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172-449: Illegality may also occur during transport, such as illegal processing and export (through fraudulent declaration to customs ); the avoidance of taxes and other charges, and fraudulent certification. These acts are often referred to as "wood laundering". Illegal logging is driven by a number of economic forces, such as demand for raw materials, land grabbing and demand for pasture for cattle. Regulation and prevention can happen at both

344-585: A Zanzibari traveler, refers to the island as "Malagaskar" when recounting his journeys, including as part of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition . In 1905, Charles Basset wrote in his doctoral thesis that Malagasikara was the way the island is referred to by its natives, who emphasized that they were Malagasy , and not Madagasy . Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in outrigger canoes from South Borneo , possibly throughout

516-457: A cognizable offense in which both the smuggled goods and the goods are punishable. Madagascar Madagascar , officially the Republic of Madagascar , is an island country comprising the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Lying off the southeastern coast of Africa , it is the world's fourth largest island , the second-largest island country and

688-760: A protracted transition towards its fourth and current republic, with constitutional governance being restored in January 2014. Madagascar is a member of the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie . Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. Christianity

860-492: A strongman . Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the 2021–2022 Madagascar famine which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face food insecurity and over one million people were on the verge of a famine . In November 2023, Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the election amidst an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility. Turnout

1032-701: A VPA - or those who will be entering into such negotiations - by providing examples of good practices. These good practices were identified and recorded following interviews with the main stakeholders in the eight VPA countries in West and Central Africa, the European Forest Institute's (EFI) EU FLEGT Facility and the European Commission . In 2016, the FAO-EU FLEGT Programme published an additional study, Traceability:

1204-747: A border oneself, for illegal immigration or illegal emigration. In many parts of the world, particularly the Gulf of Mexico , the smuggling vessel of choice is the go-fast boat . Submitting to border checks with the goods or people hidden in a vehicle or between (other) merchandise, or the goods hidden in luggage, in or under clothes, inside the body (see body cavity search , balloon swallower and mule ), etc. Many smugglers fly on regularly scheduled airlines . A large number of suspected smugglers are caught each year by customs worldwide. Goods and people are also smuggled across seas hidden in containers , and overland hidden in cars, trucks, and trains. A related topic

1376-527: A cargo ship transporting timber from the Indonesian company Korindo, which was being imported into France, UK, Belgium and the Netherlands. Korindo is known to be using illegal timber from the last rainforests of Indonesia. In May 2003, an Indonesian Government investigation confirmed that Korindo was receiving illegal timber from notorious timber barons known to obtain timber from an orang-utan refuge –

1548-453: A century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810). From his initial capital Ambohimanga , and later from the Rova of Antananarivo , this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighbouring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (1810–28), who

1720-486: A challenge to state-sponsored restrictions or taxes on trade. In smuggling, concealment can involve concealing the smuggled goods on a person's clothing, luggage or inside a body cavity. Some smugglers hide the whole transportation vehicle or ship used to bring the items into an area. Avoiding border checks, such as by small ships, private airplanes , through overland smuggling routes, smuggling tunnels and even small submersibles. This also applies for illegally passing

1892-502: A few central respects. While "smuggling" refers to facilitating the illegal entry of a person into a State, "trafficking" includes an element of exploitation . The trafficker retains control over the migrant—through force, fraud or coercion—typically in the sex industry, through forced labour or through other practices similar to slavery. Trafficking violates the idea of basic human rights . The overwhelming majority of those trafficked are women and children. These victims are commodities in

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2064-1212: A general framework for possible actions to be undertaken by governments as well as civil society. The conference took place as the United Kingdom prepared to pass the G8 Presidency to Russia. As Valery Roshchupkin, Head of the Federal Forestry Agency of the Russian Federation , confirmed, illegal logging would be of special importance for Russia as the G8 President and for the following G8 Summit , also held in Saint Petersburg. The East Asia Forest Law Enforcement and Governance ( EA FLEG ) Ministerial Conference took place in Bali in September 2001. The Conference brought together nearly 150 participants from 20 countries, representing government, international organizations, NGOs, and

2236-698: A good or service that is illegal or heavily taxed. As a result, illegal drug trafficking , and the smuggling of weapons ( illegal arms trade ), as well as the historical staples of smuggling, alcohol ( rum-running ) and tobacco , are widespread. As the smuggler faces significant risk of civil and criminal penalties if caught with contraband, smugglers are able to impose a significant price premium on smuggled goods. The profits involved in smuggling goods appear to be extensive. The iron law of prohibition dictates that greater enforcement results in more potent alcohol and drugs being smuggled. Profits also derive from avoiding taxes or levies on imported goods. For example,

2408-460: A kind of heroism. It did not have any taint of criminality and the whole of the south coast had pockets vying with one another over whose smugglers were the darkest or most daring. The Smugglers Inn was one of the commonest names for a bar on the coast. In North America , smuggling in colonial times was a reaction to the heavy taxes and regulations imposed by mercantilist trade policies. After American independence in 1783, smuggling developed at

2580-1020: A later time after slaughter. Another animal that traffickers have used as body couriers are goats , which they remove drugs from after slaughter. Additionally another animal that has been used by smugglers to transport contraband are sheep . Often times, the traffickers either attach the drugs to the sheep's wool or they insert the drugs inside the sheep to be removed at a later date after slaughter. What type of livestock or pack animals do organized criminals use to carry contraband, often depends on availability and region. For example, in parts of South America, traffickers have used llamas as pack animals to transport drugs across rugged terrain or across borders. In certain parts of Asia, elephants have been used as pack animals to carry large amounts of drugs across wilderness areas or across borders. In Middle Eastern countries, smugglers have also been known to use camels as pack animals to transport drugs across further distances or across borders. In popular perception smuggling

2752-468: A management tool for business and governments , providing examples of good practices in the region's traceability systems, which help prevent illegal logging by tracking timber from its forest of origin throughout its journey along the supply chain. In response to growing concerns over illegal logging and advice from TRAFFIC and other organisations, on 22 May 2008, the U.S. amended the Lacey Act , when

