The prehistory of East Africa spans from the earliest human presence in the region until the emergence of the Iron Age in East Africa . Between 1,600,000 BP and 1,500,000 BP, the Homo ergaster known as Nariokotome Boy resided near Nariokotome River, Kenya . Modern humans , who left behind remains , resided at Omo Kibish in 233,000 BP. Afro-Asiatic speakers and Nilo-Saharan speakers expanded in East Africa, resulting in transformation of food systems of East Africa. Prehistoric West Africans may have diverged into distinct ancestral groups of modern West Africans and Bantu-speaking peoples in Cameroon , and, subsequently, around 5000 BP, the Bantu-speaking peoples migrated into other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Central African Republic , African Great Lakes , South Africa ).
179-629: Between 1,600,000 BP and 1,500,000 BP, the Homo ergaster known as Nariokotome Boy resided near Nariokotome River, Kenya . Modern humans , who left behind remains , resided at Omo Kibish in 233,000 BP. In 150,000 BP, Africans (e.g., Central Africans , East Africans ) bearing haplogroup L1 diverged. In 130,000 BP, Africans bearing haplogroup L5 diverged in East Africa . Between 130,000 BP and 75,000 BP, behavioral modernity emerged among Southern Africans and long-term interactions between
358-446: A Malinke king of Gambia , who along with his senior queen, human subjects within his kingdom, and his weapons, were buried in his home under a large mound the size of the house, as described by V. Fernandes. Levtzion also acknowledged the cultural similarities between the monarchic tumuli-building traditions and practices (e.g., monumental Senegambian megaliths ) of West Africa, such as Senegambia , Inland Niger Delta , and Mali , and
537-581: A Bantu cultural core. DNA evidence has found that the Swahili people were of mixed African and Asian (particularly Persian) ancestry. The Kilwa Sultanate was a medieval sultanate centred at Kilwa , in modern-day Tanzania. At its height, its authority stretched over the entire length of the Swahili Coast , including Kenya. Since the 10th century, rulers of Kilwa would go on to build elaborate coral mosques and introduce copper coinage. Swahili,
716-566: A Bantu language with Arabic , Persian , and other Middle-Eastern and South Asian loanwords , later developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples. Since the turn of the 20th century, Swahili has adopted numerous loanwords and calques from English, many of them originating during English colonial rule. The Swahili built Mombasa into a major port city and established trade links with other nearby city-states, as well as commercial centres in Persia, Arabia, and even India. By
895-596: A colonist's perspective is found in the memoir Out of Africa by Danish author Baroness Karen von Blixen-Finecke, published in 1937. By the 1930s, approximately 30,000 white settlers lived in the area and gained a political voice because of their contribution to the market economy. The central highlands were already home to over a million members of the Kikuyu people, most of whom had no land claims in European terms and lived as itinerant farmers. To protect their interests,
1074-440: A famous Australopithecus fossil, would only have been about 1 m (3 ft 3 in) tall at her death, Turkana Boy was about 1.62 m (5 ft 4 in) tall and would probably have reached 1.82 m (6 ft) or more if he had survived to adulthood. Adult H. ergaster are believed to have ranged in size from about 1.45 to 1.85 m (4 ft 9 in to 6 ft 1 in) tall. Because of being adapted to
1253-630: A fragmentary skull from Olorgesailie in Kenya (dated to between 970,000 and 900,000 years ago). The Olduvai skull is similar to Asian H. erectus in its massive brow ridge, but the others only show minor differences to earlier H. ergaster skulls. The H. erectus in Asia, as well as later hominins in Europe (i. e. H. heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis ) and Africa ( H. sapiens ) are all probably lineages descended from H. ergaster. Because H. ergaster
1432-541: A great amount of land, in the plains where people did not put up much resistance. The Nandi peoples managed to oppose the Masai, while the Taveta peoples fled to the forests on the eastern edge of Mount Kilimanjaro , although they later were forced to leave the land due to the threat of smallpox . An outbreak of either rinderpest or pleuropneumonia greatly affected the Masai's cattle, while an epidemic of smallpox affected
1611-440: A hot and arid climate, H. ergaster might also have been the earliest human species to have nearly hairless and naked skin. If instead H. ergaster had an ape-like covering of body hair, sweating (the primary means through which modern humans prevent their brains and bodies from overheating) would not have been as efficient. Though sweating is the generally accepted explanation for hairlessness, other proposed explanations include
1790-592: A major change in diet) as well as body proportions and inferred lifestyles more similar to modern humans than to earlier and contemporary hominins. With these features in mind, some researchers view H. ergaster as being the earliest true representative of the genus Homo . H. ergaster lived on the savannah in Africa, a unique environment with challenges that would have resulted in the need for many new and distinct behaviours. Earlier Homo probably used counter-attack tactics, like modern primates, to keep predators away. By
1969-599: A more barrel-shaped chest over narrow hips, another similarity to modern humans. The tibia (shin bone) of Turkana Boy is relatively longer than the same bone in modern humans, potentially meaning that there was more bend in the knee when walking. The slim and long build of Turkana Boy may be explained by H. ergaster living in hot and arid, seasonal environments. Through thinning of the body, body volume decreases faster than skin area and greater skin area means more effective heat dissipation. H. ergaster individuals were significantly taller than their ancestors. Whereas Lucy ,
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#17327755411142148-414: A more easily digested diet composed of food of higher quality. It is likely that H. ergaster consumed meat in higher proportions than the earlier australopithecines. Meat was probably acquired through a combination of ambushes, active hunting and confrontational scavenging. H. ergaster must not only have possessed the ability of endurance running , but must also have been able to defend themselves and
2327-479: A nearly complete skeleton, as representing H. erectus . Turkana Boy was the first discovered comprehensively preserved specimen of H. ergaster / erectus found and constitutes an important fossil in establishing the differences and similarities between early Homo and modern humans. Turkana Boy was placed in H. ergaster by paleoanthropologist Bernard Wood in 1992, and is today, alongside other fossils in Africa previously designated as H. erectus , commonly seen as
2506-526: A north to south genetic cline ; additionally, from eastern Africa to toward southern Africa , evidence of genetic homogeneity is indicative of a serial founder effect and admixture events having occurred between Bantu-speaking Africans and other African populations by the time the Bantu migration had spanned into South Africa. Though some may have been created later, the earlier red finger-painted rock art may have been created between 6000 BP and 1800 BP, to
2685-442: A number of features as well, notably in that the margins of KNM ER 3883's brow ridges are very thickened and protrude outwards but slightly downwards rather than upwards. Both skulls can be distinguished from the skull of Turkana Boy, which possesses only slightly substantial thickenings of the superior orbital margins, lacking the more vertical thickening of KNM ER 3883 and the aggressive protrusion of KNM ER 3733. In addition to this,
