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172-537: The Doukhobors ( Canadian spelling ) or Dukhobors ( Russian : духоборы, духоборцы , romanized :  dukhobory, dukhobortsy ; lit.   ' Spirit-warriors, Spirit-wrestlers ' ) are a Spiritual Christian ethnoreligious group of Russian origin. They are known for their pacifism and tradition of oral history , hymn-singing, and verse . They reject the Russian Orthodox priesthood and associated rituals, believing that personal revelation

344-445: A similar vowel shift since the 1980s. Canadian English as an academic field of inquiry solidified around the time of World War II. While early linguistic approaches date back to the second half of the 19th century, the first textbook to consider Canadian English in one form or another was not published until 1940. Walter S. Avis was its most forceful spokesperson after WWII until the 1970s. His team of lexicographers managed to date

516-457: A European settlement history that dates back centuries, which explains Newfoundland's most notable linguistic regions: an Irish-settled area in the southeast (the southern Avalon Peninsula) and an English-settled area in the southwest. A well-known phonetic feature many Newfoundland speakers possess is the kit-dress merger . The mid lax /ɛ/ here is raised to the high lax stressed /ɪ/, particularly before oral stops and nasals, so consequently "pen"

688-635: A believer at baptism , and are traditionally derived from Isaiah 11:1–2, although the New Testament does not refer to Isaiah 11:1–2 regarding these gifts. These 7 gifts are: wisdom , understanding , counsel , fortitude (strength), knowledge , piety and fear of the Lord . This is the view of the Catholic Church and many other mainstream Christian groups. Christian denominations have doctrinal variations in their beliefs regarding

860-564: A class-based sociolect known as Canadian dainty . Treated as a marker of upper-class prestige in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Canadian dainty was marked by the use of some features of British English pronunciation, resulting in an accent similar, but not identical, to the Mid-Atlantic accent known in the United States. This accent faded in prominence following World War II , when it became stigmatized as pretentious, and

1032-700: A close relationship between the Holy Spirit and Jesus during his earthly life and ministry . The Apostles' Creed echoes the statements in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, stating that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary. Specific New Testament references to the interaction of Jesus and the Holy Spirit during his earthly life, and the enabling power of the Holy Spirit during his ministry include: In his Farewell Discourse to his disciples, Jesus promised that he would "send

1204-468: A common North American English sound system. The mainstream Canadian accent ("Standard Canadian") is often compared to the General American accent, a middle ground lacking in noticeable regional features. Western Canada (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba) shows the largest dialect diversity. Northern Canada is, according to William Labov , a dialect region in formation where

1376-828: A continuum between the two extremes of the Halifax variant and the Newfoundland variant. In addition, there is heavy influence of standard varieties of Canadian English on Cape Breton English, especially in the diphthongization of the goat and goose vowels and the frequent use of Canadian raising. Compared to the commonly spoken English dominating neighbouring provinces, Newfoundland English is famously distinct in its dialects and accents. Newfoundland English differs in vowel pronunciation , morphology , syntax , and preservation of archaic adverbial-intensifiers. The dialect varies markedly from community to community, as well as from region to region. Its distinctiveness partly results from

1548-518: A dialect that is distinct from southern Canadian English. Overall, First Nations Canada English dialects rest between language loss and language revitalization. British Columbia has the greatest linguistic diversity, as it is home to about half of the Indigenous languages spoken in Canada. Most of the languages spoken in the province are endangered due to the small number of speakers. To some extent,

1720-441: A great extent, which has allowed the proposal of dialect zones. Dollinger and Clarke distinguish between: The words Aboriginal and Indigenous are capitalized when used in a Canadian context. First Nations and Inuit from Northern Canada speak a version of Canadian English influenced by the phonology of their first languages. Non-indigenous Canadians in these regions are relatively recent arrivals, and have not produced

1892-470: A higher first vowel in the diphthong) and no Trap-bath split . Canadian raising is when the onsets of diphthongs /aɪ/ and /aʊ/ get raised to [ ə ] or [ ʌ ] before voiceless segments. There are areas in the eastern U.S. where some words are pronounced with Canadian raising. Some young Canadians may show Goose- fronting . U.S. southern dialects have long had goose-fronting, but this goose-fronting among young Canadians and Californians

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2064-675: A homogeneous English dialect has not yet formed. Labov's research focused on urban areas, and did not survey the country, but they found similarities among the English spoken in Ottawa, Toronto, Calgary, Edmonton and Vancouver. Labov identifies an "Inland Canada" region that concentrates all of the defining features of the dialect centred on the Prairies (a region in Western Canada that mainly includes Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba and

2236-410: A marker of Halifax English as a distinctive variant of Canadian English. Typically, Canadian dialects have a merger of the low back vowels in palm, lot, thought and cloth. The merged vowel in question is usually /ɑ/ or sometimes the rounded variant /ɒ/. Meanwhile, in Halifax, the vowel is raised and rounded. For example, body; popped; and gone. In the homophones, caught-cot and stalk-stock, the rounding in

2408-649: A national dictionary Consortium. The Consortium comprises the Editors' Association of Canada, the UBC Canadian English Lab, and Queen's University 's Strategy Language Unit. It is quite common for Canadian English speakers to have the cot-caught merger , the father-bother merger , the Low-Back-Merger Shift (with the vowel in words such as "trap" moving backwards), Canadian raising (words such as "like" and "about" pronounced with

2580-431: A past in which there were few roads and many communities, with some isolated villages. Into the 1980s, residents of villages in northern Nova Scotia could identify themselves by dialects and accents distinctive to their village. The dialects of Prince Edward Island are often considered the most distinct grouping. The phonology of Maritimer English has some unique features: As with many other distinct dialects, vowels are

2752-563: A period of more than two centuries. The first large wave of permanent English-speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the most important, was the influx of Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution , chiefly from the Mid-Atlantic States —as such, Canadian English is believed by some scholars to have derived from northern American English . Canadian English has been developing features of its own since

2924-466: A person, because of the rural provenance, would not be included in the accepted definition (see the previous section). The Atlas of North American English , while being the best source for US regional variation, is not a good source for Canadian regional variation, as its analysis is based on only 33 Canadian speakers. Boberg's (2005, 2008) studies offer the best data for the delimitation of dialect zones. The results for vocabulary and phonetics overlap to

3096-515: A residential school in New Denver, British Columbia . Abuse of the interned children was later alleged. In less than fifty years, the Sons of Freedom committed 1,112 separate acts of violence and arson, costing over $ 20 million in damages; these acts include bombing and arson attacks on public schools, bombings of Canadian railway bridges and tracks, the bombing of a courthouse at Nelson , and

3268-551: A sect of people that were excused from military service. This difference in perspective produced much political prejudice towards the Doukhobours. Tumultuous political posturing and years of polarized social disagreements eventually brought some Doukhobours to the point of protests aimed at maintaining their simple, non-materialistic, and autonomous communal living. The Doukhobor faction known as Sons of Freedom conducted nude marches and carried out night-time arson attacks, which

3440-552: A series of leaders. The origin of the Doukhobors is uncertain; they first appear in first written records from 1701. The Doukhobors traditionally ate bread and borsch . Some of their food-related religious symbols are bread, salt, and water. In the 17th-and-18th-century Russian Empire , the first recorded Doukhobors concluded clergy and formal rituals are unnecessary, believing in God's presence in every human being. They rejected

3612-639: A significant impact on Canadian English's origins as well as again in the 20th century and since then as a result of increased cultural and economic ties between the two countries. American English terms like gasoline, truck, and apartment are commonly used in Canadian English. The growth of Canadian media, including television, film, and literature, has also played a role in shaping Canadian English. Chambers (1998) notes that Canadian media has helped to create new words and expressions that reflect Canadian culture and values. Canadian institutions, such as

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3784-544: A third "party", was about 5,000 miles (8,000 km) east in Amur Oblast . At the same time, the Russian government applied greater pressure to enforce the Doukhobors' compliance with its laws and regulations. The Doukhobors had resisted registering marriages and births, contributing grain to state emergency funds, and swearing oaths of allegiance. In 1887, Russia extended universal military conscription, which applied to