2924-458: A market of rising and falling prices, allowing traders or "timber barons" to stockpile illegally sourced logs during periodic bans and then flood the market when the trade windows open and prices are high. Over 350,000 trees were illegally felled in Madagascar between 2010 and 2015, according to TRAFFIC . The unsustainable exploitation of these tropical hardwoods, particularly rosewood from

3096-563: A means to halt the import of illegally sourced wood products. The identification of illegally logged or traded timber is technically difficult, but a series of attempts is made. Therefore, a legal basis for normative acts against timber imports or other products manufactured out of illegal wood is missing. Scientific methods to pinpoint the geographic origin of timber are currently under development. Possible actions to restrict imports cannot meet with WTO regulations of non-discrimination. They must instead be arranged in bilateral agreements. TRAFFIC,

3268-669: A ministerial declaration and action plan as well as a variety of informal implementation initiatives. In 2014, the FAU-EU-FLEGT Programme of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations published the study The Voluntary Partnership Agreement (VPA) process in Central and West Africa: from theory to practice to document and foster strategic reflection in partner countries already engaged in negotiating

3440-527: A multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade. Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana ,

3612-525: A multibillion-dollar global industry. Criminal organizations are choosing to traffic human beings because, unlike other commodities, people can be used repeatedly and because trafficking requires little in terms of capital investment. Smuggling is also reaping huge financial dividends to criminal groups who charge migrants massive fees for their services. Intelligence reports have noted that drug-traffickers and other criminal organizations are switching to human cargo to obtain greater profit with less risk. It

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3784-484: A network providing forged documents. In the same month, they dismantled another criminal organization focused on supplying fake documents to migrants in Spain, primarily in the agricultural sector. With regard to people smuggling , a distinction can be made between people smuggling as a service to those wanting to illegally migrate and the involuntary trafficking of people . An estimated 90% of people who illegally crossed

3956-431: A plant is found to have been harvested in violation of the laws of the country where it was harvested, that plant would be subject to seizure and forfeiture if imported into the U.S. The Lacey Act also makes it unlawful, beginning 15 December 2008, to import certain plants and plant products without a Plant and Plant Product import declaration. This Plant and Plant Product Declaration must contain (besides other information)

4128-508: A pressing issue, particularly since the 1980s, a period marked by economic downturns due to plummeting world petroleum prices, devaluation of the Nigerian currency, rampant corruption, and a rapid increase in the country's population. These economic challenges had adverse effects on food production and led to escalating deforestation concerns. In regions that were rural or semi-urban and endowed with abundant forest trees and agricultural produce,

4300-413: A proper and complete inspection four to six hours, major global trade routes such as Singapore offer great opportunity for smugglers and traders alike. As the leading Cape Town Customs Official argues, if a shipping port stops and inspects every ship it would cause a total shipping grid lock , which is trade gridlock, which is also economic gridlock . By under-declaring and misrepresenting, even

4472-480: A recognised problem in the 13th century, following the creation of a national customs collection system by Edward I in 1275. Medieval smuggling tended to focus on the export of highly taxed export goods — notably wool and hides. Merchants also, however, sometimes smuggled other goods to circumvent prohibitions or embargoes on particular trades. Grain, for instance, was usually prohibited from export, unless prices were low, because of fears that grain exports would raise

4644-606: A result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population. The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839. Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde , an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of

4816-472: A role. However, public scrutiny has put significant pressure on shipping companies involved in the trade, and the United States is starting to enforce the Lacey Act by investigating companies with suspected involvement in the illegal trade of Malagasy precious woods. The indiscriminate logging in the rainforest and uncontrolled felling of trees for fuel wood are reported to have had adverse effect on

4988-486: A rosewood mafia easily bribes government officials, buying export permits with ease. These illegal operations are funded in part by advance payments for future shipments (financed by Chinese expatriates and Chinese importers) and by loans from large, international banks. Demand is fueled mostly by a growing Chinese middle class and their desire for exotic imperial-style furniture. European and American demand for high-end musical instruments and furniture have also played

5160-489: A significant developmental challenge in Nigeria, has far-reaching adverse effects on environmental crime . Environmental crime often takes a back seat in priority in most developing nations, as there is a common belief that the forest belongs to everyone in the community. Furthermore, Nigeria's over-reliance on crude oil has led the government to place less emphasis on the annual losses from theft of forest produce. Regrettably,

5332-464: A significant part of the city's business, with many members of the civic elite engaging in it, whether by disguised/hidden transport or mis-description of goods. Grain smuggling by members of the civic elite, often working closely with corrupt customs officers, has also been shown to have been prevalent in East Anglia during the later 16th century. In England wool was smuggled to the continent in

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5504-551: A smuggler might purchase a large quantity of cigarettes in a place with low taxes and smuggle them into a place with higher taxes, where they can be sold at a far higher margin than would otherwise be possible. It has been reported that smuggling one truckload of cigarettes within the United States can lead to a profit of US$ 2 million. In October 2023, Spanish police arrested 11 individuals involved in smuggling migrants hidden in trucks at Algeciras sea border, connected to

5676-463: A study by Alternatives to Combat Child Labour Through Education and Sustainable Services in the Middle East and North Africa Region (ACCESS-MENA) 30% of school children living in border villages of Yemen had been smuggled into Saudi Arabia . Child trafficking is commonly referenced as "transporting". Smuggled children were in danger of being sexually abused or even killed. Poverty is one of

5848-540: A system with diverse individuals and institutions involved in meeting the industry's supply and demand requirements, whether legitimate or illegitimate. Given the unemployment rate in the country, which currently stands at about 20.3 million jobless Nigerians (National Directorate of Employment, 2012), primarily youth, a crucial question arises: how are they sustaining themselves? Undoubtedly, deviant activities tend to thrive in such circumstances, especially in forested areas. The diversity and dynamics of crime and illegalities in