2864-646: A pastoralist of the Pastoral Neolithic carried haplogroup L3h1a2a1 . At Egerton Cave, in Nakuru County, Kenya , a pastoralist of the Pastoral Neolithic / Elmenteitan carried haplogroup L0a1d . At Ol Kalou, in Nyandarua County , Kenya , a pastoralist of the Pastoral Neolithic carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L3d1d . At Hyrax Hill, in Kenya , an individual, dated to
3043-539: A pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age carried haplogroup L0a1c1 . At Ilkek Mounds, in Nakuru County, Kenya , a pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age carried haplogroups E2 (xE2b)/E-M75 and L0f2a . At Kasiole 2, in Narok County , Kenya , a pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b/E-V1515 , likely E-M293 , and L3h1a2a1 . At Emurua Ole Polos, in Narok County , Kenya ,
3222-729: A pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L3h1a2a1 . At Deloraine Farm, in Nakuru County, Kenya , an iron metallurgist of the Iron Age carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1a/E-M58 and L5b1 . At Makangale Cave, on Pemba Island , Tanzania , an individual, estimated to date between 639 BP and 544 BP, carried haplogroup L2a1a2 . Homo ergaster † Telanthropus capensis Broom and Robinson , 1949 † Homo erectus ergaster (Groves and Mazák, 1975) † Homo louisleakeyi Kretzoi, 1984 † Homo kenyaensis Zeitoun, 2000 † Homo okotensis Zeitoun, 2000 Homo ergaster
3401-538: A receding forehead. Many of the features of H. ergaster are clearly more primitive versions of features later expressed in H. erectus , which somewhat obscures the differences between the two. There are subtle, potentially significant, differences between the East African and East Asian fossils. Among these are the somewhat higher-domed and thinner-walled skulls of H. ergaster , and the even more massive brow ridges and faces of Asian H. erectus . The question
3580-602: A reduction of parasite load and sexual selection . It is doubtful if australopithecines and earlier Homo were sufficiently mobile to make hair loss an advantageous trait, whereas H. ergaster was clearly adapted for long-distance travel and noted for inhabiting lower altitudes (and open, hot savannah environments) than their ancestors. Australopithecines typically inhabited colder and higher altitudes 1,000–1,600 m (3,300–5,200 ft), where nighttime temperatures would have gotten significantly colder and insulating body hair may have been required. Alternatively and despite this,
3759-525: A reference to the more advanced tools used by the species in comparison to those of their ancestors. The fossil range of H. ergaster mainly covers the period of 1.7 to 1.4 million years ago, though a broader time range is possible. Though fossils are known from across East and Southern Africa, most H. ergaster fossils have been found along the shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya. There are later African fossils, some younger than 1 million years ago, that indicate long-term anatomical continuity, though it
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#17327755411143938-470: A representative of H. ergaster by those who support H. ergaster as a distinct species. H. ergaster is easily distinguished from earlier and more basal species of Homo , notably H. habilis and H. rudolfensis , by a number of features that align them, and their inferred lifestyle, more closely to modern humans than to earlier and contemporary hominins. As compared to their relatives, H. ergaster had body proportions more similar to later members of
4117-455: Is also possible that the loss of body hair occurred at a significantly later date. Genetic analysis suggests that high activity in the melanocortin 1 receptor , which produces dark skin, dates back to about 1.2 million years ago. This could indicate the evolution of hairlessness around this time, as a lack of body hair would have left the skin exposed to harmful UV radiation . Differences to modern humans would have been readily apparent in
4296-411: Is also the oldest known H. erectus s.l. specimen overall, showing clear similarities to KNM ER 3733, and demonstrates that early H. ergaster coexisted with other hominins such as Paranthropus robustus and Australopithecus sediba . There are also younger specimens of H. ergaster ; notably, Turkana Boy is dated to about 1.56 million years ago. A handful of even younger African skulls make
4475-582: Is an extinct species or subspecies of archaic humans who lived in Africa in the Early Pleistocene . Whether H. ergaster constitutes a species of its own or should be subsumed into H. erectus is an ongoing and unresolved dispute within palaeoanthropology . Proponents of synonymisation typically designate H. ergaster as " African Homo erectus " or " Homo erectus ergaster ". The name Homo ergaster roughly translates to " working man",
4654-716: Is bordered by South Sudan to the northwest, Ethiopia to the north, Somalia to the east, Uganda to the west, Tanzania to the south, and the Indian Ocean to the southeast. Kenya's geography , climate and population vary widely, ranging from cold snow-capped mountaintops (Batian, Nelion and Point Lenana on Mount Kenya ) with vast surrounding forests, wildlife and fertile agricultural regions to temperate climates in western and rift valley counties and further on to dry less fertile arid and semi-arid areas and absolute deserts ( Chalbi Desert and Nyiri Desert ). Kenya's earliest inhabitants were hunter-gatherers , like
4833-411: Is considered. With all H. ergaster skulls considered, the brain volume of the species mostly varied between 600 and 910 cc, with some small examples only having a volume of 508–580 cc. Since their brain was smaller than that of modern humans, the skull of H. ergaster immediately narrowed behind the eye sockets ( post-orbital constriction ). The brain case was long and low, and Turkana Boy's forehead
5012-637: Is consistent with existing evidence for the introduction of livestock. The shift from hunting-gathering to herding developed gradually, over thousands of years, during the Pastoral Neolithic. The Pastoral Neolithic of East Africa is one of a few in world history where herding significantly preceded agricultural food production. The major transition from predominantly hunter-gatherer economies to predominantly herding economies may have occurred around 3000 BP. There are limited remains of domesticated animals at sites that predate 3000 BP. For example, at
5191-697: Is instead whether these fossils represent a radiation of different species or the radiation of a single, highly variable and diverse, species over the course of almost two million years. This long-running debate remains unresolved, with researchers typically using the terms H. erectus s.s. ( sensu stricto ) to refer to H. erectus fossils in Asia and the term H. erectus s.l. ( sensu lato ) to refer to fossils of other species that may or may not be included in H. erectus , such as H. ergaster , H. antecessor and H. heidelbergensis . For obvious reasons, H. ergaster shares many features with H. erectus , such as large forward-projecting jaws, large brow ridges and
5370-506: Is known on when and which Homo first appeared in Europe and Asia, since Early Pleistocene fossil hominins are scarce on both continents, and that it would have been H. ergaster (or "early H. erectus ") that expanded, as well as the particular manner in which they did, remains conjecture. The presence of H. erectus fossils in East Asia means that a human species, most likely H. ergaster , had left Africa before 1 million years ago,