3956-861: A three-way split of the Doukhobor immigrants in Canada: Of these groupings, the Independents integrated the most readily into Canadian capitalist society. They had no problem registering their land groups and largely remained in Saskatchewan. In 1939, they definitely rejected the authority of Peter Verigin's great-grandson John J. Verigin, Sr. In 1908, to remove his followers from the corrupting influence of non-Doukhobors and edinolichniki (individual owners) Doukhobors, and to find better conditions for agriculture, Verigin bought large tracts of land in south-eastern British Columbia . His first purchase

4128-631: A topic in at least two papal encyclicals: The topic of the Holy Spirit is discussed extensively in the Catechism of the Catholic Church as "I believe in the Holy Spirit" in paragraphs 683 through 747. Jehovah's Witnesses and Christadelphians view the Holy Spirit not as an actual person separate from God the Father, but as God's eternal "energy" or "active force", that he uses to accomplish his will in creation and redemption. Members of

4300-514: Is Dollinger (2012, updated to 2017). Until the 2000s, basically all commentators on the history of CanE have argued from the "language-external" history, i.e. social and political history. An exception has been in the area of lexis, where Avis et al. 's 1967 Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles offered real-time historical data through its quotations. Starting in the 2000s, historical linguists have started to study earlier Canadian English with historical linguistic data. DCHP-1

4472-560: Is believed to be fundamentally eternal, uncreated, and self-existent. The LDS Church teaches that the influence of the Holy Ghost can be received before baptism, but the gift, or constant companionship, of the Holy Ghost ;– which comes by the laying-on of hands by a properly ordained priesthood holder with a line of authority traced back to Christ through Peter – is obtained only after baptism when

4644-415: Is composed of light and fire . The most characteristic sign of the presence of the ruach ha-kodesh is the gift of prophecy. The use of the word "ruach" (Hebrew: "breath", or "wind") in the phrase ruach ha-kodesh seems to suggest that Judaic authorities believed the Holy Spirit was a kind of communication medium like the wind. The spirit talks sometimes with a masculine and sometimes with a feminine voice;

4816-659: Is different from the Father and the Son in that he proceeds from the Father (and, according to Roman Catholics , Old Catholics , Lutherans , Anglicans , and other Protestants , from the Father and the Son ) as described in the Nicene Creed . The Triune God is thus manifested as three Persons ( Greek hypostases ), in One Divine Being ( Greek : Ousia ), called the Godhead ( from Old English: Godhood ),

4988-495: Is higher than among the general population. Twenty-eight percent of the self-identified Doukhobors in 2001 were over 65 (born before 1936), as compared to 12% of the entire population of Canadian respondents. The aging of the denomination is accompanied by its shrinkage, starting in the 1960s: Canadian spelling Canadian English ( CanE , CE , en-CA ) encompasses the varieties of English used in Canada . According to

5160-545: Is known for its grasslands and plains), with more variable patterns including the metropolitan areas of Vancouver and Toronto. This dialect forms a dialect continuum with Western US English , sharply differentiated from Inland Northern US English of the central and eastern Great Lakes region where the Northern Cities Shift is sending front vowels in the opposite direction to the Low-Back-Merger Shift heard in Canada and California. Standard Canadian English

5332-546: Is more important than the Bible. Facing persecution by the Russian government for their nonorthodox beliefs, many migrated to Canada between 1899 and 1938, where most currently reside. In Russia, Dukhobortsy were variously portrayed as " folk-Protestants ", Spiritual Christians , sectarians , and heretics . Among their core beliefs is the rejection of materialism . They also reject the Russian Orthodox priesthood ,

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5504-408: Is more recent. Some young Californians also show signs of the Low-Back-Merger Shift . The cot-caught merger is perhaps not general in the U.S., but younger speakers seem more likely to have it. The Canadian Oxford Dictionary lists words such as "no" and "way" as having a long monophthong vowel sound, whereas American dictionaries usually have these words ending in an upglide. There may be areas of

5676-405: Is no generally agreed upon exhaustive list of the gifts, and various Christian denominations use different lists, often drawing upon 1 Corinthians , Romans 12 and Ephesians 4. Pentecostal denominations and the charismatic movement teach that the absence of the supernatural gifts was due to the neglect of the Holy Spirit and his work by the major denominations. Believers in the relevance of

5848-481: Is not as strong as it is in the rest of the province. In Prescott and Russell , parts of Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry and Eastern Ottawa, French accents are often mixed with English ones due to the high Franco-Ontarian population there. In Lanark County , Western Ottawa and Leeds-Grenville and the rest of Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry , the accent spoken is nearly identical to that spoken in Central Ontario and

6020-410: Is not made. Nor is He liable to passions as far as belongs to that substance whereby He is God. ...So the Father is omnipotent, the Son omnipotent, and the Holy Spirit is omnipotent; yet not three omnipotents, but one omnipotent . ...Whatever, therefore, is spoken of God in respect to Himself, is both spoken singly of each Person , that is, of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit; and together of

6192-513: Is not unique to Toronto; Atlanta is often pronounced "Atlanna" by residents. Sometimes /ð/ is elided altogether, resulting in "Do you want this one er'iss one?" The word southern is often pronounced with [aʊ] . In the area north of the Regional Municipality of York and south of Parry Sound , notably among those who were born in the surrounding communities, the cutting down of syllables and consonants often heard, e.g. "probably"

6364-521: Is not ye that speak, but the Holy Spirit." Matthew 10:20 refers to the same act of speaking through the disciples, but uses the term "Spirit of your Father". The Acts of the Apostles has sometimes been called the "Book of the Holy Spirit" or the "Acts of the Holy Spirit". Of the seventy or so occurrences of the word Pneuma in Acts, fifty-five refer to the Holy Spirit. From the start, in Acts 1:2,

6536-490: Is now available in open access. Most notably, Dollinger (2008) pioneered the historical corpus linguistic approach for English in Canada with CONTE (Corpus of Early Ontario English, 1776–1849) and offers a developmental scenario for 18th- and 19th-century Ontario. In 2015, Reuter confirmed the scenario laid out in Dollinger (2008), using a 19th-century newspaper corpus from Ontario. Historically, Canadian English included

6708-506: Is now rare. The governor general Vincent Massey and the actor Christopher Plummer are examples of men raised in Canada, but who spoke with a British-influenced accent. Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American conventions, the two dominant varieties, and adds some domestic idiosyncrasies. For many words, American and British spelling are both acceptable. Spelling in Canadian English co-varies with regional and social variables, somewhat more so, perhaps, than in

6880-739: Is particularly strong in the County of Bruce, so much that it is commonly referred to as being the Bruce Cownian (Bruce Countian) accent. Also, /ɜr/ merge with /ɛr/ to [ɛɹ] , with "were" sounding more like "wear". Residents of the Golden Horseshoe (including the Greater Toronto Area ) are known to merge the second /t/ with the /n/ in Toronto , pronouncing the name variously as [təˈɹɒɾ̃o] or [ˈtɹɒɾ̃o] . This

7052-413: Is pronounced more like "pin". Another phonetic feature more unique to Newfoundland English is TH-stopping. Here, the voiceless dental fricative /θ/ in words like myth and width are pronounced more like t or the voiced dental fricative /ð/ in words like the and these . TH-stopping is more common for /ð/, especially in unstressed function words (e.g. that, those, their, etc.). Canadian raising

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7224-503: Is quite rare in the region today. Holy Spirit (Christianity) The New Testament details a close relationship between the Holy Spirit and Jesus during his earthly life and ministry . The Gospels of Matthew and Luke and the Nicene Creed state that Jesus was "conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary ". The Holy Spirit descended on Jesus like a dove during his baptism , and in his Farewell Discourse after

7396-526: Is quite strong throughout the province of Ontario , except within the Ottawa Valley . The introduction of Canadian raising to Canada can be attributed to the Scottish and Irish immigrants who arrived in the 18th and 19th centuries. The origins of Canadian raising to Scotland and revealed that the Scottish dialects spoken by these immigrants had a probable impact on its development. This feature impacts

7568-426: Is reduced to "prolly" or "probly" when used as a response. In Greater Toronto, the diphthong tends to be fronted (as a result the word about is pronounced as [əˈbɛʊt] ). The Greater Toronto Area is linguistically diverse, with 43 percent of its people having a mother tongue other than English. As a result Toronto English has distinctly more variability than Inland Canada. In Eastern Ontario , Canadian raising