6020-576: A variety of afflictions. The drugs vinblastine and vincristine are vinca alkaloids , used to treat Hodgkin lymphoma , leukemia , and other cancers, were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle . The traveler's palm , known locally as ravinala and endemic to the eastern rain forests, is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo. Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna

6192-442: Is a biodiversity hotspot and one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries , with over 90% of wildlife being endemic. The island has a subtropical to tropical maritime climate. Madagascar was first permanently settled during or before the mid-first millennium AD by Austronesian peoples , presumably arriving on outrigger canoes from present-day Indonesia . These were joined around the ninth century AD by Bantu groups crossing

6364-424: Is acknowledged that the smuggling of people is a growing global phenomenon. It is a transnational crime . Currently, economic instability appears to be the main reason for illegal migration movement throughout the world. Nevertheless, many of the willing migrants undertake the hazardous travel to their destination country with criminal syndicates specialized in people smuggling. These syndicates arrange everything for

6536-527: Is also historically attested. A British state paper in 1699 records the arrival of eighty to ninety passengers from "Malagaskar" to what would eventually become New York City . An 1882 edition of the British newspaper The Graphic referred to "Malagascar" as the name of the island, stating that it is etymologically a word of Malay origin, and may be related to the name of Malacca . In 1891, Saleh bin Osman,

6708-486: Is critically important as an incentive for smuggling. This price disparity is caused by domestic consumption-taxes and import duties. Drawing attention to the case of cigarettes, Chowdhury suggested that, in Bangladesh , smuggling of cigarettes reduced the level of domestic production. Domestic production of cigarettes is subject to value added tax (VAT) and other consumption tax . Reduction of domestic taxes enables

6880-460: Is defined as international trade through 'unauthorized route'. A seaport, airport or land port which has not been authorized by the government for importation and exportation is an 'unauthorized route'. The legal definition of these occurs in the Customs Act of the country. Notably, some definitions define any 'undeclared' trafficking of currency and precious metal as smuggling. Smuggling is

7052-621: Is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International. In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2012 , there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur , 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008. They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than

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7224-496: Is due to the fact that felines are naturally stealthy animals and because the prison guards are often less likely to suspect that contraband might be on a cat. Additionally smugglers have also used homing pigeons to transport contraband by air at times. Carrier pigeons have been used to smuggle drugs into prisons and across borders. Additionally homing pigeons have also been used to transport cellphones and SIM cards into prisons. The reason why pigeons have been useful for smugglers,

7396-446: Is frequently associated with corruption, money laundering , organized crime , human rights abuses , climate change and, in some cases, violent conflict. In the forestry sector, cheap imports of illegal timber and forest products, together with the non-compliance of some economic players with basic social and environmental standards, destabilize international markets. This unfair competition affects those European companies, especially

7568-661: Is illegally passing a border oneself as a stowaway . The high level of duty levied on alcohol and tobacco in Britain has led to large-scale smuggling from France to the UK through the Channel Tunnel . The combination of acknowledged corruption at the border and high import tariffs led smugglers in the 1970s and '80s to fly electronic equipment such as stereos and televisions in cargo planes from one country to clandestine landing strips in another, thereby circumventing encounters at

7740-429: Is repetitively employed on the same plot of land until it is denuded of its nutrients and could no longer suffice to support agricultural yields. Thereafter, these farmers will move on to occupy another plot of land and continually practice their slash-and-burn technique. This contributing social factor to deforestation reinforces the challenges faced by forestry sustainability in developing countries such as Indonesia. On

7912-416: Is synonymous with illegal trade. Even social scientists have misconstrued smuggling as illegal trade. While the two have indeed identical objectives, namely the evasion of taxes and the importation of contraband items, their demand and cost functions are altogether different requiring different analytical framework. As a result, illegal trade through customs stations is differently considered, and smuggling

8084-424: Is that they can fly for long distances and because the birds are usually unlikely to arouse much suspicion from authorities, due to the fact that pigeons are such widespread and commonly witnessed birds, in both rural and urban areas. Smugglers have also been known to transport contraband with the use of livestock . One such example is the use of horses , donkeys , mules and ponies . The traffickers often strap

8256-468: Is the case, it is unknown when the name was adopted by the inhabitants of the island. No single Malagasy-language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their name for part or all of the lands they inhabited. One hypothesis relates Madagascar to the word Malay , referring to the Austronesian origin of

8428-502: Is the country's predominant religion, with a significant minority still practising traditional faiths . Madagascar is classified as a least developed country by the UN. Ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of its development strategy. Despite substantial economic growth since the early 2000s, income disparities have widened, and quality of life remains low for

8600-457: Is the result of illegal logging. Subsequent estimates were that between 40% and 55% of logged in Indonesia is the result of illegal logging. A 2021 study estimated that 81% of forest conversion for palm oil in Indonesia was illegal, and that Indonesia's Supreme Audit Agency determined that less than 20% of the nation's palm oil operations complied with national laws and regulations. Malaysia is

8772-495: The 1973 oil crisis , resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards, and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of

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8944-958: The Chinese border . Logs are commonly cut on the Burmese side and then smuggled to processing facilities in China or Thailand. The scale of illegal logging represents a major loss of revenue to many countries and can lead to widespread associated environmental damage. A senate committee in the Philippines estimated that the country lost as much as US$ 1.8bn per year during the 1980s. The Indonesian government estimated in 2002 that costs related to illegal logging are US$ 3bn each year. The World Bank estimates that illegal logging costs timber-producing countries between 10 and 15 billion euros per year. This compares with 10 billion euros disbursed as EC aid in 2002. In March 2004, Greenpeace carried out actions against

9116-488: The Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 expanded its protection to a broader range of plants and plant products (Section 8204. Prevention of Illegal Logging Practices). The requirements under the new Amendments are two-fold. First, the Lacey Act now makes it illegal to import into the United States plants that have been harvested contrary to any applicable Federal Law, State Law, Indian Tribal Law, or Foreign Law. If

9288-486: The High Transitional Authority , an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum , establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution. Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election , which

