (IEA, 1974), and Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering . The aims of the OECD are stated in Article 1 of the Convention as: Unlike the United Nations' "Organizations," OECD uses the spelling "Organisation" with an "s" in its name, together with a hyphenated "Co-operation". Following

440-520: A culture medium. Organoids are derived from three kinds of human or animal stem cells—embryonic pluripotent stem cells (ESCs), adult somatic stem cells (ASCs), and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). These organoids are grown in vitro and mimic the structure and function of different organs such as the brain, liver, lung, kidney, and intestine. Organoids have been developed to study infectious disease. Scientists at Johns Hopkins University have developed mini-brain organoids to model how COVID-19 can affect

528-650: A cumbersome task. Following several (occasionally unruly) meetings at the Hotel Majestic in Paris, which began in January 1960, a resolution was reached to create a body that would not only solve European and Atlantic economic issues, but also devise policies that could assist less developed countries. This reconstituted organisation would bring the US and Canada, who were already OEEC observers, on board as full members, and

616-654: A discussion on a broad spectrum of thematic issues relevant to the OECD charter, member countries, and non-member countries. Noteworthy meetings include: Exchanges between OECD governments benefit from the information, analysis, and preparation of the OECD Secretariat. The secretariat collects data, monitors trends, and analyses and forecasts economic developments. Under the direction and guidance of member governments, it also researches social changes or evolving patterns in trade, environment, education, agriculture, technology, taxation and other areas. The secretariat

704-501: A framework for negotiations aimed at setting up a European Free Trade Area , to bring the EEC's Inner Six and other OEEC members together on a multilateral basis. In 1958, a European Nuclear Energy Agency was set up in response to Euratom. By this time, some leading countries felt that the OEEC had outlived its purpose but could be adapted to fulfil a more global mission, which proved to be

792-580: A gathering point for all stakeholders involved in the development, validation, regulatory acceptance and final use of alternative ecotoxicity testing strategies. To act as the one voice for alternative ecotoxicity testing in Europe. AXLR8 is a coordination action funded by the European Commission Directorate General for Research & Innovation under the 7 Framework Programme 7 (FP7) Health Theme. The European Commission

880-516: A last resort. It is also necessary to take measures limiting duplication of other tests." In parallel to the adoption of REACH, the EC published standardised and accepted methods for testing hazardous properties of chemicals . These were written into the "Test Methods Regulation". All the alternative test methods among the in vivo studies are included in PART B; "The European Union is committed to promoting

968-665: A member of the Organisation through the letter addressed by Romanian Prime Minister Victor Ponta to OECD Secretary-General José Ángel Gurría . In September 2012, the government of Bulgaria confirmed it would apply for membership before the OECD Secretariat. The OECD established a working group headed by ambassador Seiichiro Noboru to work out a plan for the enlargement with non-members. The working group defined four criteria that must be fulfilled: "like-mindedness", "significant player", "mutual benefit" and "global considerations." The working group's recommendations were presented at

SECTION 10

#1732772457026

1056-461: A member on 28 April 2020. On 15 May 2020, the OECD decided to extend a formal invitation for Costa Rica to join the OECD, which joined as a member on 25 May 2021. Other countries that have expressed interest in OECD membership are Argentina , Brazil , Croatia , Malaysia and Peru . In January 2022, the OECD reported that membership talks were underway with Argentina , Brazil , Bulgaria , Croatia , Peru and Romania . In March 2022,

1144-536: A membership option for these countries. As a result of this, Poland , Hungary , the Czech Republic and Slovakia , as well as South Korea and Mexico , became members of the OECD between 1996 and 2000. East Germany joined on 3 October 1990 through reunification with West Germany. In the 1990s, several European countries, now members of the European Union, expressed their willingness to join