5549-427: Is made more difficult since it regards how much intraspecific variation can be exhibited in a single species before it needs to be split into more, a question that in and of itself does not have a clear-cut answer. A 2008 analysis by anthropologist Karen L. Baab, examining fossils of various H. erectus subspecies, and including fossils attributed to H. ergaster , found that the intraspecific variation within H. erectus
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5728-617: Is more similar to that of a modern 15-year-old and the brain is comparable to that of a modern 1-year-old. By modern standards, H. ergaster would thus have been cognitively limited, though the invention of new tools prove that they were more intelligent than their predecessors. H. ergaster possessed a significantly larger body mass in comparison to earlier hominins such as early Homo , Australopithecus and Paranthropus . Whereas australopithecines typically ranged in weight from 29–48 kg (64–106 lbs), H. ergaster typically ranged in weight from 52–63 kg (115–139 lbs). It
5907-532: Is not completely known. A considerable amount of evidence supports the case of there being two major expansions (associated with the spread of Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan languages) in eastern Africa which transformed the food systems of the region. Between 8000 BP and 2000 BP, Saharan herders migrated into Eastern Africa , and brought along with them their monumental Saharan burial traditions. Genetic evidence shows that lactase persistence developed in East African populations between 7000 BP and 3000 BP, which
6086-462: Is possible that the increased body size was the result of life in an open savannah environment, where increased size gives the ability to exploit broader diets in larger foraging areas, increases mobility and also gives the ability to hunt larger prey. The increased body mass also means that parents would have been able to carry their children to an older age and larger mass. Though reduced sexual dimorphism has often been cited historically as one of
6265-538: Is the second largest in eastern and central Africa, after Ethiopia, with Nairobi serving as a major regional commercial hub. Agriculture is the largest sector; tea and coffee are traditional cash crops, while fresh flowers are a fast-growing export. The service industry is also a major economic driver, particularly tourism. Kenya is a member of the East African Community trade bloc, though some international trade organisations categorise it as part of
6444-428: Is thought to have been ancestral to these later Homo , it might have persisted in Africa until around 600,000 years ago, when brain size increased rapidly and H. heidelbergensis emerged. Traditionally, H. erectus was seen as the hominin that first left Africa to colonise Europe and Asia. If H. ergaster is distinct from H. erectus , this role would apply to H. ergaster instead. Very little concrete information
6623-407: Is unclear if H. ergaster was truly uniquely capable of expanding outside Africa; australopithecines had likely colonised savannah grasslands throughout Africa by 3 million years ago and there are no clear reasons as to why they would not have been able to expand into the grasslands of Asia before H. ergaster . The general assumption is that hominins migrated out of the continent either across
6802-465: Is unclear if they can be formally regarded as H. ergaster specimens. As a chronospecies , H. ergaster may have persisted to as late as 600,000 years ago, when new lineages of Homo arose in Africa. Those who believe H. ergaster should be subsumed into H. erectus consider there to be too little difference between the two to separate them into distinct species. Proponents of keeping the two species as distinct cite morphological differences between
6981-615: The Ancient Greek ἐργαστήρ, ergastḗr , 'workman') roughly translates to "working man" or "workman". Groves and Mazák also included many of the Koobi Fora fossils, such as KNM ER 803 (a partial skeleton and some isolated teeth) in their designation of the species, but did not provide any comparison with the Asian fossil record of H. erectus in their diagnosis, inadvertently causing some of the later taxonomic confusion in regards to
7160-797: The Bubaline Period , Kel Essuf Period , and Round Head Period of the Central Sahara, the Pastoral Period followed. In East Africa , the beginning of the Pastoral Neolithic follows the Late Stone Age around 5000 BP. The earliest instances of food production in East Africa are found in Kenya and Tanzania . The earliest Pastoral Neolithic sites are in the Lake Turkana region from around 5000 BP. Predating
7339-534: The Duffy-null genotype. In the highlands of Ethiopia , genetic adaptation (e.g., rs10803083, an SNP associated with the rate and function of hemoglobin ; BHLHE41, a gene associated with circadian rhythm and hypoxia response; EGNL1, a gene strongly associated with oxygen homeostasis in mammals) to hypoxia and low atmospheric pressure has been found among the Amhara people, which may have developed within
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7518-632: The Enkapune Ya Muto rock shelter site of central Kenya, among evidence of mostly wild fauna, there are few caprine (goat/sheep) teeth dated to around 4400 BP. The length of time between the initial introduction of domesticates and their full adoption is thought to have occurred between the cultural separation of immigrant populations and indigenous populations in the region. Additionally, paleoclimatic evidence from Lake Naivasha , Kenya suggests that rain patterns may not have been favorable for dairy pastoralism until around 3000 BP. After 3000 BP,
7697-540: The Greater Horn of Africa . Africa is Kenya's largest export market, followed by the European Union. The Republic of Kenya is named after Mount Kenya . The earliest recorded version of the modern name was written by German explorer Johann Ludwig Krapf in the 19th century. While travelling with a Kamba caravan led by the long-distance trader Chief Kivoi , Krapf spotted the mountain peak and asked what it
7876-534: The Hadza and San peoples, also use cultural means to recover the maximum amount of fat from the carcasses of their prey, a method that would not have been available to H. ergaster . Kenya Kenya , officially the Republic of Kenya ( Swahili : Jamhuri ya Kenya ), is a country in East Africa . With a population of more than 47.6 million in the 2019 census, Kenya is the 28th-most-populous country in
8055-586: The Kalenjin , Samburu , Luo , Turkana , and Maasai . By the first millennium AD, Bantu -speaking farmers had moved into the region, initially along the coast. The Bantus originated in West Africa along the Benue River in what is now eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon . The Bantu migration brought new developments in agriculture and ironworking to the region. Bantu groups in Kenya include
8234-606: The Kikuyu , Luhya , Kamba , Kisii , Meru , Kuria , Aembu , Ambeere , Wadawida -Watuweta, Wapokomo, and Mijikenda , among others. Notable prehistoric sites in the interior of Kenya include the (possibly archaeoastronomical) site Namoratunga on the west side of Lake Turkana and the walled settlement of Thimlich Ohinga in Migori County . The Kenyan coast had served as host to communities of ironworkers and Bantu subsistence farmers, hunters, and fishers who supported
8413-578: The Ming Dynasty , visited the East African coast on one of his last ' treasure voyages '. Malindi authorities also welcomed the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498. During the 18th and 19th century C.E, the Masai people moved into central and southern Rift Valley plains of Kenya, from a region north of Lake Rudolf (now Lake Turkana ). Although there were not many, they managed to conquer