9460-583: The Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago and Madagascar separated from the Indian landmass about 84–92 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous . This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. Along

9632-708: The Madagascar Plan that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews. During the Second World War , the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy French and an Allied expeditionary force. The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized

9804-554: The Malagasy government , although the logging of rare hardwoods was explicitly banned from protected areas in 2000. Since then, government orders and memos have intermittently alternated between permitting and banning exports of precious woods. The most commonly cited reason for permitting exports is to salvage valuable wood from cyclone damage, although this reasoning has come under heavy scrutiny. This oscillating availability of Malagasy rosewood and other precious woods has created

9976-507: The Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet , translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island. Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave

10148-584: The Malagasy people in modern-day Indonesia . In a map by Muhammad al-Idrisi dating from the year 1154, the island is named Gesira Malai , or "Malay island" in Arabic . The inversion of this name to Malai Gesira , as it was known by the Greeks , is thought to be the precursor of the modern name of the island. The name "Malay island" was later rendered in Latin as Malichu , an abbreviated form of Malai Insula , in

10320-564: The Mozambique Channel from East Africa. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. Consequently, there are 18 or more classified peoples of Madagascar , the most numerous being the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in

10492-525: The Portuguese India Armadas . Matatana was the first Portuguese settlement on the south coast, 10 km west of Fort Dauphin . In 1508, settlers there built a tower, a small village, and a stone column. This settlement was established in 1513 at the behest of the viceroy of Portuguese India , Jeronimo de Azevedo . Contacts continued from the 1550s. Several colonization and conversion missions were ordered by King João III and by

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10664-562: The Roosevelt Reservation along the United States-Mexico Border . Smuggling revived in the 1920s during Prohibition , and drug smuggling became a major problem after 1970. In the 1990s, when economic sanctions were imposed on Serbia , a large percent of the population lived off smuggling petrol and consumer goods from neighboring countries. The state unofficially allowed this to continue or otherwise

10836-951: The Russian Federation announced its intention to host the ENA FLEG process, supported by the World Bank. A preparatory conference was held in Moscow in June 2005. The Saint Petersburg conference brought together nearly 300 participants representing 43 governments, the private sector, civil society, and international organizations. It agreed to the Saint Petersburg Declaration on Forest Law Enforcement and Governance in Europe and North Asia . The Declaration includes an indicative list of actions, intended to serve as

11008-574: The SAVA Region , has escalated significantly since the start of the 2009 Malagasy political crisis . Over 350,000 trees were illegally felled in Madagascar between 2010 and 2015, according to TRAFFIC . Thousands of poorly paid Malagasy loggers have flooded into the national parks—especially in the northeast—building roads, setting up logging camps, and cutting down even the most difficult to reach rosewood trees. Illegal activities are openly flaunted, armed militia have descended upon local villages, and

11180-668: The Tanjung Puting National Park . Tanjung Puting National Park is a 4,000-square-kilometre conservation area of global importance. It is recognized as a world biosphere reserve by the United Nations and forms the largest protected area of swamp forest in South-East Asia. The Europe and North Asia Forest Law Enforcement and Governance ( ENA FLEG ) Ministerial Conference was held in Saint Petersburg , Russia on 22–25 November 2005. In May 2004,

11352-781: The Tsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658 m (8,720 ft) in the Andringitra Massif , and Tsiafajavona 2,643 m (8,671 ft) in the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi). The western and southern sides, which lie in

11524-629: The Vazimba . Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo , Ralambo , and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries. Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities. The written history of Madagascar began with

11696-422: The rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to dry deciduous forests , spiny forests , and deserts and xeric shrublands . Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from

11868-469: The theft of the items being smuggled. Smuggling is a common theme in literature, from Bizet 's opera Carmen to the James Bond spy books (and later films) Diamonds Are Forever and Goldfinger . The verb smuggle , from Low German smuggeln or Dutch smokkelen (="to transport (goods) illegally"), apparently a frequentative formation of a word meaning "to sneak", most likely entered

12040-433: The trans-Atlantic slave trade . The small island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia . Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury , whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. European accounts until

12212-544: The "eighth continent", and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot. Madagascar is classed as one of 17 megadiverse countries . The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Madagascar lowland forests , Madagascar subhumid forests , Madagascar dry deciduous forests , Madagascar ericoid thickets , Madagascar spiny forests , Madagascar succulent woodlands , and Madagascar mangroves . More than 80 percent of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in

12384-739: The 17th century, under the pressure of high excise taxes . In 1724 Daniel Defoe wrote of Lymington , Hampshire, on the south coast of England I do not find they have any foreign commerce, except it be what we call smuggling and roguing; which I may say, is the reigning commerce of all this part of the English coast, from the mouth of the Thames to the Land's End in Cornwall. The high rates of duty levied on tea and also wine and spirits, and other luxury goods coming in from mainland Europe at this time made

12556-543: The 1960s to the year 2000. Notably, industrial and social development, contending for the same land areas occupied by forests, has not been praiseworthy. Nigeria, given its extensive land area, encompasses diverse and favorable climatic and ecological zones. The nation's significant size, diverse population, and socio-political and economic challenges have placed immense pressure on the forest belts. The rise in unemployed youth has revealed that looting forest products for survival presents an opportunity. Consequently, unemployment,

12728-524: The 46th largest country in the world. Its capital and largest city is Antananarivo . Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana , Madagascar split from Africa during the Early Jurassic , around 180 million years ago, and split from the Indian subcontinent around 90 million years ago, allowing native plants and animals to evolve in relative isolation; consequently, it

12900-638: The Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam , the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe ), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements. European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island, while participating in the 2nd Armada of

13072-669: The East Asia region, among senior officials from the forest and related ministries, NGOs, and industry representatives; and commit to action at the national and regional level. In May 2003, the European Commission presented the EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Action Plan ( EU FLEGT ). This marked the beginning of a long process by which the EU aims to develop and implement measures to address illegal logging and related trade. The primary means of implementing