7740-623: Is reflected in the saying: "Before there was a 'doctrine' of the Trinity, Christian prayer invoked the Holy Trinity". For the majority of Christian denominations, the Holy Spirit is the third Person of the Holy Trinity – Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and is Almighty God . As such he is personal and also fully God, co-equal and co-eternal with God the Father and the Son of God . He

7912-668: Is socially defined. Standard Canadian English is spoken by those who live in urban Canada, in a middle-class job (or one of their parents holds such employment), who are second generation or later (born and raised in Canada) and speak English as (one of their) dominant language(s) (Dollinger 2019a, adapted from Chambers 1998). It is the variety spoken, in Chambers' (1998: 252) definition, by Anglophone or multilingual residents, who are second generation or later (i.e. born in Canada) and who live in urban settings. Applying this definition, c. 36% of

8084-488: Is still unknown who was responsible for the bombing. While the Doukhobors were initially welcomed by the Canadian government, this assassination, as well as Doukhobors' beliefs regarding communal living, their intolerance for schooling, and other beliefs considered offensive or unacceptable, created a decades-long mistrust between government authorities and Doukhobors. Peter V. Verigin's son Peter P. Verigin, who arrived from

8256-443: The 2016 census , English was the first language of 19.4 million Canadians or 58.1% of the total population; the remainder spoke French (20.8%) or other languages (21.1%). In the Canadian province of Quebec , only 7.5% of the population are mother tongue anglophone , as most of Quebec's residents are native speakers of Quebec French . The most widespread variety of Canadian English is Standard Canadian English , spoken in all

8428-554: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) believe that the Holy Ghost is the third member of the Godhead , and is a personage of spirit, without a body of flesh and bones. Unlike in many other denominations, the term "Holy Ghost" remains much more common than "Holy Spirit" in LDS contexts. Nevertheless, the Holy Ghost is sometimes referred to as the Spirit, the Holy Spirit,

8600-613: The Dominion Military Act in late 1898, the Canadian Government exempted the Doukhobors from military service. The land for the Doukhobor immigrants, in total 773,400 acres (3,130 km) within what was to soon become the Province of Saskatchewan , came in three block settlement areas or "reserves", and an annex: North and South Colonies, and Good Spirit Lake Annex, were located around Yorkton near

8772-723: The Governor General of Canada to issue an order-in-council directing that government papers be written in the British style. A contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for Hansard transcripts of the Parliament of Canada (see The Canadian Style in Further reading below) . Many Canadian editors, though, use the Canadian Oxford Dictionary , often along with

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8944-528: The Johannine writings . The "Spirit of Truth" is used in John 14:17, 15:26, and 16:13. The First Epistle of John then contrasts this with the "spirit of error" in 1 John 4:6. 1 John 4:1–6 provides the separation between spirits "that confesseth that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh is of God" and those who in error refuse it – an indication of their being evil spirits. In John 14:26, Jesus states: "But

9116-667: The Kedabek uyezd of Elisabethpol Governorate . In 1844, Doukhobors who were being exiled from their home near Melitopol to the village of Bogdanovka carved the Doukhobor Memorial Stone , which is now held in the collection of the Melitopol Museum of Local History . After Russia's conquest of Kars and the Treaty of San Stefano of 1878, some Doukhobors from Tiflis and Elisabethpol Governorates moved to

9288-582: The Last Supper , Jesus promised to send the Holy Spirit to his disciples after his departure. The Holy Spirit is referred to as "the Lord, the Giver of Life" in the Nicene Creed , which summarises several key beliefs held by many Christian denominations. The participation of the Holy Spirit in the tripartite nature of conversion is apparent in Jesus' final post-resurrection instruction to his disciples at

9460-575: The Molochnaya River around Melitopol in modern-day southern Ukraine . This was motivated by the desire to quickly populate the rich steppe lands on the north shore of the Black and Azov Seas , and to prevent the "heretics" from contaminating the population of the heartland with their ideas. Many Doukhobors, as well as Mennonites from Prussia , accepted the Emperor's offer and travelled to

9632-602: The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed . During the same time, the question of procession of the Holy Spirit was addressed by various Christian theologians, expressing diverse views and using different terminology, thus initiating the debate that became focused on the Filioqu e clause. In 589, the Third Council of Toledo in its third canon officially accepted the doctrine of the procession of

9804-681: The Old English gast and the other from the Latin loanword spiritus . Like pneuma , they both refer to the breath , to its animating power , and to the soul . The Old English term is shared by all other Germanic languages (compare, e.g., the German Geist ) and it is older; the King James Bible typically uses "Holy Ghost". Beginning in the 20th century, translations overwhelmingly prefer "Holy Spirit", partly because

9976-612: The Parliament of Canada responded by criminalizing public nudity . Over 300 radical Doukhobor men and women were arrested for this offence, which typically carried a three-year prison sentence. Doukhobors could not vote in British Columbia until 1952. They were the last ethnic or religious community to be granted suffrage in the province. The Sons of Freedom, a break away protest sect identifying as svodoniki (sovereign, free people) in 1902, used nudism and arson as visible methods of protest. They protested against materialism,

10148-709: The Prairies or Atlantic Canada and men. In the southern part of Southwestern Ontario (roughly in the line south from Sarnia to St. Catharines), despite the existence of many characteristics of West/Central Canadian English, many speakers, especially those under 30, speak a dialect influenced by the Inland Northern American English dialect (in part due to proximity to cities like Detroit and Buffalo, New York) though there are minor differences such as Canadian raising (e.g. "ice" vs "my"). The north and northwestern parts of Southwestern Ontario,

10320-468: The Quinte area. A linguistic enclave has also formed in the Ottawa Valley , heavily influenced by original Scottish, Irish, and German settlers, and existing along the Ontario-Quebec boundary, which has its own distinct accent known as the Ottawa Valley twang (or brogue). Phonetically, the Ottawa Valley twang is characterized by the lack of Canadian raising as well as the cot–caught merger , two common elements of mainstream Canadian English. This accent

10492-412: The Senior Dictionary, edited by Robert John Gregg , was renamed Gage Canadian Dictionary . Its fifth edition was printed beginning in 1997. Gage was acquired by Thomson Nelson around 2003. The latest editions were published in 2009 by HarperCollins . On 17 March 2017 a second edition of DCHP, the online Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles 2 (DCHP-2), was published. DCHP-2 incorporates

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10664-418: The end of the Gospel of Matthew , "Make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them into the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit." Since the first century, Christians have also called upon God with the trinitarian formula "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" in prayer, absolution and benediction. In the book of the Acts of the Apostles the arrival of the Holy Spirit happens fifty days after

10836-556: The use of icons , and all associated church rituals. Doukhobors believe the Bible alone is not enough to reach divine revelation and that doctrinal conflicts can interfere with their faith. Biblical teachings are evident in some published Doukhobor psalms , hymns, and beliefs. Since arriving in Canada, parts of the Old Testament , but more profoundly the New Testament , were at the core of most Doukhobor beliefs. There continue to be spiritually progressive thinkers who, through introspection and debate, search for divine revelation to improve

11008-800: The "Book of Life" (Russian: Zhivotnaya kniga ), de facto replaced the written Bible. Their teaching is founded on this tradition. The Book of Life of the Doukhobors (1909) is the first printed hymnal containing songs in the Southern Russian dialect , which were composed to be sung aloud. Their prayer meetings and gatherings are dominated by the singing of a cappella psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. In 2001, an estimated 20,000–40,000 people of Doukhobor heritage lived in Canada, 3,800 of whom claimed "Doukhobor" as their religious affiliation. An estimated 30,000 people of Doukhobor heritage live in Russia and neighbouring countries. In 2011, there were 2,290 persons in Canada who identified their religious affiliation as "Doukhobor"; in Russia there were 50 such persons by

11180-402: The "works of the flesh" and highlight the positive manifestations of the work of the Holy Spirit in believers. The " gifts of the Holy Spirit " are distinct from the Fruit of the Spirit, and consist of specific abilities granted to the individual Christian. They are frequently known by the Greek word for gift, charisma , in English charism , from which the term charismatic derives. There