1232-527: A microbial model of mammalian drug metabolism thereby reducing the need for laboratory animals. Prokaryotes are often used as an alternative to animal testing. Prokaryotes include bacteria such as Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) or Bacillus subtilis . These bacteria are the ideal model for genetic and molecular studies. Fungi is also used as an alternative for animal testing. Certain fungi can be used for genetic studies or circadian rhythms studies. This may include Neurospora crassa , otherwise known as

1320-416: A mouse's mental make-up in terms of nerves and connections it lacked the structures seen in real mice brains." In pharmacology and toxicology, physiologically based pharmacokinetic models can be used for in vitro to in vivo extrapolation and to predict the time-dependent distribution of chemicals in the organism, while quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models can be used to predict

1408-582: A number of toxicity pathways have already been identified, most are only partially known and no common annotation exists. Mapping the entirety of these pathways (i.e. the Human Toxome ) will be a large-scale effort, perhaps on the order of the Human Genome Project . SEURAT-1 is a long-term strategic target for "Safety Evaluation Ultimately Replacing Animal Testing". It is called "SEURAT-1" to indicate that more steps have to be taken before

1496-691: A type of red mould. Invertebrates are another ideal candidate for testing. One of the most common invertebrates tested on include Drosophila melanogaster , the fruit fly. Fruit flies are used to find human diseases. Russell and Burch writing six decades ago could not have anticipated some of the technologies that have emerged today. One of these technologies, 3D cell cultures , also known as organoids or mini-organs, have replaced animal models for some types of research. In recent years, scientists have produced organoids that can be used to model disease and test new drugs. Organoids grow in vitro on scaffolds (biological or synthetic hydrogels such as Matrigel ) or in

1584-406: A very high Human Development Index . As of 2024 their collective population is 1.38 billion people with an average life expectancy of 80 years and a median age of 40, against a global average of 30. As of 2017 , OECD Member countries collectively comprised 62.2% of global nominal GDP ( USD 49.6 trillion) and 42.8% of global GDP ( Int$ 54.2 trillion) at purchasing power parity . The OECD

1672-400: Is a forum whose member countries describe themselves as committed to democracy and the market economy , providing a platform to compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practices, and coordinate domestic and international policies of its members. The majority of OECD members are generally regarded as developed countries , with high-income economies , and

1760-410: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about a philanthropic or charitable organization is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Alternatives to animal testing Other alternatives include the use of humans for skin irritancy tests and donated human blood for pyrogenicity studies. Another alternative is microdosing, in which the basic behaviour of drugs

1848-588: Is an official United Nations observer . OECD nations have strong social security systems ; their average social welfare spending stood at roughly 21% of GDP. The OECD's headquarters are at the Château de la Muette in Paris , France, which housed its predecessor organization, the Organization for European Economic Co-operation. The OECD is funded by contributions from member countries at varying rates and

SECTION 20

#1732772457026

1936-697: Is assessed using human volunteers receiving doses well below those expected to produce whole-body effects. While microdosing produces important information about pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics , it does not reveal information about toxicity or toxicology . Furthermore, it was observed by the Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments that despite the use of microdosing, "animal studies will still be required". Guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in testing are

2024-460: Is currently funding a number of research consortia to develop new 3Rs (replacement, reduction and refinement) test methods and strategies as potential alternatives to the use of animals in safety testing. Monitoring of these 3Rs activities at pan-European, national, and international levels is vital to facilitate swift progress. AXLR8 aims to fulfil this growing need by providing a focal point for dialogue and collaboration. Humane Society International

2112-459: Is often neglected, although fish are the third most widely used laboratory animal used for scientific purposes in the EU. This is also the field where until now only two alternative tests exist worldwide: One guideline, OECD TG 236, and one guidance (OECD series on testing and assessment 126) are so far available. Euroecotox is a European network for alternative testing strategies in ecotoxicology. It