8592-705: The Nile Valley ; these monarchic tumuli-building practices span the Sudanian savanna as manifestations of a trans-Sahelian common culture and heritage. From the 5th millennium BCE to the 14th century CE, earthen and stone tumuli were developed between Senegambia and Chad . Among 10,000 burial mounds in Senegambia, 3,000 megalithic burial mounds in Senegambia were constructed between 200 BCE and 100 CE, and 7,000 earthen burial mounds in Senegal were constructed in
8771-814: The Pastoral Neolithic (2300 BP), carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b (E-M293, E-M293) and L5a1b . At Molo Cave, in Kenya , there were two individuals, dated to the Pastoral Neolithic (1500 BP); while one had haplogroups that went undetermined, another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b (E-M293, E-M293) and L3h1a2a1 . At Makangale Cave, on Pemba Island , Tanzania , an individual, estimated to date between 1421 BP and 1307 BP, carried haplogroup L0a . At Kuumbi Cave , in Zanzibar , Tanzania , an individual, estimated to date between 1370 BP and 1303 BP, carried haplogroup L4b2a2c . At Kisima Farm/Porcupine Cave, in Laikipia County , Kenya , there were two pastoralists of
8950-553: The Pastoral Neolithic (3500 BP); one carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b (E-M293, E-CTS10880) and L4b2a2b , and another carried haplogroup L0f1 . At Luxmanda , Tanzania , an individual, estimated to date between 3141 BP and 2890 BP, carried haplogroup L2a1 . In the Ethiopian Highlands of Harar , the earliest construction of megaliths occurred. From this region and its megalith-building tradition (e.g., dolmens, tumuli with burial chambers organized in cemeteries),
9129-509: The Pastoral Neolithic / Elmenteitan carried haplogroup K1a . At Naivasha Burial Site, in Nakuru County, Kenya , there were five pastoralists of the Pastoral Neolithic ; one carried haplogroup L4b2a2b , another carried haplogroups xBT, likely A , and M1a1b , another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L3h1a1 , another carried haplogroups A1b1b2b/A-M13 and L4a1 , and the last carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L3x1a . At Njoro River Cave II, in Nakuru County, Kenya ,
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#17327755411149308-468: The Pastoral Neolithic ; one carried haplogroups E1b1b1a1b2/E-V22 and HV1b1 , another carried haplogroup L0a , another carried haplogroup L3x1 , another carried haplogroup L4b2a2b , another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L3i2 , another carried haplogroup L3h1a2a1 , another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2/E-V1486 , likely E-M293 and L0f2a1 , and another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2/E-V1486 , likely E-M293 , and T2+150 ; while most of
9487-482: The Pastoral Neolithic ; one carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and M1a1 , and another carried haplogroup M1a1f . At Prettejohn's Gully, in Nakuru County, Kenya , there were two pastoralists of the early pastoral period; one carried haplogroups E2 (xE2b)/E-M75 and K1a , and another carried haplogroup L3f1b . At Gishimangeda Cave, in Karatu District , Tanzania , there were eleven pastoralists of
9666-524: The Pleistocene epoch. During excavations at Lake Turkana in 1984, palaeoanthropologist Richard Leakey , assisted by Kamoya Kimeu , discovered the Turkana Boy , a 1.6-million-year-old Homo erectus fossil. East Africa, including Kenya, is one of the earliest regions where modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) are believed to have lived. Evidence was found in 2018, dating to about 320,000 years ago, of
9845-707: The Somali Republic to the north. A ceasefire was eventually reached with the signing of the Arusha Memorandum in October 1967, but relative insecurity prevailed through 1969. To discourage further invasions, Kenya signed a defence pact with Ethiopia in 1969, which is still in effect. On 12 December 1964, the Republic of Kenya was proclaimed, and Jomo Kenyatta became Kenya's first president. Under Kenyatta, corruption became widespread throughout
10024-490: The early dynastic period and Meroitic Kush pyramids are recognized by Faraji (2022) as part of and derived from an earlier architectural " Sudanic - Sahelian " tradition of monarchic tumuli, which are characterized as "earthen pyramids" or "proto-pyramids." Faraji (2022) characterized Nobadia as the "last pharaonic culture of the Nile Valley" and described mound tumuli as being "the first architectural symbol of
10203-708: The 13th century CE and the 16th century CE, may have connection to tumuli from Ballana and Makuria . Tumuli have also been found at Kissi , in Burkina Faso , and at Daima , in Nigeria . At Kisese II rockshelter, in Tanzania , an individual, dated between 7240 BP and 6985 BP, carried haplogroups B2b1a~ and L5b2 . Amid the Holocene , around 7100 BP, six individuals were buried. From West Africa , Bantu-speaking peoples migrated, along with their ceramics, into
10382-410: The 15th century, Portuguese voyager Duarte Barbosa claimed that "Mombasa is a place of great traffic and has a good harbour in which there are always moored small craft of many kinds and also great ships, both of which are bound from Sofala and others which come from Cambay and Melinde and others which sail to the island of Zanzibar." In the 17th century, the Swahili coast was conquered and came under
10561-470: The 1963 independence constitution with a new one. As a result, the elections of 2007 took place following the procedure set by the old constitution. Kibaki was reelected in highly contested elections marred by political and ethnic violence . The main opposition leader, Raila Odinga, claimed the election was rigged and that he was the rightfully elected president. In the ensuing violence, 1,500 people were killed and another 600,000 internally displaced, making it
10740-415: The 2002 elections. Moi's plan to be replaced by Uhuru Kenyatta failed, and Mwai Kibaki , running for the opposition coalition "National Rainbow Coalition" ( NARC ), was elected president. David Anderson (2003) reports the elections were judged free and fair by local and international observers, and seemed to mark a turning point in Kenya's democratic evolution. In 2005, Kenyans rejected a plan to replace
10919-475: The 2nd millennium CE. Between 1st century CE and 15th century CE, megalithic monuments without tumuli were constructed. Megalithic and earthen Senegambian tumuli, which may have been constructed by the Wolof people ( Serer people ) or Sosse people ( Mande peoples ). Sudanese tumuli (e.g., Kerma , C-Group ), which date to the mid-3rd millennium BCE, share cultural similarities with Senegambian tumuli . Between
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#173277554111411098-594: The 6th century CE and 14th century CE, stone tumuli circles, which at a single site usually encircle a burial site of half-meter that is covered by a burial mound, were constructed in Komaland; the precursors for this 3rd millennium BCE tumuli style of Komaland, Ghana and Senegambia are regarded by Faraji (2022) to be Kerma Kush and the A-Group culture of ancient Nubia . While the stele-circled burial mounds of C-Group culture of Nubia are regarded as precursors for
11277-583: The African fossils and H. erectus fossils from Asia, as well as early Homo evolution being more complex than what is implied by subsuming species such as H. ergaster into H. erectus . Additionally, morphological differences between the specimens commonly seen as constituting H. ergaster might suggest that H. ergaster itself does not represent a cohesive species. Regardless of their most correct classification, H. ergaster exhibit primitive versions of traits later expressed in H. erectus and are thus likely