11352-420: The 19th century, according to SA Inikova, the dissenters adopted the name "Doukhobors" usually in a shorter form Doukhobory (Russian: духоборы , dukhobory ), implying they are fighting alongside rather than against the Holy Spirit. The first known use of the spelling Doukhobor is in a 1799 government edict exiling 90 of the group to Finland; presumably the Vyborg area, which was part of the Russian Empire at

11524-407: The CBC and the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, have also played a role in promoting and defining Canadian English. In addition to these influences, Canadian English has also been minorly shaped by Indigenous languages. Indigenous words such as moose, toboggan, and moccasin have become part of the Canadian English lexicon. Canadian English is the product of five waves of immigration and settlement over

11696-428: The Canadian English lexicon. An important influence on Canadian English was British English, which was brought to Canada by British settlers in the 18th and 19th centuries. Canadian English borrowed many words and expressions from British English, including words like lorry, flat, and lift. However, Canadian English also developed its own unique vocabulary, including words like tuque, chesterfield, and double-double. In

11868-463: The Canadian plains. Religious a cappella singing, pacifism, and passive resistance were markers of the sect. One subgroup occasionally demonstrated naked, typically as a protest against compulsory military service. Their policies made them controversial. The modern descendants of the first wave of Doukhobor emigrants continue to live in southeastern British Columbia communities such as Krestova , and in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan . As of 1999,

12040-501: The Canadian population speak Standard Canadian English in the 2006 population, with 38% in the 2011 census. The literature has for a long time conflated the notions of Standard Canadian English (StCE) and regional variation. While some regional dialects are close to Standard Canadian English, they are not identical to it. To the untrained ear, for instance, a BC middle-class speaker from a rural setting may seemingly be speaking Standard Canadian English, but, given Chambers' definition, such

12212-401: The Comforter, [even] the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, he shall teach you all things". The identity of the "Comforter" has been the subject of debate among theologians, who have proposed multiple theories on the matter. The Holy Spirit plays a key role in the Pauline epistles ; and the Apostle Paul 's pneumatology is closely connected to his theology and Christology , to

12384-547: The Community Doukhobors left Saskatchewan, the reserves there were closed by 1918. On October 29, 1924, Peter V. Verigin was killed in a bomb explosion on a scheduled passenger train en route to British Columbia. The government had initially stated the bombing was perpetrated by people within the Doukhobor community, although no arrests were made because of the Doukhobors' customary refusal to cooperate with Canadian authorities due to fear of intersect violence. It

12556-652: The Divine Essence of God. In the New Testament, by the power of the Holy Spirit Jesus was conceived in the womb of the Virgin Mary , while maintaining her virginity . The Holy Spirit descended over Jesus in a corporeal way, as a dove, at the time of his baptism , and a voice from Heaven was heard: "This is my beloved Son with whom I am well pleased." He is the Sanctifier, the Helper, Comforter,

12728-432: The Doukhobor commune and Verigin's house. The highly publicized acts by the Sons of Freedom were repeatedly mislabeled with the word "Doukhobor", confusing the different groups and anguishing many law biding assimilated descendants of Canadian Doukhobors. During 1947 and 1948, Sullivan's Royal Commission investigated acts of arson and bombing attacks in British Columbia and recommended several measures intended to integrate

12900-579: The Doukhobor way of life. Industrious Doukhobors made their collective farms prosperous, often specializing in cheesemaking . Of the Doukhobor communities in the Soviet Union, those in South Georgia were the most sheltered from outside influence because of their geographic isolation in mountainous terrain, their location near the international border, and concomitant travel restrictions for outsiders. Doukhobor oral holy hymns, which they call

13072-667: The Doukhobors gained international attention and the Russian Empire was criticized for its treatment of this religious minority. In 1897, the Russian government agreed to let the Doukhobors leave the country, subject to conditions: Emigrants initially attempted to settle in Cyprus . Cyprus was, at the time, recognized as a possession of the Ottoman Empire , but in the wake of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) ,

13244-497: The Doukhobors into Canadian society, notably through the education of their children in public schools. Around that time, the provincial government entered into direct negotiations with the Freedomite leadership. W. A. C. Bennett 's Social Credit government, which came to power in 1952, took a harder stance against the "Doukhobor problem." In 1953, 174 children of the Sons of Freedom were forcibly interned by government agents in

13416-554: The Doukhobors' communitarian tradition but a "Hamlet Clause" within the Act had been adopted 15 years earlier to accommodate other communitarian groups such as Mennonites . The clause allowed beneficiaries of the Act to live in a hamlet within 3 miles (4.8 km) from their land rather than on the land itself. This allowed the Doukhobors to establish a communal lifestyle similar to that of the Hutterites . Also, by passing Section 21 of

13588-725: The Father" and then have a stop, as the creed was initially adopted in Greek (and followed thereafter by the Eastern Church), or should say "from the Father and the Son" as was later adopted in Latin and followed by the Western Church, filioque being "and from the Son" in Latin. Towards the end of the 20th century, discussions took place about the removal of Filioque in the Nicene Creed from Anglican prayer books along

13760-579: The Giver of graces, he who leads persons to the Father and the Son. The Holy Spirit is credited with inspiring believers and allowing for them to interpret all the sacred scripture, and leads prophets both in Old Testament and New Testament . Christians receive the Fruits of the Holy Spirit by means of his mercy and grace . The Christian doctrine of the Trinity includes the concept of God

13932-577: The Holy Spirit appear throughout Acts, for example Acts 1:5 and 8 stating towards the beginning, "For John indeed baptized with water; but ye shall be baptized in the Holy Spirit. ...Ye shall receive power, when the Holy Spirit is come upon you", referring to the fulfillment of the prophecy of John the Baptist in Luke 3:16, "he shall baptize you in the Holy Spirit". Three separate terms, namely Holy Spirit , Spirit of Truth and Paraclete are used in

14104-594: The Holy Spirit as responsible for Mary's pregnancy, found in the Synoptic Gospels, is different from that found in the apocryphal Gospel of the Hebrews , adopted as canonical by the 4th century Nazarenes , in which Jesus speaks of the Holy Spirit as his mother and thus as female. Some thought femininity incompatible with the idea that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit; according to the apocryphal Gospel of Philip , for example, The New Testament details

14276-502: The Holy Spirit descended on Jesus during his baptism in the Jordan River. In Luke 11:13, Jesus provided assurances that God the Father would "give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him". Mark 13:11 specifically refers to the power of the Holy Spirit to act and speak through the disciples of Jesus in time of need: "Be not anxious beforehand what ye shall speak: but whatsoever shall be given you in that hour, that speak ye; for it

14448-404: The Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son ( a Patre et Filio procedere ). During the next few centuries, two distinctive schools of thought were gradually shaped, Eastern and Western. Eastern theologians were teaching that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father only (notion referred as monoprocessionism ), while Western theologians were teaching that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and

14620-533: The Holy Spirit" to them after his departure, in John 15:26 stating: "whom I will send unto you from the Father, [even] the Spirit of truth ... shall bear witness of me". The theology of spirits is called pneumatology. The Holy Spirit is referred to as the Lord and Giver of Life in the Nicene creed . He is the Creator Spirit, present before the creation of the universe and through his power everything

14792-487: The Holy Spirit, along with God the Son and God the Father . Theologian Vladimir Lossky has argued that while, in the act of the Incarnation , God the Son became manifest as the Son of God , the same did not take place for God the Holy Spirit which remained unrevealed. Yet, as in 1 Corinthians 6:19, God the Spirit continues to dwell in the faithful. In a similar way, the Latin treatise De Trinitate ( On

14964-539: The Holy Spirit, as in Romans 8:4 and 8:11: "But if the Spirit of him that raised up Jesus from the dead dwelleth in you, he that raised up Christ Jesus from the dead shall give life also to your mortal bodies through his Spirit that dwelleth in you." The First Epistle to the Thessalonians also refers to the power of the Holy Spirit in 1 Thessalonians 1:5, a theme also found in other Pauline letters. The view of

15136-571: The Holy Spirit. A well-known example is the Filioque controversy regarding the Holy Spirit – one of the key differences between the teachings of the main Western Churches and various Eastern Christian denominations ( Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox , Church of the East ). The Filioque debate centers around whether the Nicene Creed should state that the Spirit "proceeds from