13244-478: The English language during the 1600s–1700s. Smuggling has a long and controversial history, probably dating back to the first time at which duties were imposed in any form, or any attempt was made to prohibit a form of traffic . Smuggling is often associated with efforts by authorities to prevent the importation of certain contraband items or non-taxed goods; however, there has also been smuggling based on illegally exporting goods. In England smuggling first became

13416-647: The Genus, Species, and Country of Harvest of every plant found in commercial shipments of certain products, a list of applicable products (along with other requirements and guidance) can be found on the USDA APHIS website. Smuggling Smuggling is the illegal transportation of objects, substances, information or people, such as out of a house or buildings, into a prison , or across an international border , in violation of applicable laws or other regulations. More broadly, social scientists define smuggling as

13588-581: The Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Réunion Island and to Algeria. The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification" carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims. Under colonial rule, plantations were established for

13760-581: The Plan is through Voluntary Partnership Agreements with timber producing countries. The European Union Timber Regulation was adopted in 2010 and went into effect 3 March 2013. A Greenpeace investigation published in May 2014 demonstrates that EU Timber Regulation is ineffective if fraudulent paperwork is accepted at face value and there is not sufficient enforcement by EU authorities. The Africa Forest Law Enforcement and Governance ( AFLEG ) Ministerial Conference

13932-493: The Rova palace compound was turned into a museum. Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13 and focused primarily on the French language and practical skills. Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of

14104-514: The University of Bristol states that they only detail the activities of those dumb enough to get caught. This has led him and others, such as Prof. H. V. Bowen of the University of Swansea to use commercial records to reconstruct smuggling businesses. Jones' study focuses on smuggling in Bristol in the mid-16th century, arguing that the illicit export of goods like grain and leather represented

14276-548: The Viceroy of India, including one in 1553 by Baltazar Lobo de Sousa. In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings. The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in

14448-597: The absolute power of the monarch. Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, Rasoherina , the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power-sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them. Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony , who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II and Queen Ranavalona III in succession. Over

14620-557: The adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960. Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana , was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around

14792-407: The authorities. One way that smugglers have used animals to transport contraband at times is through the use of dogs . Often smugglers have been known to strap drugs onto the backs of canine and then use such dogs as pack animals to transport the contraband across further distances or across borders. Another way smugglers have used to transport contraband on multiple occasions is cats . Usually

14964-481: The basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War . At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority

15136-705: The border between Mexico and the United States are believed to have paid a smuggler to lead them across. People smuggling can be used to rescue a person from oppressive circumstances. For example, when the Southern United States allowed slavery , many slaves moved north via the Underground Railroad . Similarly, during the Holocaust , Jewish people were smuggled out of Germany by people such as Algoth Niska . Trafficking of human beings — sometimes called human trafficking or, in

15308-570: The case of sexual services, sex trafficking — is not the same as people smuggling. A smuggler will facilitate illegal entry into a country for a fee, and on arrival at their destination, the smuggled person is free; the trafficking victim is coerced in some way. Victims do not agree to be trafficked; they are tricked, lured by false promises, or forced into it. Traffickers use coercive tactics including deception , fraud , intimidation , isolation , physical threats and use of force, debt bondage or even force-feeding drugs to control their victims. While

15480-526: The cats are used to sneak drugs into prisons , where prison gangs can then sell the drugs to other inmates. Often a smuggler from the outside will attach small amounts of drugs to a cat and then the cat will either be lured inside the prison by inmates with cat treats or the cat might be trained to enter the prison. In addition to drugs, cats have also been used to smuggle other kinds of contraband into prison such as cellphones , tools, batteries and phone chargers. The reason why cats can make good drug couriers

15652-429: The central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo. Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. Following almost

15824-414: The cheapest possible rate. What the majority of people do not realize, is that the media and popular culture focus on criminal organizations as primary smugglers, but in reality legitimate businesses are the biggest offenders. By incorporating their label on merchandise or products, it leaves bias towards their goods as the popular media portrays them as reliable. Smuggling, however, is produced through

15996-540: The city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender. Popular resistance to the French capture of Antananarivo —known as the Menalamba rebellion —broke out in December 1895, and was not suppressed until the end of 1897. France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving

16168-468: The clandestine import of such goods and the evasion of the duty a highly profitable venture for impoverished fishermen and seafarers. In certain parts of the country such as the Romney Marsh , East Kent , Cornwall and East Cleveland , the smuggling industry was for many communities more economically significant than legal activities such as farming and fishing. The principal reason for the high duty

16340-475: The coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of megafauna , including 17 species of giant lemurs , the large flightless elephant birds (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist, Aepyornis maximus ), the giant fossa , and several species of Malagasy hippopotamus , which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction. By 600 AD, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing

16512-517: The coasts of Madagascar, conquering the island and signing a treaty with its inhabitants. They remained for eight months and erected at different points of the island eight pillars on which they engraved "Magadoxo", a name which later, by corruption became Madagascar. Jan Huyghen van Linschoten , a Dutch traveler who copied Portuguese works and maps, confirmed this event by saying "Madagascar has its name from 'makdishu' (Mogadishu)" whose "shayk" invaded it. The name Malagasikara , or Malagascar ,

16684-528: The cost of smuggling and thus render smuggling uncompetitive. Notably, Chowdhury modeled the relationship of the smuggler to the local producer as one of antagonistic duopoly . On the other hand, research by Tat Chee Tsui in 2016 suggests that even if increasing cigarette duty may encourage smuggling, total cigarette-consumption still declines because the price of illicit goods, as substitutes of taxed cigarettes, also increases because of higher tax rate. One economic view sees smuggling as monopoly -busting - as

16856-419: The country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte to the north west. The nearest mainland state is Mozambique , located to the west. The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa–South America) during

17028-427: The country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972. Gabriel Ramanantsoa , a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava , appointed to succeed him,

17200-404: The course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government. Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers. Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity declared