2200-691: Is organised in directorates: The head of the OECD Secretariat and chair of the OECD Council is the Secretary-General. Secretary-General selections are made by consensus , meaning all member states must agree on a candidate. Representatives of member and observer countries meet in specialised committees on specific policy areas, such as economics, trade, science, employment, education, development assistance or financial markets. There are about 200 committees, working groups and expert groups. Committees discuss policies and review progress in

2288-406: Is part of the consortium. On January 1, 2013, EU Directive 2010/63/EU "on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes" entered into force for the EU member states (MS), repealing Directive 86/609/EEC. Because it is a directive, it allows member states certain flexibility in transposition of national rules. The status of the implementation of the new directive in the EU is described by

2376-556: Is recognised as a highly influential publisher of mostly economic data through publications as well as annual evaluations and rankings of member countries. The OECD is the successor organization to the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) , established in April 1948 among the European recipients of Marshall Plan aid for the reconstruction of Europe after World War II . Only Western European states were members of

2464-510: Is that none should be put on the market unless they are included on a published Community list of authorised substances, in accordance with the conditions laid down in relevant food law. This approach is intended to bring food producers into compliance with the provisions of Regulation (EC) 1334/2008 that pertain to the safety of food flavourings. As part of the approval process, the EC will require full disclosure of study data, safety issues, and toxicological findings for all such additives. Within

2552-418: Is to improve the protection of human health and the environment through the better and earlier identification of the intrinsic properties of chemical substances. It promotes the use of alternative methods for animal testing, but does not oblige the test performer to do so; "Article 25.1 - In order to avoid animal testing, testing on vertebrate animals for the purposes of this Regulation shall be undertaken only as

2640-534: Is used in Canada to measure development of rashes, inflammation, swelling or abnormal tissue growth on human volunteers. Unlike corrosives , substances defined as irritants cause only reversible skin damage. Another approach has been the development of test methods that use cultured human cells. Human epidermal keratinocytes have been cultured to mimic the human epidermis , and are used to measure skin irritation and dermal corrosion. This method has been accepted by

2728-683: The Revolutions of 1989 , the OECD began assisting countries in and Eastern Europe (especially the Visegrád Group ) to prepare market economy reforms. In 1990, the Centre for Co-operation with European Economies in Transition (now succeeded by the Centre for Cooperation with Non-Members) was established, and in 1991, the programme, "Partners in Transition", was launched to offer a partnership to Czechoslovakia , Hungary and Poland, including

Animal Free Research UK - Misplaced Pages Continue

2816-515: The Three Rs (3Rs) first described by Russell and Burch in 1959. These principles are now followed in many testing establishments worldwide. Cell culture can be an alternative to animal use in some cases. For example, cultured cells have been developed to create monoclonal antibodies ; prior to this, production required animals to undergo a procedure likely to cause pain and distress. However, even though cell or tissue culture methods may reduce

2904-716: The 1960s to the end of the 1990s was also described in the memoirs titled “the Bank of Japan and the OECD: Recollections and Reflections”, written in Japanese by Kumiharu Shigehara and published in December 2019. In his letter of 5 February 2019, Donald Johnston, OECD Secretary-General (1996-2006), noted that Shigehara's "book is very important for the OECD where there is little living institutional memory". The English edition of Shigehara's memoirs titled The Bank of Japan,

2992-664: The 3Rs with the USDA's Animal Welfare Information Center (AWIC) and NIH's Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare . Previously known as the Social Housing Symposium, the symposium has occurred annually (except for 2015) since 2013 with past symposia archived on video on the AWIC website. Videos of the most recent symposium, "7th Annual 3Rs Symposium: Practical Solutions and Success Stories", held in June 2020, may also be found on

3080-1093: The AOPs knowledge. It organises bi-annual conferences in Europe and an annual ESTIV Applied in Toxicology Course, recognised by EUROTOX for obtaining ERT certification. It was established in 1994 and is one of the oldest professional associations in the in vitro and in-silico toxicology in the EU. The World Congress on Alternatives and Animal Use in the Life Sciences takes place every three years. The next conference (10th) will be held in September 2017 in Seattle . The 1st Latino-Americano Congress on Alternative to Animal Testing took place in 2012. Colama (I Congresso Latino-Americano De Metodos Alternativos Ao Uso De Animais No Ensino, Pesquisa E Industria). The Johns Hopkins University Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT) co-organizes an annual symposium on