15308-503: The Lord, having received the word in much affliction, with joy of the Holy Spirit", whose source is identified in 1 Thessalonians 4:8 as "God, who giveth his Holy Spirit unto you". These two themes of receiving the Spirit "like Christ" and God being the source of the Spirit persist in Pauline letters as the characterization of the relationship of Christians with God. For Paul the imitation of Christ involves readiness to be shaped by

15480-645: The Minister of the Interior, wanted the Doukhobors in Canada; he arranged financial subsidies to allow them to migrate. Due to the community's aversion to private ownership of land, Verigin had the land registered in the name of the community. By 1906, the Canadian Government's new Minister of the Interior Frank Oliver started requiring the registration of land in the name of individual owners. Many Doukhobors refused to comply, resulting in 1907 in

15652-586: The Molochnaya from other provinces of the Empire over the next 20 years. When Nicholas I succeeded Alexander as Tsar, on February 6, 1826, he issued a decree intending to force the assimilation of the Doukhobors through military conscription, prohibiting their meetings, and encouraging conversions to the established church. On October 20, 1830, another decree followed, specifying all able-bodied members of dissenting religious groups engaged in propaganda against

15824-825: The Ottoman Empire had granted the United Kingdom the right to administer the island in exchange for support in its continuing conflict with the Russian Empire . This fact made the potential settlement of the Russian Doukhobors a politically-sensitive question among some in the British government, but after Quaker supporters both made assurances of the Doukhobors' political inoffensiveness and provided financial guarantees against their potential indigency, officials permitted over 1,000 Doukhobors to establish farming settlements in several locations on

15996-597: The Russian government issued an edict against ikonobortsy (those who reject icons), condemning them as iconoclasts . The first-known Doukhobor leader was Siluan (Silvan) Kolesnikov ( Russian : Силуан Колесников ), who was active from 1755 to 1775. Kolesnikov lived in the village Nikolskoye, Yekaterinoslav Governorate , in modern-day south-central Ukraine . Kolesnikov was familiar with the works of Western mystics such as Karl von Eckartshausen and Louis Claude de Saint-Martin . The early Doukhobors called themselves "God's People" or "Christians." Their modern name, first in

16168-612: The Son (notion referred as filioquism ). In Mystagogy of the Holy Spirit , Photios I of Constantinople sets out the Eastern position. Debates and controversies between the two sides became a significant point of difference within Christian pneumatology , including their historical role in setting the stage for the Great Schism of 1054 . The fruit of the Holy Spirit consists of "permanent dispositions" (in this similar to

16340-477: The Soviet Union in 1928, succeeded his father as leader of the Community Doukhobors. He became known as "Peter the Purger" ( Chistiakov ) and worked to smooth relations between the Community Doukhobors and wider Canadian society. The governments in Ottawa and the western provinces concluded he was the closet leader of the Sons of Freedom and was perhaps a dangerous Bolshevik . The governments decided to deport him, use

16512-486: The Spirit of God, the Spirit of the Lord, or the Comforter. Latter-day Saints believe in a kind of social trinitarianism and subordinationism , meaning that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost are understood as being unified in will and purpose, but not in substance. The Holy Ghost is believed to be subordinate to the Father and the Son and operates under their direction. The Holy Ghost, like all intelligent beings,

16684-438: The Spirit", relying on Acts 1:5 which refers to "now you will baptize with the Holy Spirit". The more recent Charismatic movements have a focus on the "gifts of the Spirit" (such as healing, prophecy, etc.) and rely on 1 Corinthians 12 as a scriptural basis, but often differ from Pentecostal movements. Non-trinitarian views about the Holy Spirit differ significantly from mainstream Christian doctrine. The Holy Spirit has been

16856-519: The Trinity ) of Augustine of Hippo affirms: "For as the Father is God, and the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, which no one doubts to be said in respect to substance, yet we do not say that the very Supreme Trinity itself is three Gods, but one God. ...But position, and condition, and places, and times, are not said to be in God properly, but metaphorically and through similitudes . ...And as respects action (or making), perhaps it may be said most truly of God alone, for God alone makes and Himself

17028-405: The Trinity itself, not plurally but in the singular." In Christian theology the Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith. The new believer is "born again of the Spirit". The Holy Spirit enables Christian life by dwelling in

17200-443: The U.S. near the border where you hear the monophthong, eg. Fargo or Minnesota. The monophthong does sound stereotypically "Canadian" (listen to for example Bob and Doug McKenzie ), but not all Canadians use this pronunciation. In terms of the major sound systems ( phonologies ) of English around the world, Canadian English aligns most closely to American English. Some dialectologists group Canadian and American English together under

17372-737: The Zarushat and Shuragel uyezds of the newly created Kars Oblast to the north-east of Kars in the modern-day Republic of Turkey . The leader of the main group of Doukhobors, who arrived in Transcaucasia from Ukraine in 1841, was Illarion Kalmykov ( Russian : Илларион Калмыков ). He died in the same year and was succeeded as the community leader by his son Peter Kalmykov (?–1864). After Peter Kalmykov's death in 1864, his widow Lukerya Vasilyevna Gubanova (? – December 15, 1886; (Russian: Лукерья Васильевна Губанова ); also known as Kalmykova) took his leadership position. The Kalmykov dynasty lived in

17544-614: The area consisting of the Counties of Huron , Bruce , Grey , and Perth , referred to as the "Queen's Bush" in the 19th century, did not experience communication with the dialects of the southern part of Southwestern Ontario and Central Ontario until the early 20th century. Thus, a strong accent similar to Central Ontarian is heard, yet many different phrasings exist. It is typical in the area to drop phonetic sounds to make shorter contractions, such as: prolly (probably), goin' (going), and "Wuts goin' on tonight? D'ya wanna do sumthin'?" It

17716-605: The beginning of World War I and April 1, 1917, 16 had Doukhobor defendants, none of whom hailed from the Transcaucasian provinces. Between 1921 and 1923, Verigin's son Peter P. Verigin arranged the resettlement of 4,000 Doukhobors from the Ninotsminda (Bogdanovka) district in south Georgia to Rostov Oblast in southern Russia, and another 500 into Zaporizhzhia Oblast in Ukraine. The Soviet reforms greatly affected

17888-631: The c. 10 000 lexemes from DCHP-1 and adds c. 1 300 novel meanings or 1 002 lexemes to the documented lexicon of Canadian English. In 1997, the ITP Nelson Dictionary of the Canadian English Language was another product, but has not been updated since. In 1998, Oxford University Press produced a Canadian English dictionary, after five years of lexicographical research, entitled The Oxford Canadian Dictionary . A second edition, retitled The Canadian Oxford Dictionary ,

18060-593: The chapter on spelling in Editing Canadian English , and, where necessary (depending on context), one or more other references. (See Further reading below.) Throughout part of the 20th century, some Canadian newspapers adopted American spellings, for example, color as opposed to the British-based colour . Some of the most substantial historical spelling data can be found in Dollinger (2010) and Grue (2013). The use of such spellings

18232-614: The climate was not as suitable for growing fruits and vegetables. Women greatly outnumbered the men; many women worked on the farms tilling the land while many men took non-farm jobs, especially in railway construction. The earliest arrivals came from three backgrounds, had varying commitments to communal life, and lacked leadership. Verigin arrived in December 1902, was recognized as the leader, and reimposed communalism and self-sufficiency. The railway arrived in 1904 and hopes of isolation from Canadian society ended. Canadians, politicians, and

18404-580: The close of the Elisabethpol Governorate in the Caucasus Viceroyalty (now Azerbaijan ), the former Doukhobor villages became mostly repopulated by Baptists . Elsewhere, some Doukhobors joined nearby Spiritual Christian groups. Those who remained Doukhobors were required to submit to the state. Few protested against military service; of 837 Russian court-martial cases against conscientious objectors recorded between

18576-502: The community who had to complete their sentences before being allowed to emigrate. By 1930, about 8,780 Doukhobors had migrated from Russia to Canada. The Quakers and Tolstoyan movement covered most of the costs of passage for the emigrants; writer Leo Tolstoy arranged for the royalties from his novel Resurrection , his story Father Sergei , and some others to go to the emigration fund. Tolstoy also raised money from wealthy friends; his efforts provided about 30,000 rubles , half of

18748-471: The country's diverse linguistic and cultural heritage. While Canadian English has borrowed many words and expressions from other languages, it has also developed its own unique vocabulary and pronunciation that reflects the country's distinct identity. Studies on earlier forms of English in Canada are rare. Yet connections with other work to historical linguistics can be forged. An overview of diachronic work on Canadian English, or diachronically relevant work,