11456-739: The Air Force. It was quickly suppressed by forces commanded by Chief of General Staff Mahamoud Mohamed , a veteran Somali military official. They included the General Service Unit (GSU)—a paramilitary wing of the police—and later the regular police. On the heels of the Garissa Massacre of 1980, Kenyan troops committed the Wagalla massacre in 1984 against thousands of civilians in Wajir County . An official probe into
11635-604: The Dmanisi fossils, stone tools manufactured by hominins have been discovered on the Loess Plateau in China and dated to 2.12 million years old, meaning that hominins must have left Africa before that time. An alternative hypothesis historically has been that Homo evolved in Asia from earlier ancestors that had migrated there from Africa, and then expanded back into Europe, where it gave rise to H. sapiens . This view
11814-458: The Embu call it "Kirinyaa". All three names have the same meaning. Ludwig Krapf recorded the name as both Kenia and Kegnia . Some have said that this was a precise notation of the African pronunciation / ˈ k ɛ n j ə / . An 1882 map drawn by Joseph Thompsons, a Scottish geologist and naturalist, indicated Mt. Kenya as Mt. Kenia. The mountain's name was accepted, pars pro toto , as
11993-726: The Later Stone Age (3500 BP); one carried haplogroup L4b2a and another carried haplogroup E (E-M96, E-P162) . At White Rock Point, in Homa Bay County , Kenya , there were two foragers of the Later Stone Age ; one carried haplogroups BT (xCT) , likely B , and L2a4 , and another probably carried haplogroup L0a2 . At Jawuoyo Rockshelter, in Kisumu County , Kenya , a forager of the Later Stone Age carried haplogroups E1b1b1a1b2/E-V22 and L4b2a2c . At Lukenya Hill, in Kenya , there were two individuals, dated to
12172-581: The Later Iron Age. At Mota , in Ethiopia , an individual, estimated to date to the 5th millennium BP, carried haplogroups E1b1 and L3x2a . The individual of Mota is genetically related to groups residing near the region of Mota, and in particular, are considerably genetically related to the Ari people . Finger millet is originally native to the highlands of East Africa and was domesticated before
12351-522: The Masai themselves. After the death of the Masai Mbatian , the chief laibon (medicine man), the Masai split into warring factions. The Masai caused much strife in the areas they conquered; however, cooperation between such groups as the Luo people , Luhya people , and Gusii people is evidenced by shared vocabulary for modern implements and similar economic regimes. Although Arab traders remained in
12530-825: The Protectorate of Kenya so that all of Kenya would become one sovereign state. In this way, Kenya became an independent country under the Kenya Independence Act 1963 of the United Kingdom. On 12 December 1964, Kenya became a republic under the name "Republic of Kenya". Concurrently, the Kenyan army fought the Shifta War against ethnic Somali rebels inhabiting the Northern Frontier District who wanted to join their kin in
12709-649: The Saharan region of Niger and the Eastern Sahara may have served as antecedents for the mastabas and pyramids of ancient Egypt . During Predynastic Egypt , tumuli were present at various locations (e.g., Naqada , Helwan ). The prehistoric tradition of monarchic tumuli -building is shared by both the West African Sahel and the Middle Nile regions. Ancient Egyptian pyramids of
12888-561: The UK and the colony led to the Mau Mau revolution , which began in 1952, and the declaration of independence in 1963. After independence, Kenya remained a member of the Commonwealth of Nations . The current constitution was adopted in 2010 and replaced the 1963 independence constitution . Kenya is a presidential representative democratic republic, in which elected officials represent
13067-473: The United Kingdom. Kenya itself was the site of fighting between Allied forces and Italian troops in 1940–41, when Italian forces invaded. Wajir and Malindi were bombed as well. From October 1952 to December 1959, Kenya was in a state of emergency arising from the Mau Mau rebellion against British rule. The Mau Mau, also known as the Kenya Land and Freedom Army, were primarily Kikuyu people. During
13246-639: The aforementioned Dmanisi skulls, which share many traits with H. ergaster in Africa, suggesting that H. ergaster might have expanded out of Africa as early as 1.7–1.9 million years ago. In addition to H. ergaster -like traits, the Dmanisi skulls possess a wide assortment of other traits, some of which are similar to traits in earlier hominins such as H. habilis , and the site notably lacks preserved hand axes (otherwise characteristic of H. ergaster ), which means that hominins might have spread out of Africa even earlier than H. ergaster . The skull D2700 (Dmanisi skull 3) in particular resembles H. habilis in
13425-466: The area, trade routes were disrupted by the hostile Masai, though there was trade in ivory between these factions. The first foreigners to successfully get past the Masai were Johann Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann , two German missionaries who established a mission in Rabai , not too far from Mombasa . The pair were the first Europeans to sight Mount Kenya . The colonial history of Kenya dates from
13604-598: The article by stating the cost of the stability in terms of human rights abuses. The opposition party started by Oginga Odinga — Kenya People's Union (KPU)—was banned in 1969 after the Kisumu Massacre and KPU leaders were still in detention without trial in gross violation of the U.N. Declaration of Human Rights . The Kenya Students Union, Jehovah Witnesses and all opposition parties were outlawed. Kenyatta ruled until his death on 22 August 1978. After Kenyatta died, Daniel arap Moi became president. He retained
13783-769: The assumption historically having been that they first migrated out of Africa around 1.9 to 1.7 million years ago. Discoveries in Georgia and China push the latest possible date further back, before 2 million years ago, also casting doubt on the idea that H. ergaster was the first hominin to leave Africa. The main reason for leaving Africa is likely to have been an increasing population periodically outgrowing their resource base, with splintering groups moving to establishing themselves in neighboring, empty territories over time. The physiology and improved technology of H. ergaster might have allowed them to travel to and colonise territories that no one had ever occupied before. It
13962-453: The atrocities was later ordered in 2011. The election held in 1988 saw the advent of the mlolongo (queuing) system, where voters were supposed to line up behind their favoured candidates instead of casting a secret ballot. This was seen as the climax of a very undemocratic regime and led to widespread agitation for constitutional reform. Several contentious clauses, including the one that allowed for only one political party, were changed in
14141-475: The beginning of the end of Moi's leadership and the rule of KANU. Moi retained the presidency and George Saitoti became vice president. Although it held on to power, KANU won 100 seats and lost 88 seats to the six opposition parties. The 1992 elections marked the beginning of multiparty politics after more than 25 years of KANU rule. Following skirmishes in the aftermath of the elections, 5,000 people were killed and another 75,000 displaced from their homes. In
14320-573: The bulk of the skilled labour required for construction. They and most of their descendants later remained in Kenya and formed the core of several distinct Indian communities, such as the Ismaili Muslim and Sikh communities. While building the railway through Tsavo , a number of the Indian railway workers and local African labourers were attacked by two lions known as the Tsavo maneaters . At