3168-469: The AWIC website. Institutes and organizations that research or fund alternatives to animal testing include: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ; French : Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques, OCDE ) is an intergovernmental organization with 38 member countries, founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and world trade . It

3256-617: The Declaration. The OECD publishes books, reports, statistics, working papers, and reference materials. All titles and databases published since 1998 can be accessed via OECD iLibrary . The OECD Library & Archives collection dates from 1947, including records from the Committee for European Economic Co-operation (CEEC) and the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), predecessors of today's OECD. External researchers can consult OECD publications and archival material on

3344-538: The Dr. Hadwen Trust range from epilepsy , multiple sclerosis , breast and skin cancer , meningitis , asthma , diabetes and drug testing , to arthritis , Parkinson ’s disease, lung injury, whooping cough , vaccine testing , dentistry , heart disease , tropical illness , fetal development , brain tumours , and AIDS . Funding is received in the form of summer studentships, PhD students, post-docs, and strategic grants. This animal rights -related article

3432-679: The EC General Environment Directorate. In July 2013, the commission announced the creation of NETVAL (European Union Network of Laboratories for the Validation of Alternative Methods). EU-NETVAL's primary role is to provide support for EURL ECVAM validation projects, including aspects of training and dissemination, and the identification of methods that have a potential to reduce, refine or replace animals used for scientific purposes. Currently there are thirteen test facilities in nine member states: Germany (3),

3520-470: The EU and is intended to replace the Draize rabbit skin irritation test . Pyrogens are most often pharmaceutical products or intravenous drugs that may cause inflammation or fever when they interact with immune system cells. This interaction can be quickly and accurately tested in vitro . The modular immune in vitro construct (MIMIC) uses human cells to create a model of the human immune system on which

3608-618: The EU animal welfare law (2010/63/EU), the principles of the 3Rs are invoked whenever toxicological test methods are necessary. The European Society for Alternatives to Animal Testing (EUSAAT) organises an annual conference in Linz ( Austria ) for The European Society of Toxicology in Vitro (ESTIV) focuses on New Non-animal Approaches(NAMs) in Toxicology, including in vitro, in silico, and in chemico technologies and promotes science based on

Animal Free Research UK - Misplaced Pages Continue

3696-690: The EU finished cosmetic products and ingredients included in cosmetic products which were tested on animals for cosmetics purposes (marketing ban). The same provisions are contained in Cosmetics Regulation EU 1223/2009, which replaces the Cosmetics Directive as of July 11, 2013. In 2007, EU legislation on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH EC 1907/2006) came into force, relating to chemicals and their safe use. The aim of REACH

3784-507: The G20. It is not certain when the proposals will be implemented. All the major economies agreed to pass national laws that would require corporations to pay at least 15% income tax in the countries they operate. This new policy would end the practice of locating world headquarters in small countries with very low taxation rates. Governments hope to recoup some of the lost revenue, estimated at $ 100 billion to $ 240 billion each year. The new system

3872-464: The Netherlands (2), Spain (2), Belgium (1), Czech Republic (1), Finland (1), France (1), Italy (1) and Sweden (1). The Cosmetics Directive provides the regulatory framework for the phasing out of animal testing for cosmetics purposes. It establishes prohibitions against (a) testing finished cosmetic products and cosmetic ingredients on animals (testing ban), and (b) marketing in

3960-466: The OECD Convention after September 1961, but are nevertheless considered founding members. The official founding members are the following: Japan became a member in 1964, and over the following decade, Finland , Australia , and New Zealand also joined the organisation. Yugoslavia had observer status in the organisation, starting with the establishment of the OECD, until its dissolution as