18920-443: The destruction of a power transmission tower servicing East Kootenay district, resulting in the loss of 1,200 jobs. Many of the independent and community Doukhobors believed the Sons of Freedom's arson and bombings violated the Doukhobor central principle of nonviolence, and that they did not deserve to be called Doukhobors. After the departure of the more zealous and uncompromising Doukhobors, and many community leaders, to Canada at

19092-408: The dialects reflect the historical contexts where English has been a major colonizing language. The dialects are also a result of the late stages of depidginization and decreolization , which resulted in linguistic markers of Indigenous identity and solidarity. These dialects are observed to have developed a lingua franca due to the contact between English and Indigenous populations, and eventually,

19264-499: The early 19th century. The second wave from Britain and Ireland was encouraged to settle in Canada after the War of 1812 by the governors of Canada , who were worried about American dominance and influence among its citizens. Further waves of immigration from around the globe peaking in 1910, 1960, and at the present time had a lesser influence, but they did make Canada a multicultural country, ready to accept linguistic change from around

19436-478: The early 20th century, western Canada was largely populated by farmers from Central and Eastern Europe who were not anglophones. At the time, most anglophones there were re-settlers from Ontario or Quebec who had British , Irish , or Loyalist ancestry, or some mixture of these. Throughout the 20th century, the prairies underwent anglicization and linguistic homogenization through education and exposure to Canadian and American media. American English also had

19608-482: The emigration fund. The anarchist Peter Kropotkin and professor of political economy at the University of Toronto James Mavor also helped the emigrants. The emigrants adapted to life in agricultural communes; they were mostly of peasant origin and had low regard for advanced education. Many worked as loggers, lumbermen, and carpenters. Eventually, many left the communal dormitories and became private farmers on

19780-595: The end of the Gospel of Matthew (28:19): "Go ye therefore, and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them into the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit". The Holy Spirit is mentioned by all three authors of the synoptic Gospels. Most of the references are by the author of the Gospel of Luke ; this emphasis is continued by the same author in the Book of Acts . The Holy Spirit does not simply appear for

19952-634: The established church should be conscripted and sent to the Russian army in the Caucasus while those not capable of military service, and their women and children, should be resettled in Russia's recently acquired Transcaucasian provinces. With other dissenters, around 5,000 Doukhobors were resettled in Georgia between 1841 and 1845. Akhalkalaki uyezd (district) in the Tiflis Governorate

20124-546: The estimated population of Doukhobor descent in North America was 40,000 in Canada and about 5,000 in the United States. In accordance with the Dominion Lands Act of 1872, for a nominal fee of CA$ 10 , the Canadian government would grant 160 acres (0.65 km) of land to any male homesteader who was able to establish a working farm on that land within three years. Single-family homesteads would not fit

20296-485: The faith. The Doukhobors have a history dating back to at least 1701 (though some scholars suspect the group has earlier origins). Doukhobors traditionally lived in their own villages and practiced communal living . The name Doukhobors , meaning "Spirit-wrestlers", derives from a slur made by the Russian Orthodox Church that was subsequently embraced by the group. Before 1886, the Doukhobors had

20468-596: The first ecumenical council, ended its Creed with the words "and in the Holy Spirit". In 381, the First Council of Constantinople , being the second ecumenical council, expanded the Creed and stated that Holy Spirit "proceeds from the Father" (ἐκ τοῦ Πατρὸς ἐκπορευόμενον). This phrase was based on John 15:26 (ὃ παρὰ τοῦ πατρὸς ἐκπορεύεται). In 451, the Council of Chalcedon , being the fourth ecumenical council, affirmed

20640-535: The first half of 1899, settling on land granted to them by the government in modern-day Manitoba , Saskatchewan , and Alberta . The Cyprus colony and others joined them, and around 7,500 Russian Doukhobor emigrants—about a third of their number in Russia—arrived in Canada by the end of the year. Several smaller groups joined the main body of emigrants in later years, coming directly from Transcaucasia and other places of exile. Among these latecomers were 110 leaders of

20812-419: The first time at Pentecost after the resurrection of Jesus , but is present in Luke (in chapters 1 and 2 ) prior to the birth of Jesus . In Luke 1:15, John the Baptist was said to be "filled with the Holy Spirit" prior to his birth, and the Holy Spirit came upon the Virgin Mary in Luke 1:35. Later, in Luke 3:16, John the Baptist stated that Jesus baptized not with water but with the Holy Spirit; and

20984-525: The form Doukhobortsy (Russian: духоборцы , dukhobortsy ("Spirit wrestlers") ) is thought to have been first used in 1785 or 1786 by Ambrosius the Archbishop of Yekaterinoslav or his predecessor Nikifor ( Nikephoros Theotokis ). The archbishop's intent was to mock the Doukhobors as heretics fighting against the Holy Spirit (Russian: Святой Дух , Svyatoy Dukh ) but around the beginning of

21156-625: The general English term "ghost" has increasingly come to refer only to the spirit of a dead person. Source: Depending on context: What the Hebrew Bible calls "Spirit of God" and "Spirit of Elohim" is called in the Talmud and Midrash "Holy Spirit" ( ruacḥ ha-kodesh ). Although the expression "Holy Spirit" occurs in Ps. 51:11 and in Isa. 63:10–11, it had not yet acquired quite the same meaning which

21328-400: The individual believers and enables them to live a righteous and faithful life. The Holy Spirit also acts as comforter or Paraclete , one who intercedes, or supports or acts as an advocate, particularly in times of trial. And he acts to convince the unredeemed person both of the sinfulness of their actions and of their moral standing as sinners before God. Another faculty of the Holy Spirit is

21500-472: The inspiration and interpretation of scripture. The Holy Spirit both inspires the writing of the scriptures and interprets them to the Christian and the church. In John 15:26, Jesus says of the Holy Spirit: "But when the Helper comes, whom I will send to you from the Father, the Spirit of truth, who proceeds from the Father, he will bear witness about me." In 325, the First Council of Nicaea , being

21672-511: The island beginning in the second half of 1898. However, the Cyprus experiment soon proved to be disastrous: beset by disease (made worse by insufficient food that met the Doukhobors' religious requirements) as well as internal disagreements over community organization, nearly ten percent of the colony died by early 1899. Canada offered more land, transportation, and aid to resettle in the Saskatchewan area. Around 6,000 Doukhobors emigrated there in

21844-613: The issue earlier in 1997. The Star had always avoided using recognized Canadian spelling, citing the Gage Canadian Dictionary in their defence. Controversy around this issue was frequent. When the Gage Dictionary finally adopted standard Canadian spelling, the Star followed suit. Some publishers, e.g. Maclean's , continue to prefer American spellings. The first series of dictionaries of Canadian English

22016-455: The justice system to impose conformity to Canadian values on the Doukhobors, and force them to abide by Canadian law and repudiate unacceptable practices. With a legal defence managed by Peter Makaroff , the deportation effort failed in 1933. The Sons of Freedom repudiated Verigin's policies as ungodly and assimilationist, and escalated their protests. The Sons of Freedom burnt Community Doukhobors' property and organized more nude parades. In 1932,

22188-555: The land seizure by the government, compulsory education in government schools, and Verigin's assassination. This led to many confrontations with the Canadian government and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police , which continued into the 1970s. Nudism was first used after the Doukhobors' arrival in Canada. They used violence to fight modernity, and destroyed threshing machines and other signs of modernity. The group conducted night-time arson attacks on schools built by

22360-551: The lines of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox approach, but these still have not reached a state of final implementation. The majority of mainstream Protestantism hold similar views on the theology of the Holy Spirit as the Roman Catholic Church, but there are significant differences in belief between Pentecostalism and the rest of Protestantism. Pentecostalism has a focus on "Baptism with

22532-713: The liquids or fricatives found in the standard form. Dene Suline , on the other hand, has more phonological contrasts, resulting in the use of features not seen in the standard form. The language has 39 phonemic consonants and a higher proportion of glottalized consonants. Many in the Maritime provinces – Nova Scotia , New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island  – have an accent that sounds more like Scottish English and, in some places, Irish English than General American. Outside of major communities, dialects can vary markedly from community to community, as well as from province to province, reflecting ethnic origin as well as