14499-535: The carcasses of their prey from the variety of contemporary African predators. It is possible that a drop in African carnivoran species variety around 1.5 million years ago can be ascribed to competition with opportunistic and carnivorous hominins. On its own, meat might not have been able to fully sustain H. ergaster . Modern humans can not sufficiently metabolize protein to meet more than 50% of their energy needs and modern humans who heavily rely on animal-based products in their diet mostly rely on fat to sustain
14678-553: The case for long-term anatomical continuity, though it is unclear if they can appropriately be formally regarded as H. ergaster specimens; the " Olduvai Hominid 9 " skull from Olduvai Gorge is dated to about 1.2 to 1.1 million years ago and there are also skulls from Buia (near the coast of Eritrea, dated to ~1 million years old), the Bouri Formation in Ethiopia (dated to between 1 million and 780,000 years old) and
14857-546: The centuries, the Kenyan coast has played host to many merchants and explorers. Among the cities that line the Kenyan coast is Malindi. It has remained an important Swahili settlement since the 14th century and once rivalled Mombasa for dominance in the African Great Lakes region. Malindi has traditionally been a friendly port city for foreign powers. In 1414, the Chinese trader and explorer Zheng He , representing
15036-585: The coast and the interior between 250 BC and 500 AD. European contact began in 1500 AD with the Portuguese Empire , and effective colonisation of Kenya began in the 19th century during the European exploration of Africa . Modern-day Kenya emerged from a protectorate established by the British Empire in 1895 and the subsequent Kenya Colony , which began in 1920. Numerous disputes between
15215-614: The coastal hotel business, with Kenyatta personally owning the Leonard Beach Hotel. Kenyatta's mixed legacy was highlighted at the 10-year anniversary of Kenya's independence. A December 1973 article in The New York Times praised Kenyatta's leadership and Kenya for emerging as a model of pragmatism and conservatism. Kenya's GDP had increased at an annual rate of 6.6%, higher than the population growth rate of more than 3%. But Amnesty International responded to
15394-606: The colonial administration's crackdown, over 11,000 freedom fighters had been killed, along with 100 British troops and 2,000 Kenyan loyalist soldiers. War crimes were committed on both sides of the conflict, including the publicised Lari massacre and the Hola massacre . The governor requested and obtained British and African troops, including the King's African Rifles . The British began counter-insurgency operations. In May 1953, General Sir George Erskine took charge as commander-in-chief of
15573-847: The colony's armed forces, with the personal backing of Winston Churchill . The capture of Waruhiu Itote (nom de guerre "General China" ) on 15 January 1954 and the subsequent interrogation led to a better understanding of the Mau Mau command structure for the British. Operation Anvil opened on 24 April 1954, after weeks of planning by the army with the approval of the War Council. The operation effectively placed Nairobi under military siege. Nairobi's occupants were screened and suspected Mau Mau supporters moved to detention camps. More than 80,000 Kikuyu were held in detention camps without trial, often subject to brutal treatment. The Home Guard formed
15752-430: The constitution to allow Moi to remain president for another term. Subsequently, Moi stood for reelection and won a 5th term in 1997. His win was strongly criticised by his major opponents, Kibaki and Odinga , as fraudulent. Following this win, Moi was constitutionally barred from another presidential term. Beginning in 1998, he attempted to influence the country's succession politics to have Uhuru Kenyatta elected in
15931-524: The core of the government's strategy as it was composed of loyalist Africans, not foreign forces such as the British Army and King's African Rifles. The capture of Dedan Kimathi on 21 October 1956 in Nyeri signified the ultimate defeat of the Mau Mau and essentially ended the military offensive. During this period, substantial governmental changes to land tenure occurred. The most important of these
16110-479: The country. The building of the railway was resisted by some ethnic groups—notably the Nandi , led by Orkoiyot Koitalel Arap Samoei from 1890 to 1900—but the British eventually built it. The Nandi were the first ethnic group to be put in a native reserve to stop them from disrupting the building of the railway. During the railway construction era, there was a significant influx of Indian workers, who provided
16289-510: The dead, and the "tombs of their kings."" Faraji (2022) indicated that the early dynastic period of ancient Egypt, Kerma of Kush , and the Nobadian culture of Ballana were similar to al-Bakrī's descriptions of the Mande tumuli practices of ancient Ghana . A characteristic of divine kingship sometimes includes monarchic funerary practices (e.g., Ancient Egyptian funerary practices ). In
16468-459: The differences. The differences between Turkana Boy's skull and KNM ER 3733 and KNM ER 3883, as well as the differences in dentition between Turkana Boy and KNM ER 992 have been interpreted by some, such as paleoanthropologist Jeffrey H. Schwartz, as suggesting that Turkana Boy and the rest of the H. ergaster material does not represent the same taxon. Schwartz also noted none of the fossils seemed to represent H. erectus either, which he believed
16647-483: The direct ancestors of later H. erectus populations in Asia. Additionally, H. ergaster is likely ancestral to later hominins in Europe and Africa, such as modern humans and Neanderthals . Several features distinguish H. ergaster from australopithecines as well as earlier and more basal species of Homo , such as H. habilis . Among these features are their larger body mass, relatively long legs, obligate bipedalism , relatively small jaws and teeth (indicating
16826-588: The direct rule of the Omani Arabs , who expanded the slave trade to meet the demands of plantations in Oman and Zanzibar . Initially, these traders came mainly from Oman, but later many came from Zanzibar (such as Tippu Tip ). In addition, the Portuguese started buying slaves from the Omani and Zanzibari traders in response to the interruption of the transatlantic slave trade by British abolitionists. Throughout
17005-457: The earliest known hand axes . Though undisputed evidence is missing, H. ergaster might also have been the earliest hominin to master control of fire . The systematics and taxonomy of Homo in the Early to Middle Pleistocene is one of the most disputed areas of palaeoanthropology . In early palaeoanthropology and well into the twentieth century, it was generally assumed that Homo sapiens
17184-441: The early emergence of modern behaviours , including long-distance trade networks (involving goods such as obsidian), the use of pigments, and the possible making of projectile points. The authors of three 2018 studies on the site suggest that complex and modern behaviours had already begun in Africa around the time of the emergence of Homo sapiens . The first inhabitants of present-day Kenya were hunter-gatherer groups, akin to
17363-669: The early period of the Holocene , 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into North Africa by West Africans and the other 50% was introduced by East Africans . During the modern period, a greater number of West Africans introduced Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into North Africa than East Africans. Amid the Holocene, including the Holocene Climate Optimum in 8000 BP, Africans bearing haplogroup L2 spread within West Africa and Africans bearing haplogroup L3 spread within East Africa. After