4048-584: The OECD Ministerial Council Meeting on 13 May 2004, and on 16 May 2007, the OECD Ministerial Council decided to open accession discussions with Chile , Estonia , Israel , Russia , and Slovenia , and to strengthen cooperation with Brazil , China , India , Indonesia , and South Africa through a process of enhanced engagement. Chile, Slovenia, Israel, and Estonia all became members in 2010. In March 2014,

4136-549: The OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations, a Model Tax Convention and country-by-country reporting rules. The OECD publishes and updates a model tax convention that serves as a template for allocating taxation rights between countries. This model is accompanied by a set of commentaries that reflect OECD-level interpretation of the content of the model convention provisions. In general, this model allocates

4224-476: The OECD announced that it "has transitioned to [an] open-access information model" and that Creative Commons CC‑BY‑4.0 attribution licenses will be used on all data and publications. There are 15 working papers series published by the various directorates of the OECD Secretariat. They are available on iLibrary, as well as on many specialised portals. The OECD is responsible for the OECD Guidelines for

4312-415: The OECD halted membership talks with Russia in response to its role in the 2014 Annexation of Crimea . In 2013, the OECD decided to open membership talks with Colombia and Latvia . In 2015, the Organisation opened talks with Costa Rica and Lithuania . Latvia became a member on 1 July 2016, and Lithuania soon followed on 5 July 2018. Colombia signed the accession agreement on 30 May 2018 and became

4400-473: The OECD premises by appointment. The OECD releases about 600 books and over 400 papers yearly on topics spanning public policy. The publications are updated to the OECD iLibrary. Most books are published in English and French. The OECD flagship titles include: All OECD books are available on the OECD iLibrary, the online bookshop or OECD Library & Archives. OECD Observer , an award-winning magazine,

4488-514: The OECD suspended the participation of Russia and Belarus due to the ongoing 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine . In June 2022, during the annual OECD Ministerial Council Meeting, the Roadmaps for the Accession to the OECD Convention for Brazil , Bulgaria , Croatia , Peru and Romania were adopted. The OECD sets the rules governing international taxation for multinationals through

SECTION 50

#1732772457026

4576-522: The OECD, and Beyond was published by Palgrave Macmillan in September 2024. The OECD is known as a statistical agency , as it publishes comparable statistics on numerous subjects. In July 2014, the OECD publicly released its main statistical databases through the OECD Data Portal, an online platform that allows visitors to create custom charts based on official OECD indicators. OECD statistics are available in several forms: In July 2024,

4664-482: The OECD. Phototoxicity is a rash, swelling, or inflammation, like a severe sunburn, caused by exposure to light following exposure to a chemical. The 3T3 Neutral Red Uptake (NRU) Phototoxicity Test, approved by the OECD, detects the viability of 3T3 cells after exposure to a chemical in the presence or absence of light. The 3T3 cell line was developed in 1962 and is derived from mouse embryonic fibroblast cells. Fungi like Cunninghamella elegans can be used as

4752-520: The OEEC would set to work straight away on convincing Japan to join the organisation. The Convention on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development was signed on 14 December 1960, and the OECD officially superseded the OEEC in September 1961, consisting of the European founder countries of the OEEC, with the additions of the United States and Canada. Three countries, (Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Italy)—all OEEC members—ratified

4840-624: The OEEC, whose primary function was the allocation of American aid. Its Secretaries-General were the Frenchmen Robert Marjolin (1948–1955) and René Sergent (1955–1960). It was headquartered in the Château de la Muette in Paris. Following the end of Marshall aid in 1952, the OEEC focused on economic issues. Its coordinating role was challenged after the 1957 Rome Treaties establishing the European Economic Community and Euratom . The OEEC provided