22704-445: The lives of the Doukhobors, both in their old villages in Georgia and in the new settlement areas in southern Russian and Ukraine. State anti-religious campaigns resulted in the suppression of Doukhobor religious tradition, and the loss of books and archival records. Many religious leaders were arrested or exiled; for example, 18 people were exiled from Gorelovka in 1930. Communists' imposition of collective farming did not contradict

22876-653: The media were deeply suspicious of the Doukhobors. Their communal lifestyle seemed suspicious, their refusal to send children to school was considered deeply troubling, while pacifism caused anger during the First World War . The oppression of the Russian Tsarist regime had entrenched its resulting pacifist beliefs into the Doukhobour tenets and they did not waver with the onset of either World War. Some Canadians who were willing to go to war did not respect

23048-415: The members of the community, and resolved to adhere to the practice of pacifism and non-violence. They refused to swear the oath of allegiance required in 1894 by the newly ascended Tsar Nicholas II . Under further instructions from Verigin, about 7,000 of the most zealous Doukhobors—about one-third of all Doukhobors—of the three Governorates of Transcaucasia destroyed their weapons and refused to serve in

23220-400: The merged vowel is also much more pronounced here than in other Canadian varieties. The Canadian Shift is also not as evident in the traditional dialect. Instead, the front vowels are raised. For example, the vowel in had is raised to [hæed]; and camera is raised to [kæmra]. Although it has not been studied extensively, the speech of Cape Breton specifically seems to bear many similarities with

23392-1080: The mid-2000s. CCUB, the Orthodox Doukhobors organization or Community Doukhobors, was succeeded by the Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ (USCC) formed by Peter P. Verigin, Peter V. Verigin's son, in 1938. The largest and most active formal Doukhobor organization, it is headquartered in Grand Forks, British Columbia . During the Canada 2011 Census , 2,290 persons in Canada—of whom 1,860 in British Columbia , 200 in Alberta , 185 in Saskatchewan , and 25 in Ontario —identified their religious affiliation as "Doukhobor". The proportion of older people among these self-identified Doukhobors

23564-447: The military. As the Doukhobors gathered to burn their guns on the night of June 28/29 (July 10/11, Gregorian calendar ) 1895, while singing psalms and spiritual songs, government Cossacks arrested and beat them. Shortly after, the government billeted Cossacks in many of the Large Party's villages; around 4,000 Doukhobors were forced to disperse to villages in other parts of Georgia. Many died of starvation and exposure. The resistance of

23736-411: The modern-day border with Manitoba; the Saskatchewan (Rosthern) Colony was located north-west of Saskatoon, a significant distance from the other three reserves. In 1899, all four reserves formed part of the Northwest Territories : Saskatchewan (Rosthern) Colony in the territories' provisional District of Saskatchewan. North Reserve straddled the boundary of Saskatchewan and Assiniboia districts, and

23908-484: The nearby island of Newfoundland, which is often why Westerners can have a hard time differentiating the two accents. For instance, they both use the fronting of the low back vowel. These similarities can be attributed to geographic proximity, the fact that about one-quarter of the Cape Breton population descends from Irish immigrants - many of whom arrived via Newfoundland - and the Scottish and Irish influences on both provinces. The speech of Cape Breton can almost be seen as

24080-417: The ongoing focus of systematic studies since the 1950s. Standard Canadian and General American English share identical or near-identical phonemic inventories, though their exact phonetic realizations may sometimes differ. Canadians and Americans themselves often have trouble differentiating their own two accents, particularly since Standard Canadian and Western United States English have been undergoing

24252-808: The other reserves were entirely in Assiniboia. After the establishment of the Province of Saskatchewan in 1905, all reserves were located within that province. Verigin persuaded his followers to free their animals, and pull their wagons and plows themselves. On the lands granted to them in the prairies, the settlers established Russian-style villages, some of which received Russian names after settlers' home villages in Transcaucasia; for example Spasovka, Large and Small Gorelovka, and Slavianka; while others gained more abstract "spiritual" names not common in Russia, such as Uspeniye ( Dormition ), Terpeniye (Patience), Bogomdannoye (Given by God), and Osvobozhdeniye (Liberation). The settlers found Saskatchewan winters much harsher than those in Transcaucasia, and expressed disappointment

24424-420: The permanent character of the sacraments ), virtuous characteristics engendered in the Christian by the action of the Holy Spirit. Galatians 5:22–23 names nine aspects and states: But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, long-suffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, meekness, self-control; against such there is no law. In the Epistle to the Galatians these nine characteristics are in contrast to

24596-407: The point of being almost inseparable from them. The First Epistle to the Thessalonians , which was likely the first of Paul's letters, introduces a characterization of the Holy Spirit in 1 Thessalonians 1:6 and 1 Thessalonians 4:8 which is found throughout his epistles. In 1 Thessalonians 1:6 Paul refers to the imitation of Christ (and himself) and states: "And ye became imitators of us, and of

24768-419: The pronunciation of the /aɪ/ sound in "right" and the /aʊ/ sound in "lout". Canadian Raising indicates a scenario where the start of the diphthong is nearer to the destination of the glide before voiceless consonants than before voiced consonants. The Canadian Shift is also a common vowel shift found in Ontario. The retraction of /æ/ was found to be more advanced for women in Ontario than for people from

24940-439: The proper English spoken by immigrants from Britain. One of the earliest influences on Canadian English was the French language, which was brought to Canada by the French colonists in the 17th century. French words and expressions were adopted into Canadian English, especially in the areas of cuisine, politics, and social life. For example, words like beavertail, and toque are uniquely Canadian French terms that have become part of

25112-466: The reader is reminded that the ministry of Jesus , while he was on earth, was carried out through the power of the Holy Spirit and that the "acts of the apostles" continue the acts of Jesus and are also facilitated by the Holy Spirit. Acts presents the Holy Spirit as the "life principle" of the early Church and provides five separate and dramatic instances of its outpouring on believers in Acts 2:1–4, 4:28–31, 8:15–17, 10:44, and 19:6. References to

25284-411: The reference is to the Holy Spirit, sometimes under the name pneuma and sometimes explicitly as the pneûma tò Hagion ( Πνεῦμα τὸ Ἅγιον ). (In a few cases it is also simply used generically to mean wind or life . ) It was generally translated into the Vulgate as Spiritus and Spiritus Sanctus . The English terms "Holy Ghost" and "Holy Spirit" are complete synonyms: one derives from

25456-405: The rest of the empire, to the Transcaucasian provinces. While the Small Party cooperated with the state, the Large Party, reacting to the arrest of their leaders and inspired by their letters from exile, felt strengthened in their desire to abide by the righteousness of their faith. Under instructions from Verigin, the Large Party stopped using tobacco and alcohol, divided their property equally among

25628-528: The resurrection of the Christ, and is celebrated in Christendom with the feast of Pentecost . The Koine Greek word pneûma ( πνεῦμα , pneuma ) is found around 385 times in the New Testament, with some scholars differing by three to nine occurrences. Pneuma appears 105 times in the four canonical gospels , 69 times in the Acts of the Apostles , 161 times in the Pauline epistles , and 50 times elsewhere. These usages vary: in 133 cases it refers to "spirit" and in 153 cases to "spiritual". Around 93 times,

25800-559: The reverting of more than a third (258,880 acres (1,047.7 km)) of Doukhobor lands back to the Crown. The loss of legal title to their land became a major grievance. Ten years after the Russian conscription crisis, another political issue arose because the Doukhobors would have to become naturalized British citizens and swear an Oath of Allegiance to the British Crown—something that had always been against their principles. They did not know that they could have submitted an " affirmation " instead of an " oath ". The "oath" issue resulted in

25972-405: The secular government, the Russian Orthodox priests, icons, all church rituals, and the belief the Bible is a supreme source of divine revelation. The Doukhobors believed in the divinity of Jesus ; their practices, emphasis on individual interpretation, and opposition to the government and church provoked antagonism from the government and the established Russian Eastern Orthodox Church . In 1734,

26144-426: The supernatural gifts sometimes speak of a Baptism with the Holy Spirit or Filling with the Holy Spirit which the Christian needs to experience in order to receive those gifts. However, many Christian denominations hold that the Baptism with the Holy Spirit is identical with conversion, and that all Christians are by definition baptized in the Holy Spirit. The " seven gifts of the Holy Spirit " are poured out on