17542-547: The early period of the 6th century CE as well as in West Africa and Central Africa until the 14th century CE, notably preceded the spread of Islam into the West African and Sahelian regions of Africa. According to al-Bakrī , "the construction of tumuli and the accompanying rituals was a religious endeavor that emanated from the other elements" that he described, such as "sorcerers, sacred groves, idols, offerings to
17721-648: The eastern Turkana region of northwestern Kenya . At Kakapel, in Kenya , there were three individuals, one dated to the Later Stone Age (3900 BP) and two dated to the Later Iron Age (300 BP, 900 BP); one carried haplogroups CT (CT-M168, CT-M5695) and L3i1 , another carried haplogroup L2a1f , and the last carried haplogroup L2a5 . At Munsa , in Uganda , an individual, dated to the Later Iron Age (500 BP), carried haplogroup L3b1a1 . At Nyarindi Rockshelter, in Kenya , there were two individuals, dated to
17900-411: The economy with agriculture, fishing, metal production, and trade with foreign countries. These communities formed the earliest city-states in the region, which were collectively known as Azania . By the 1st century CE, many of the city-states such as Mombasa , Malindi , and Zanzibar began to establish trading relations with Arabs . This led to the increased economic growth of the Swahili states,
18079-1107: The emergence of monarchic tumuli; the spread of the pottery spanned from the savanna region to the eastern Saharan region, and from Mauritania to the Red Sea , which supports the conclusions of trade between the regions and their interconnectedness. Wavy-line pottery developed six ceramic subvariants and dotted wavy-line pottery developed three ceramic subvariants; the locations for the earliest development of both 8th millennium BCE potteries were at Sagai and Sarurab in Sudan. Wavy-line pottery spread throughout multiple locations (e.g., mostly in Central Nile; some in Hoggar Mountains , southern Algeria , Delibo Cave, Chad, Jebel Eghei, Chad, Tibesti, Chad, and Adrar Madet, Niger) in Africa. Dotted wavy-line pottery spread throughout multiple locations (e.g., Ennedi Plateau , Niger Plateau, and Wadi Howar of Saharan-Sahelian region, interconnecting
18258-411: The energy requirements of earlier species. If they had increased energy requirements, H. ergaster would have needed to eat either vastly more food than australopithecines, or would have needed to eat food of superior quality. If they ate the same type of foods as the australopithecines, feeding time would then have had to be dramatically increased in proportion to the extra calories required, reducing
18437-710: The establishment of a German Empire protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar 's coastal possessions in 1885, followed by the arrival of the Imperial British East Africa Company in 1888. Imperial rivalry was prevented by the Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty , Germany handed its East African coastal holdings to Britain in 1890. The transfer by Germany to Britain was followed by the building of the Uganda Railway passing through
18616-551: The expected lifespan of H. ergaster and H. erectus was lower than that of later and modern humans. It is frequently assumed that the larger body and brain size of H. ergaster , compared to its ancestors, would have brought with it increased dietary and energy needs. In 2002, palaeoanthropologists Leslie C. Aiello and Jonathan C. K. Wells stated that the average resting metabolic requirements of H. ergaster would have been 39% higher than those of Australopithecus afarensis , 30% higher in males and 54% higher in females. However,
18795-405: The face and skull of H. ergaster . Turkana Boy's brain was almost fully grown at the time of his death, but its volume (at 880 cc) was only about 130 cc greater than the maximum found in H. habilis , about 500 cc below the average of modern humans. The 130 cc increase from H. habilis becomes much less significant than what could be presumed when the larger body size of Turkana Boy and H. ergaster
18974-474: The facial structure of Turkana Boy is narrower and longer than that of the other skulls, with a higher nasal aperture and likely a flatter profile of the upper face. It is possible that these differences can be accounted for through Turkana Boy being a subadult, 7 to 12 years old. Furthermore, KNM ER 3733 is presumed to have been the skull of a female (whereas Turkana Boy is traditionally interpreted as male), which means that sexual dimorphism may account for some of
19153-504: The far younger type specimen of H. erectus (950 cc). Another significant fossil was a fossil mandible recovered at Ileret and described by Leakey with the designation KNM ER 992 in 1972 as " Homo of indeterminate species". In 1975, palaeoanthropologists Colin Groves and Vratislav Mazák designated KNM ER 992 as the holotype specimen of a distinct species, which they dubbed Homo ergaster . The name ( ergaster being derived from
19332-431: The following years. In 1991, Kenya transitioned to a multiparty political system after 26 years of single-party rule. On 28 October 1992, Moi dissolved parliament, five months before the end of his term. As a result, preparations began for all elective seats in parliament as well as the president. The election was scheduled to take place on 7 December 1992, but delays led to its postponement to 29 December. Apart from KANU,
19511-533: The fossils of Java Man ( H. erectus erectus , more than five thousand miles away). The dating of key Asian H. erectus specimens (including Java Man) is not entirely certain, but they are all likely to be 1.5 million years old or younger. Ubeidiya is also the oldest firmly confirmed site of Acheulean tools (one of the tool industries associated with H. ergaster ) outside Africa, the tools recovered there closely resembling older tools discovered in East Africa. The earliest fossil evidence of Homo in Asia are
19690-558: The genus Homo , notably relatively long legs which would have made them obligately bipedal. The teeth and jaws of H. ergaster are also relatively smaller than those of H. habilis and H. rudolfensis , indicating a major change in diet. In 1999, palaeoanthropologists Bernard Wood and Mark Collard argued that the conventional criteria for assigning species to the genus Homo were flawed and that early and basal species, such as H. habilis and H. rudolfensis , might appropriately be reclassified as ancestral australopithecines . In their view,
19869-642: The geographical distribution of their descendants and tools matching those in East Africa, fossils of the species are mainly from East Africa in the time range of 1.8 to 1.7 million years ago. Most fossils have been recovered from around the shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya. The oldest known specimen of H. erectus s.l. in Africa (i.e. H. ergaster ) is DNH 134 , a skull recovered in the Drimolen Palaeocave System in South Africa, dated to 2.04 to 1.95 million years ago. The skull
20048-515: The government, civil service, and business community. Kenyatta and his family were tied up with this corruption as they enriched themselves through the mass purchase of property after 1963. Their acquisitions in the Central, Rift Valley, and Coast Provinces aroused great anger among landless Kenyans. His family used his presidential position to circumvent legal or administrative obstacles to acquiring property. The Kenyatta family also heavily invested in
20227-591: The growth and development in early Homo can be drawn from the Mojokerto child , a ~1.4–1.5 million year old ~1-year old Asian H. erectus , which had a brain at about 72–84% the size of an adult H. erectus brain, which suggests a brain growth trajectory more similar to that of other great apes than of modern humans. Both the Gona pelvis and the Mojokerto child suggest that the prenatal growth of H. ergaster