4928-541: The Organisation. In 1995, Cyprus applied for membership, but according to the Cypriot government, it was vetoed by Turkey . In 1996, Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania signed a Joint Declaration expressing willingness to become members of the OECD, and Slovenia also applied for membership that same year. In 2005, Malta applied to join the Organisation. The EU is lobbying for the admission of all EU member states . Romania reaffirmed in 2012 its intention to become

5016-540: The Test Guideline 439 which describes the new procedure for in vitro hazard identification of irritant chemicals. Another synthetic replacement uses a protein membrane to simulate a skin barrier and is approved as a partial replacement by the US Department of Transportation and European Union. Several tissue culture methods that measure the rate of chemical absorption by the skin have been approved by

5104-628: The Testing of Chemicals , a continuously updated document that is a de facto standard (i.e., soft law). It published the OECD Environmental Outlook to 2030 in March 2008, which argues that tackling key environmental problems—including climate change , biodiversity loss , water scarcity , and the health impacts of pollution —is both achievable and affordable. In 2020, the inaugural University Press Redux Sustainability Award

5192-434: The body on a micro scale. Sensors in the chip transfer information for computer analysis. Another name for this chip is the microfluidic chip is cell-bio chips. With the capacity to "perform perfusion culture" and reproduce "physiological conditions such three-dimensional architectures, circulatory flowrate and zonation and multi cellular co-cultures", the biochips have set themselves apart from basic cell cultures analysed in

5280-541: The brain, remain hard to mimick. Toxicity testing typically involves studying adverse health outcomes in animals subjected to high doses of toxicants with subsequent extrapolation to expected human responses at lower doses. The system relies on the use of a 40+year-old patchwork of animal tests that are expensive (costing more than $ 3B per year), time-consuming, low-throughput and often provide results of limited predictive value for human health effects. The low-throughput of current toxicity testing approaches (which are largely

5368-735: The brain. Researchers have used brain organoids to model how the Zika virus disrupts foetal brain development. Tumoroids—3D cell cultures derived from cells biopsied from human patients—can be used in studying the genomics and drug resistance of tumours in different organs. Organoids are also used in modelling genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis, neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, infectious diseases such as MERS-CoV and norovirus, and parasitic infections such as Toxoplasma gondii . Human- and animal-cell-derived organoids are also used extensively in pharmacological and toxicological research. A skinpatch test has been designed and

SECTION 60

#1732772457026

5456-404: The charity changed its working name from Dr Hadwen Trust to become Animal Free Research UK. Animal Free Research UK promotes the practice of non-animal research through its funding, publications, science community outreach, and the media. Its purpose is to "support scientists to transition from using animals to using new approach methodologies in medical research". Projects receiving funding from

5544-435: The cost borne by the member countries, such as sending their officials to OECD meetings and maintaining permanent delegations, is equivalent to the cost of running the secretariat. This ratio is unique among inter-governmental organisations. In other words, the OECD is more a persistent forum or network of officials and experts than an administration. The OECD regularly holds minister-level meetings and forums as platforms for

5632-467: The detailed condition of organ tissue. Examples of computer simulations available include models of asthma, though potential new medicines identified using these techniques are currently still required to be verified in animal and human tests before licensing. Computer operated mannequins , also known as crash test dummies , complete with internal sensors and video, have replaced live animal trauma testing for automobile crash testing. The first of these

5720-541: The development and validation of alternative techniques which can provide the same level of information as current animal tests, but which use fewer animals, cause less suffering or avoid the use of animals completely. Such methods, as they become available, must be considered wherever possible for hazard characterisation and consequent classification and labeling for intrinsic hazards and chemical safety assessment." EU philosophy on food additives, food enzymes , and food flavourings and ingredients intended for human consumption

5808-422: The efficacy of new vaccines and other compounds may be tested, replacing some steps of the vaccine development process that would otherwise be performed on animals. This process is faster and more flexible than previous methods but critics worry that it may be too simple to be useful on a large scale. Medical imaging is able to demonstrate to researchers both how drugs are metabolised by use of microdosing , and