17372-554: The demand for exotic species and the lucrative nature of the trade. The CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) regulates the movement of endangered wildlife across political borders. Research on smuggling as economic phenomenon is scant. Jagdish Bhagwati and Bent Hansen first forwarded a theory of smuggling in which they saw smuggling essentially as an import-substituting economic activity. Their main consideration, however,

17544-565: The destruction of these trees significantly impacts the carbon cycle and intensifies the greenhouse effect due to carbon depletion. The socio-economic losses to the nation, particularly concerning endangered species in the South-west and Mid-west forest zones of Nigeria (encompassing states such as Oyo, Ondo, Osun, Ogun, Ekiti, Edo, and Delta), are immeasurable. The rapid urbanization in Nigeria, coupled with escalating unemployment rates, persistent poverty, inequalities, inadequate social services,

17716-424: The drugs or the drugs are surgically implanted inside the animals before they are herded to another destination, at a later date when the animals are slaughtered for their meat , the drugs are then removed and given to associates. One such example is the use of cattle . Cattle have been used as 'body couriers' to transport contraband in multiple ways, often by inserting the drugs into the cattle, to be removed at

17888-515: The early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles . The monarchy was ended in 1897 by the annexation by France , from which Madagascar gained independence in 1960. The country has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics, and has been governed as a constitutional democracy since 1992. Following a political crisis and military coup in 2009 , Madagascar underwent

18060-526: The early 20th century identified Malagasy people as being of Jewish origin . The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century. Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in

18232-544: The edges of the United States at places like Passamaquoddy Bay , St. Mary's in Georgia , Lake Champlain , and Louisiana . During Thomas Jefferson 's embargo of 1807-1809 , these same places became the primary places where goods were smuggled out of the nation in defiance of the law. Like Britain, a gradual liberalization of trade laws as part of the free trade movement meant less smuggling. in 1907 President Theodore Roosevelt tried to cut down on smuggling by establishing

18404-444: The entire economy would have collapsed. In modern times, as many first-world countries have struggled to contain a rising influx of immigrants, the smuggling of people across national borders has become a lucrative extra-legal activity, as well as the extremely dark side, people-trafficking, especially of women who may be enslaved typically as prostitutes. Much smuggling occurs when enterprising merchants attempt to supply demand for

18576-431: The environment.  The loss of trees and other vegetation cover can cause temperature increase, fewer crops, flood, increased greenhouse gases within the atmosphere, ecological imbalance, soil erosion, and loss of biodiversity. The forest reserve in Nigeria spans approximately 10 million hectares, constituting over 10% of the total land area, which is around 96.2 million hectares or 923,768 square kilometers. The population

18748-412: The first documents written that might explain why Marco Polo called it Madagascar is in a 1609 book on Madagascar by Jerome Megiser. Jerome Megiser describes an event in which the kings of Mogadishu and Adal traveled to Madagascar with a fleet of around twenty-five thousand men in order to invade the wealthy islands of Taprobane and Sumatra. However, a tempest threw them off course and they landed on

18920-610: The first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president. In June 2019 parliamentary elections the Rajoelina's won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. Rajoelina could rule as

19092-424: The forest belt have received relatively little emphasis, often overshadowed by discussions about environmental degradation and climate change. This study delves into the patterns and trends of illegal wood logging, forest exploitation, and how youths adapt and survive in Nigeria's South-West forest belt. A 2007 United Nations Environment Program report estimated that between 73% and 88% of timber logged in Indonesia

19264-512: The forests of the central highlands. Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries. A wave of Bantu -speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around the year 1000. Around this time, zebu from South India were first brought, intermingling with sanga found in East Africa. Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom and were extended with terraced paddies throughout

19436-423: The forests were readily accessed and exploited not only by locals but also by foreign criminal networks. Particularly alarming were the activities of illegal traders of forest products, often facilitated by foreigners seeking rare and hard wood species for European and American markets. This resulted in rampant destruction and felling of trees on both communal and individual farmlands. From a scientific perspective,

19608-432: The frontier between countries. For illegally passing a border oneself, another method is with a false passport (completely fake, or illegally changed, or the passport of a lookalike). At Border checkpoints , especially for shipping cargo, Border agents must inspect cargo for smuggled and illegal goods. However, because of what is called Gridlock a maximum of 5% inspections per cargo holds worldwide. Since it can take

19780-411: The government's attempts to implement effective measures to combat illegal logging have not yielded the desired results, with only 6% of the nation's land area designated as protected. According to global data, a significant majority of unemployed individuals in developing regions, both in rural and urban areas, constitute about two-thirds of the total unemployed youth. In Nigeria, unemployment emerged as

19952-602: The growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947. This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community . A period of provisional government ended with

20124-654: The heavy precipitation supports the area's rainforest ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a semi-arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island. Tropical cyclones cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life. In 2004, Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless and caused more than US$ 250 million in damage. In February 2022, Cyclone Batsirai killed 121 people, weeks after Cyclone Ana killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on

20296-471: The high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains. The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoons produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive cyclones , and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast;

20468-433: The illicit goods to the packhorses pack saddle , so that the animal can carry more loads of contraband further and across more rugged terrain then a human courier. In addition to Packhorses, Smugglers have also been known to transport contraband with the use of horse-drawn vehicles . Additionally there are also livestock that smugglers have used as living body couriers, in such instances the animals are either made to swallow

20640-523: The initiative of the communist activist François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy regime. The MDRM

20812-481: The international community deemed fair and transparent. In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in

20984-482: The island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as

21156-449: The island earlier than the mid-first millennium AD are not strongly supported. However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits and presence. (See History of Madagascar ). Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE. Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear

21328-499: The island. A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change , are going to be high. As a result of the island's long isolation from neighbouring continents, Madagascar is home to various endemic plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic . This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as

21500-415: The key transit country for illegal wood products from Indonesia. Private corporations, motivated by economic profits from local and regional market demands for timber, are culpable for deforestation. These agro-industrial companies often do not comply with the basic legal regulations by inappropriately employing cost effective yet environmentally inefficient deforestation methods such as forest fires to clear