26316-463: The term "Canadian English" to a speech by a Scottish Presbyterian minister, the Reverend Archibald Constable Geikie, in an address to the Canadian Institute in 1857 (see DCHP-1 Online , s.v. "Canadian English", Avis et al., 1967). Geikie, a Scottish-born Canadian, reflected the Anglocentric attitude that would be prevalent in Canada for the next hundred years when he referred to the language as "a corrupt dialect", in comparison with what he considered

26488-441: The time, for producing anti-war propaganda. The early Doukhobors were pacifists who rejected military institutions and war and were thus oppressed in Imperial Russia . Both the tsarist state and church authorities were involved in the persecution and deprivation of the dissidents' normal freedoms. In 1802, Tsar Alexander I encouraged the resettlement of religious minorities to the "Milky Waters" ( Molochnye Vody ) region around

26660-663: The two dominant varieties of English, yet general trends have emerged since the 1970s. Canadian spelling conventions can be partly explained by Canada's trade history. For instance, Canada's automobile industry has been dominated by American firms from its inception, explaining why Canadians use the American spelling of tire (hence, " Canadian Tire ") and American terminology for automobiles and their parts (for example, truck instead of lorry , gasoline instead of petrol , trunk instead of boot ). Canada's political history has also had an influence on Canadian spelling. Canada's first prime minister , John A. Macdonald , once advised

26832-545: The various dialects began to converge with standard English. Certain First Nations English have also shown to have phonological standard Canadian English, thus resulting in a more distinct dialect formation. Plains Cree, for instance, is a language that has less phonological contrasts compared to standard Canadian English. Plains Cree has no voicing contrast. The stops /p/ , /t/ , and /k/ are mostly voiceless and unaspirated, though they may vary in other phonetic environments from voiceless to voiced. Plains Cree also does not have

27004-593: The village elder Aleksei Zubkov. While the Large Party was a majority, the Small Party had the support of the older members of the community and the local authorities. On January 26, 1887, at a community service at which the new leader was to be acclaimed, police arrived and arrested Verigin. He, along with some of his associates, was sent into internal exile in Siberia . Large Party Doukhobors continued to consider Verigin their spiritual leader and to communicate with him, by mail and via delegates who travelled to see him in Obdorsk . An isolated population of exiled Doukhobors,

27176-462: The village of Gorelovka, a Doukhobor community in Georgia. Lukerya was respected by the provincial authorities, who had to cooperate with the Doukhobors. At the time of her death in 1886, there were around 20,000 Doukhobors in Transcaucasia. By that time, the region's Doukhobors had become vegetarian and were aware of Leo Tolstoy 's philosophy, which they found quite similar to their own traditional teachings. The death of Lukerya, who had no children,

27348-860: The western and central provinces of Canada (varying little from Central Canada to British Columbia ), plus in many other provinces among urban middle- or upper-class speakers from natively English-speaking families. Standard Canadian English is distinct from Atlantic Canadian English , its most notable subset being Newfoundland English , and from Quebec English . Accent differences can also be heard between those who live in urban centres versus those living in rural settings. While Canadian English tends to be close to American English in most regards, classifiable together as North American English , Canadian English also possesses elements from British English as well as some uniquely Canadian characteristics. The precise influence of American English, British English, and other sources on Canadian English varieties has been

27520-436: The word ruacḥ is both masculine and feminine. The term Holy Spirit appears at least 90 times in the New Testament. The sacredness of the Holy Spirit to Christians is affirmed in all three Synoptic Gospels , which proclaim that blasphemy against the Holy Spirit is the unforgivable sin . The participation of the Holy Spirit in the Trinity is suggested in Jesus' final post-Resurrection instruction to his disciples at

27692-404: The world during the current period of globalization . The languages of Aboriginal peoples in Canada started to influence European languages used in Canada even before widespread settlement took place, and the French of Lower Canada provided vocabulary, with words such as tuque and portage , to the English of Upper Canada . Overall, the history of Canadian English is a reflection of

27864-454: Was around Grand Forks near the US border. He later acquired large tracts of land further east in the Slocan Valley around Castlegar . Between 1908 and 1912, about 8,000 people moved from Saskatchewan to these British Columbia lands to continue their communal way of living. In the milder climate of British Columbia, the settlers were able to plant fruit trees and within a few years became renowned orchardists and producers of fruit preserves. As

28036-404: Was attached to it in rabbinical literature: in the latter it is equivalent to the expression "Spirit of the Lord". In Gen.1:2 God's spirit hovered over the form of lifeless matter, thereby making the Creation possible. Although the ruach ha-kodesh may be named instead of God, it was conceived of as being something distinct; and, like everything earthly that comes from heaven, the ruach ha-kodesh

28208-413: Was chosen as the main place of their settlement. Doukhobor villages with Russian names appeared there; Gorelovka, Rodionovka, Yefremovka, Orlovka, Spasskoye (Dubovka), Troitskoye, and Bogdanovka . Later, other groups of Doukhobors were resettled by the government or migrated to Transcaucasia of their own accord. They also settled in neighbouring areas, including the Borchaly uyezd of Tiflis Governorate and

28380-420: Was considered unacceptable and offensive. Canadian magazines showed strong curiosity, giving special attention to women's bodies and clothing. Magazines and newspapers carried stories and photographs of Doukhobor women engaging in hard farm labour, doing "women's work", wearing the traditional ethnic dress, and in partial or total states of undress. Doukhobors received financial help from Quakers. Clifford Sifton ,

28552-517: Was followed by a leadership crisis that divided the Dukhobortsy in the Caucasus into two major groups, which disputed their next leader. Lukerya wanted leadership to pass to her assistant Peter Vasilevich Verigin . Although most of the community—"the Large Party" Russian : Большая сторона , romanized :  Bolshaya Storona —accepted him as the leader, a minority faction known as "the Small Party" (Малая сторона Malaya Storona ) rejected Verigin, and sided with Lukerya's brother Michael Gubanov and

28724-496: Was made in Jesus Christ , by God the Father . Christian hymns such as " Veni Creator Spiritus " ("Come, Creator Spirit") reflect this belief. In early Christianity , the concept of salvation was closely related to the invocation of the "Father, Son and Holy Spirit", and since the first century, Christians have called upon God with the name "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" in prayer, baptism, communion, exorcism, hymn-singing, preaching, confession, absolution and benediction. This

28896-541: Was much easier for editorial staff to leave the spellings from the wire services as provided. In the 1990s, Canadian newspapers began to adopt the British spelling variants such as -our endings, notably with The Globe and Mail changing its spelling policy in October 1990. Other Canadian newspapers adopted similar changes later that decade, such as the Southam newspaper chain's conversion in September 1998. The Toronto Star adopted this new spelling policy in September 1997 after that publication's ombudsman discounted

29068-449: Was published and completed the first edition of Gage's Dictionary of Canadian English Series. The DCHP documents the historical development of Canadian English words that can be classified as "Canadianisms". It therefore includes words such as mukluk, Canuck, and bluff, but does not list common core words such as desk, table or car. Many secondary schools in Canada use the graded dictionaries. The dictionaries have regularly been updated since:

29240-429: Was published by Gage Ltd. under the chief-editorships of Charles J. Lovell (1907–1960) and Walter S. Avis (1919–1979) as of 1960 and the " Big Six " editors plus Faith Avis . The Beginner's Dictionary (1962), the Intermediate Dictionary (1964) and, finally, the Senior Dictionary (1967) were milestones in Canadian English lexicography. In November 1967 A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles (DCHP)

29412-438: Was published in 2004. Just as the older dictionaries it includes uniquely Canadian words and words borrowed from other languages, and surveyed spellings, such as whether colour or color was the more popular choice in common use. Paperback and concise versions (2005, 2006), with minor updates, are available. Since 2022, the Editors' Association of Canada has been leading the writing of a new Canadian English Dictionary within

29584-428: Was the long-standing practice of the Canadian Press perhaps since that news agency's inception, but visibly the norm prior to World War II . The practice of dropping the letter u in such words was also considered a labour-saving technique during the early days of printing in which movable type was set manually. Canadian newspapers also received much of their international content from American press agencies, so it

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