5896-411: The final goal will be reached. SEURAT-1 will develop knowledge and technology building blocks required for the development of solutions for the replacement of current repeated dose systemic toxicity testing in vivo used for the assessment of human safety. SEURAT-1 is composed of six research projects, which started on January 1, 2011 and will run for five years. These projects will closely cooperate with

5984-562: The first time in Kumiharu Shigehara, “Multilateral Surveillance: What the OECD can offer?” (the 1996 Global Finance Lecture, the University of Birmingham, 1996; OECD publication, Paris, 1996) at a time when Shigehara was OECD Chief Economist and Head of Economics Department (1992–1997); he was subsequently OECD Deputy Secretary-General (1997–1999). It was also discussed in: The history of OECD multilateral surveillance from

6072-429: The given policy area. OECD has a number of specialised bodies: OECD decisions are made through voting, which requires unanimity among all of those voting. Each member country has one vote. However, dissenting members which do not wish to block a decision but merely to signal their disapproval can abstain from voting. 22 of the OECD member countries are also EU member states. As of May 2021 there are 38 members of

6160-438: The number of experiments performed on intact animals, the maintenance of cells in culture normally requires the use of animal-derived serum. Although exact figures are difficult to obtain, some have estimated that one million foetal cows are sacrificed each year to obtain the world's supply of foetal bovine serum, used to grow cultured cells. The testing of cosmetic products directly onto an animal can be minimized or eliminated by

6248-562: The other (such as between OECD and non-OECD pairings). Additionally, the OECD has published and updated the Transfer Pricing Guidelines since 1995. The Transfer Pricing Guidelines serve as a template for the profit allocation of inter-company transactions to countries. The latest version, of July 2017, incorporates the approved Actions developed under the Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) project initiated by

6336-417: The physicochemical and hazard properties of chemicals. Microfluidic chips , which are just 2 cm (0.79 in) wide, can be engraved into a series of small chambers, each containing a sample of tissue from a different part of the body. A substitute of blood flows through micro-channels where the compartments of chips linked. When injected, the test drug circulates around the device, mimicking what goes in

6424-481: The plan include the use of predictive, high-throughput cell-based assays (of human origin) to evaluate perturbations in key toxicity pathways, and to conduct targeted testing against those pathways. This approach will greatly accelerate our ability to test the vast "storehouses" of chemical compounds using a rational, risk-based approach to chemical prioritization, and provide test results that are hopefully far more predictive of human toxicity than current methods. Although

6512-423: The primary right to tax to the country from which capital investment originates (i.e., the home, or resident country) rather than the country in which the investment is made (the host, or source country). As a result, it is most effective between two countries with reciprocal investment flows (such as among the OECD member countries), but can be unbalanced when one of the signatory countries is economically weaker than

6600-507: The same for industrial chemicals, pesticides and drugs) has led to a backlog of more than 80,000 chemicals to which humans are potentially exposed whose potential toxicity remains largely unknown. In 2007, the National Research Council (NRC) released the report "Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy", that charted a long-range strategic plan for transforming toxicity testing. The major components of

6688-519: The skin to a substance. Human skin equivalent tests can be used to replace animal-based corrosive and irritative studies. EpiDerm from Mattek and EpiSkin and SkinEthic RHE model are derived from human skin cells which have been cultured to produce a model of human skin. These methods are currently accepted replacements in Canada and the European Union (EU). In August 2010, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) published

6776-406: The use of in vitro cell growth and development. This can be generalized as the growth of cells outside of the body and tested on without causing harm or pain on the test subject. Much of the time this method of cosmetic testing is less time-consuming and less expensive than alternative choices. Skin irritation and skin corrosion refer to localized toxic effects resulting from a topical exposure of