21672-518: The land for agricultural purposes. The 1999 Forestry Law states that it is essential for companies to be endorsed by authorities in respective regions with an IPK permit, a timber harvesting permit, for legal approval of their deforestation activities. Many of these corporations could circumvent this red tape, maximise revenue profits by employing illegal logging activities as lax law enforcement and porous law regulations in large developing countries like Indonesia undermine forestry conservation efforts. In

21844-671: The land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on

22016-438: The length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island's remaining tropical lowland forest . To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 ft) above sea level. These central highlands , traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo , are

22188-427: The local producer to supply at a lower cost and bring down the price disparity that encourages smuggling. However, Chowdhury suggested that there is a limit beyond which reducing domestic taxes on production cannot confer a competitive advantage versus smuggled cigarettes. Therefore, government needs to upscale its anti-smuggling drive so that seizures (taking possession of person or property by legal process) can add to

22360-530: The logging that takes place globally is illegal, especially in open and vulnerable areas such as the Amazon Basin , Central Africa , Southeast Asia and the Russian Federation . Available figures and estimates must be treated with caution. Governments tend to underestimate the situation, given that high estimates of illegal logging may cause embarrassment as these to suggest ineffective enforcement of legislation or, even worse, bribery and corruption . On

22532-498: The majority of the population. As of 2021, 68.4 percent of the population is considered to be multidimensionally poor . In the Malagasy language , the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara ( Malagasy pronunciation: [madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥] ) and its people are referred to as Malagasy . The origin of the name is uncertain, and is likely foreign, having been propagated in the Middle Ages by Europeans. If this

22704-435: The majority of victims are women, and sometimes children, other victims include men, women and children forced or conned into manual or cheap labor. Due to the illegal nature of trafficking, the exact extent is unknown. A U.S. government report published in 2003 estimates that 800,000-900,000 people worldwide are trafficked across borders each year. This figure does not include those who are trafficked internally. According to

22876-503: The medieval Hereford Mappa Mundi as the name of Madagascar. Another hypothesis is that Madagascar is a corrupted transliteration of Mogadishu , the capital of Somalia and an important medieval Indian Ocean port. This would have resulted from 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo confusing the two locations in his memoirs, in which he mentions the land of Madageiscar to the south of Socotra . This name would then have been popularized on Renaissance maps by Europeans. One of

23048-465: The migrants, but at a high price. Very often the traveling conditions are inhumane: the migrants are overcrowded in trucks or boats and fatal accidents occur frequently. After their arrival in the destination country, their illegal status puts them at the mercy of their smugglers, which often force the migrants to work for years in the illegal labor market to pay off the debts incurred as a result of their transportation. Wildlife smuggling results from

23220-438: The monarchy, and Joseph-François Lambert , a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony and an alliance of Andriana (noble) and Hova (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end

23392-480: The most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast. Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs : Maromokotro 2,876 m (9,436 ft) in

23564-506: The most surprising goods is common practice when smuggling. What popular culture does not communicate, is that illegal drugs and arms are not the bane of customs officers and the ultimate threat to their economy. In reality, the most commonly smuggled items are everyday items one believes to be common and thus causes higher losses in tax revenue . An anonymous shipping agent said that smuggling becomes second nature to businessmen, taking finished products and misrepresenting them to offer

23736-515: The nation's broken economy. Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992–2010). The new Madagascar constitution established

23908-423: The neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century. The oral histories of the Merina people, who arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called

24080-430: The official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace. Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city. In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions. Primarily on

24252-654: The only source of information apart from state institutions, which probably clearly underestimates the true figures. For example, the Republic of Estonia calculated a rate of 1% illegally harvested timber in 2003, whereas it was estimated to reach as much as 50% by the NGO "Estonian Green Movement". In Latvia, the situation is comparable; anecdotal evidence points towards 25% of logging being illegal. Illegal logging has detrimental impacts, including deforestation and, consequently, global warming. It leads to biodiversity loss, weakens

24424-413: The other hand, environmental NGOs publish alarming figures to raise awareness and emphasize the need for stricter conservation measures. For companies in the forestry sector, publications making high estimates can be regarded as potentially threatening to their reputation and their market perspective, including the competitiveness of wood in comparison to other materials. However, for many countries, NGOs are

24596-457: The period between 350 BC and 550 AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than AD 250. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of Iceland and New Zealand . It is proposed that Ma'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Javan and Sumatran - Malays in their trading fleets to Madagascar. Dates of settlement of

24768-418: The political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the latter half of his second term, Ravalomanana

24940-492: The political front, the Indonesian governmental role in curbing deforestation has largely been criticised. Corruption amongst local Indonesian officials fuels cynicism with regard to the governmental clampdown on illegal logging activities. In 2008, the acquittal of a proprietor for a timber firm, Adelin Lis, alleged for illegal logging further galvanised public opinion and drew criticisms at the Indonesian political institution. Due to

25112-405: The presence of trans-national criminal organizations, widespread drug use and trafficking, and inadequately equipped security personnel and forest guards to combat illegal logging, lumbering cartels, clandestine markets, and sawmills for rare forest products, have driven many youths to explore opportunities in forest-related businesses. Illegal logging, lumbering, and sawmilling can be understood as

25284-491: The price of food in England and thus cause food shortages and civil unrest. Following the loss of Gascony to the French in 1453, imports of wine were also sometimes embargoed during wars to try to deprive the French of the revenues that could be earned from their main export. Most studies of historical smuggling have been based on official sources — such as court records, or the letters of Revenue Officers. A senior academic of

25456-554: The private sector. The event was co-hosted by the World Bank and the Government of Indonesia . The meeting included detailed technical discussions of forest law enforcement in relation to governance, forest policy and forest management as well as ministerial engagement. The Conference's primary aims were to share analysis on forest law enforcement; explore priority issues of forest law enforcement, including illegal logging in

25628-407: The production of a variety of export crops. Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today. Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and

25800-467: The purposeful movement across a border in contravention to the relevant legal frameworks. There are various motivations to smuggle. These include the participation in illegal trade, such as in the drug trade , illegal weapons trade , prostitution , human trafficking , kidnapping , heists , chop shops , illegal immigration or illegal emigration , tax evasion , import restrictions , export restrictions , providing contraband to prison inmates, or

25972-670: The reasons behind child trafficking and some children are smuggled with their parents' consent via a transporter. As many as 50% of those smuggled are children. In the Philippines, between 60,000 and 100,000 children are trafficked to work in the sex industry. Each year, hundreds of thousands of migrants are moved illegally by highly organized international smuggling and trafficking groups , often in dangerous or inhumane conditions. This phenomenon has been growing in recent years as people of low income countries are aspiring to enter developed countries in search of jobs. Migrant smuggling and human trafficking are two separate offences and differ in

26144-474: The rule of law, and hampers responsible forest management. Moreover, it fosters corruption, tax evasion, and diminishes revenue for producer countries, limiting their capacity to invest in sustainable development. The economic and social consequences disproportionately affect the poor and disadvantaged, resulting in the loss of millions of dollars in timber revenue annually. Furthermore, the illegal trade of forest resources undermines international security , and

26316-465: The same shipment. MCC shipments were frequently associated with Phase II and Phase III smuggling organizations . In addition to human couriers, smugglers have been known to transport illicit goods with the use of trained animals . One advantage to smugglers using animals is that unlike human couriers, who might turn state's evidence if caught, an animal courier, if caught with any contraband on them, would be unable to provide any verbal information to

26488-466: The size and scope of Burma's forests, it is difficult for government organisations like Forest Department to regulate logging. There is a high demand for timber from Myanmar's neighbours–notably Thailand and China –who have depleted their forests much more than Myanmar. As a result, numerous illegal logging operations have sprung up near the Thai-Burmese border and in the province of Kachin along

26660-477: The small and medium-sized companies that are behaving responsibly and ready to play by fair rules. Illegal logging has been a problem in Madagascar for decades and is perpetuated by extreme poverty and government corruption . Often taking the form of selective logging , the trade has been driven by high international demand for expensive, fine-grained lumber such as rosewood and ebony . Historically, logging and exporting in Madagascar have been regulated by

26832-438: The social landscape, small-scale subsistence farmers in rural areas, who received minimal education, employ a basic method of slash-and-burn to support their agricultural activities. This rudimentary agricultural technique involves the felling of forest trees before a dry season and, subsequently, the burning of these trees in the following dry season to provide fertilisers to support their crop activities. This agricultural practice

27004-503: The supply size, with better enforcement of environmental protections, and at the demand side, such as an increasing regulation of trade as part of the international lumber industry . Illegal logging is a pervasive problem, causing enormous damage to forests, local communities, and the economies of producer countries. The EU, as a major timber importer, has implemented the European Union Timber Regulation as

27176-525: The territory. William Ellis of the London Missionary Society described his visits made during her reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856 . The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of

27348-549: The very culture of the shipping industry and is affected by institutionalized tariffs and taxes around the world. The existence of the Multi-Consignment Contraband (MCC) smuggling method (smuggling two or more different types of contraband such as drugs and illegal immigrants or drugs and guns at the same time) was verified following the completion of a study that found 16 documented cases of smugglers transporting more than one type of contraband in

27520-407: The wildlife trade monitoring network, strives to monitor the illegal trade of timber and provide expertise in policy and legal reviews. It is estimated that illegal logging on public land alone causes losses in assets and revenue in excess of US$ 10 billion annually. Although exact figures are difficult to calculate, given the illegal nature of the activity, decent estimates show that more than half of

27692-561: The world, including five plant families. The family Didiereaceae , composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar. Four-fifths of the world's Pachypodium species are endemic to the island. Three-fourths of Madagascar's 860 orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's nine baobab species. The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic. Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for

27864-419: Was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history. At 592,800 square kilometres (228,900 sq mi), Madagascar is the world's 46th largest country , the second-largest island country and the fourth-largest island . The country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S , and longitudes 43°E and 51°E . Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and

28036-677: Was about 170,790 in 2006 (National Directorate of Employment, 2012). However, the expanse of marked forest lands has been gradually decreasing due to the rampant tree felling and activities of illegal loggers across the nation. For example, the Federal Department of Forestry (2010) estimated that Nigeria's forests are depleting at an annual rate of 3.5%. The country previously had around 20% of its area covered by natural forests, but this has dwindled to about 10%. The loss of approximately 60% of natural forests occurred due to encroachments for agriculture, extensive logging, and urbanization from

28208-465: Was accused by the colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression. The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo. Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I . In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed

28380-475: Was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001. The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of

28552-611: Was assassinated six days into his tenure. General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka , who ushered in the Marxist–Leninist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993. This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from

28724-532: Was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption. Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina , led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'état . In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of

28896-613: Was held in Yaoundé , Cameroon, in October 2003. The meeting drew together ministers and stakeholders from Africa, Europe, and North America to consider how partnerships between producers, consumers, donors, civil society and the private sector could address illegal forest exploitation and associated trade in Africa. The AFLEG conference, the second regional forest law enforcement and governance meeting after East Asia, resulted in endorsement of

29068-431: Was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively. A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa . Upon reaching

29240-442: Was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron , David Jones and David Griffiths , who established schools, transcribed

29412-443: Was the need for the government to finance a number of extremely expensive wars with France and the United States. Before the era of drug smuggling and human trafficking, smuggling had acquired a kind of nostalgic romanticism, in the vein of Robert Louis Stevenson 's Kidnapped : Few places on the British coast did not claim to be the haunts of wreckers or mooncussers. The thievery was boasted about and romanticized until it seemed

29584-418: Was the welfare implications of smuggling. Against common belief that the private sector is more efficient than the public sector , they showed that smuggling might not enhance social welfare though it may divert resources from governments to the private sector. In contrast, Faizul Latif Chowdhury , in 1999, suggested a production-substituting model of smuggling in which price disparity due to cost of supply

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