6864-543: The use of PDMS is still being speculated, even though it has great properties as microfluidic chip. Also, the biological process involved in proliferation and metabolism might be modified when compared to larger scales, because the materials have micro-structured scales comparable in size to cells. Some major academics institutes such as the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering (US) intends to develop in-vitro organs for drug screening and thereby reduce

6952-558: The use of animals for this type of testing. One model is the "lung-on-a-chip". This combines microfabrication techniques with modern tissue engineering and mimics the complicated mechanical and biochemical behaviours of a human lung. Since it's rise in popularity in the early 2010s, the technology has given rise to several start-ups as well as revived several old technologies for a variety of organ models. Even with increasing standardization widescale adoption remains challenging and several specific organ functionalities, such as those relating to

7040-428: The world's fastest computer at the time, BlueGene L , modelled half a mouse brain for just 10 seconds. However, due to limitations in computing power, the simulation could only be run at one-tenth the speed of an actual mouse brain. Although this was an advance in science, its representative power as a model was limited and the researchers were quoted as saying that "although the simulation shared some similarities with

7128-415: Was "Sierra Sam" built in 1949 by Alderson Research Labs (ARL) Sierra Engineering. These dummies continue to be refined. Prior to this, live pigs were used as test subjects for crash testing. Computer models have been constructed to model human metabolism, to study plaque build-up and cardiovascular risk, and to evaluate toxicity of drugs, tasks for which animals are also used. In 2007, US researchers using

7216-709: Was developed through the Framework Programme 7 (FP7) research initiative and was created through a call for proposals by the European Commission (EC) that was published in June 2009. The Cosmetics Europe industry offered to match the EC's funds to make a total of EUR 50 million available to try to fill current gaps in scientific knowledge and accelerate the development of non-animal test methods. Laboratory animals are not restricted to rats, mice, dogs, and rabbits, but also include fish, frogs and birds. Research into alternatives to replace these species

7304-578: Was formed by the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection (BUAV) in honour of its former president, Walter Hadwen . In 1980, Dr Hadwen Trust split from BUAV and became an independent charity. The charity became incorporated as a charitable company (registered charity number 1146896) in 2013. In 2015, the Dr Hadwen Trust became registered as a charity in Scotland (SC045327). In April 2017,

7392-688: Was funded by the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) of the European Commission Environment Programme. The main objectives of the Euroecotox network are: To contribute to the advancement of alternative methods of ecotoxicity testing in Europe. To promote the validation and regulatory acceptance of new alternative ecotoxicity methods. To facilitate the networking of research groups working in the field of alternative ecotoxicology. To provide

7480-745: Was given to OECD by the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) and Cambridge University Press . The award recognized the development of the SDG Pathfinder, an open-access digital discovery tool for finding content and data relating to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The OECD's structure consists of three main elements: Delegates from the member countries attend committee and other meetings. Former Deputy Secretary-General Pierre Vinde  [ sv ] estimated in 1997 that

7568-457: Was introduced in Q2 2013. The OECD Observer was last issued in the fourth quarter of 2019, with a double edition looking ahead at artificial intelligence, and a cover leading on why statistical offices should hire a comedian. The OECD Observer website closed in the first quarter of 2021; the archive can be consulted at www.oecd.org. The OECD's multilateral surveillance was systematically reviewed for

7656-478: Was launched in 1962. The magazine appeared six times a year until 2010, and became quarterly in 2011 with the introduction of the OECD Yearbook , launched for the 50th anniversary of the organisation. The online and mobile editions contained news, analysis, reviews, commentaries and data on global economic, social and environmental challenges and listings of the latest OECD books. An OECD Observer Crossword

7744-752: Was promoted by the Biden Administration in the United States and the OECD. Secretary-General Mathias Cormann of the OECD said, "This historic package will ensure that large multinational companies pay their fair share of tax everywhere." The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises are a set of legally non-binding guidelines attached as an annex to the OECD Declaration on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises. They are recommendations providing principles and standards for responsible business conduct for multinational corporations operating in or from countries adhering to

#25974