20406-524: The haplogroups among three pastoralists went undetermined, one was determined to carry haplogroup BT , likely B . At Kokurmatakore, in Marsabit County , Kenya , a pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age carried haplogroups E1b1b1/E-M35 and L3a2a . At Kisima Farm/C4, in Laikipia County , Kenya , a pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age , carried haplogroups E2 (xE2b)/E-M75 and L3h1a1 . At Laikipia District Burial, in Laikipia County , Kenya ,
20585-518: The introduction of Islam , Arabic influences on the Swahili Bantu language , cultural diffusion , as well as the Swahili city-states becoming members of a larger trade network. Many historians had long believed that the city-states were established by Arab or Persian traders, but archaeological evidence has led scholars to recognise the city-states as an indigenous development which, though subjected to foreign influence due to trade, retained
20764-520: The introduction of imported livestock, African pastoralists kept domestic livestock but did not keep the lifestyles characteristic of modern pastoralists; this is shown by the lack of bones from domesticated animals and an abundance of bones from undomesticated animals at early Pastoral Neolithic sites. These preliminary herding cultures are characteristic of the Pastoral Neolithic and generally lack stationary agricultural practices and metal use. The exact introductory timeline of pastoralism to eastern Africa
20943-608: The jaw), nor with the mandible preserved in Turkana Boy, which has markedly different dentition. The most "iconic" fossil of H. ergaster is the KNM ER 3733 skull, which is sharply distinguished from Asian H. erectus by a number of characteristics, including that the brow ridges project forward as well as upward and arc separately over each orbit and the braincase being quite tall compared to its width, with its side walls curving. KNM ER 3733 can be distinguished from KNM ER 3883 by
21122-626: The jaws projecting farther outwards ( prognathism ). Though the jaws and teeth were smaller than those of the average australopithecine and H. habilis , they were still significantly larger than those of modern humans. Since the jaw slanted sharply backwards, it is probable that they were chinless. The overall structure of Turkana Boy's skull and face is also reflected in other H. ergaster skulls, which combine large and outwardly projecting faces with brow ridges, receding foreheads, large teeth and projecting nasal bones. Though Turkana Boy would have been no more than 12 years old when he died, their stature
21301-537: The lake region of Niger, two human burial sites included funerary rooms with graves that contain various bones (e.g., human, animal) and items (e.g., beads, ornaments, weapons). In the Inland Niger Delta , 11th century CE and 15th century CE tumuli at El Oualedji and Koï Gourrey contained various bones (e.g., human, horse), human items (e.g., beads, bracelets, rings), and animal items (e.g., bells, harnesses , plaques). Cultural similarities were also found with
21480-606: The land, capturing British supplies, and remaining undefeated. He eventually surrendered in Northern Rhodesia (today Zambia) 14 days after the Armistice was signed in 1918. To chase von Lettow, the British deployed the British Indian Army troops from India but needed large numbers of porters to overcome the formidable logistics of transporting supplies far into the interior on foot. The Carrier Corps
21659-479: The last carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L4b2a2c . At Naishi Rockshelter, in Nakuru County, Kenya , there two pastoralists of the Pastoral Neolithic ; one carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b/E-V1515 , likely E-M293 , and L3x1a , and another carried haplogroups A1b (xA1b1b2a)/A-P108 and L0a2d . At Keringet Cave, in Nakuru County, Kenya , a pastoralist of the Pastoral Neolithic carried haplogroups A1b1b2/A-L427 and L4b2a1 , and another pastoralist of
21838-491: The loss of body hair could have occurred significantly earlier than H. ergaster . Though skin impressions are unknown in any extinct hominin, it is possible that human ancestors were already losing their body hair around 3 million years ago. Human ancestors acquired pubic lice from gorillas about 3 million years ago, and speciation of human from gorilla pubic lice was potentially only possible because human ancestors had lost most of their body hair by this early date. It
22017-717: The majority of fauna found at Pastoral Neolithic sites are from domesticated animals rather than undomesticated animals. By this time, many communities were exclusively stock-keeping and herding. The genomes of Africans commonly found to undergo adaptation are regulatory DNA , and many cases of adaptation found among Africans relate to diet , physiology , and evolutionary pressures from pathogens. Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa , genetic adaptation (e.g., rs334 mutation, Duffy blood group , increased rates of G6PD deficiency , sickle cell disease ) to malaria has been found among Sub-Saharan Africans , which may have initially developed in 7300 BP. Sub-Saharan Africans have more than 90% of
22196-458: The mean difference between male and female individuals. The dimensions of a 1.8 million years old adult female H. ergaster pelvis from Gona , Ethiopia suggests that H. ergaster would have been capable of birthing children with a maximum prenatal (pre-birth) brain size of 315 cc, about 30–50 % of adult brain size. This value falls intermediately between that of chimpanzees (~40 %) and modern humans (28%). Further conclusions about
22375-457: The megalithic burial mounds of Senegambia, Kerma tumuli are regarded as precursors for the stone tumuli circles of Komaland. Based on a founding narrative of the Hausa people , Faraji (2022) concludes the possibility of the "pre-Islamic rulers of Hausaland" being a "dynasty of female monarchs reminiscent of the kandake of Meroitic Kush." The tumuli of Durbi Takusheyi , which have been dated between
22554-636: The modern Khoisan speakers. These people were later largely replaced by agropastoralist Cushitic (ancestral to Kenya's Cushitic speakers) from the Horn of Africa . During the early Holocene , the regional climate shifted from dry to wetter conditions, providing an opportunity for the development of cultural traditions such as agriculture and herding , in a more favourable environment. Around 500 BC, Nilotic -speaking pastoralists (ancestral to Kenya's Nilotic speakers) started migrating from present-day southern Sudan into Kenya. Nilotic groups in Kenya include
22733-443: The most megaliths in Ethiopia. At Cole's Burial, in Nakuru County, Kenya , a pastoralist of the Pastoral Neolithic carried haplogroups E1b1b1a1a1b1/E-CTS3282 and L3i2 . At Rigo Cave, in Nakuru County, Kenya , there were three pastoralists of the Pastoral Neolithic / Elmenteitan , one carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L3f , another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2/E-V1486 , likely E-M293 , and probably M1a1b , and
22912-526: The name for an adaptive grade of human fossils from throughout Africa and Eurasia. Though Tattersall concluded that the H. ergaster material represents the fossils of a single clade of Homo , he also found there to be considerable diversity within this clade; the KNM ER 992 mandible accorded well with other fossil mandibles from the region, such as OH 22 from Olduvai and KNM ER 3724 from Koobi Fora, but did not necessarily match with cranial material, such as KNM ER 3733 and KNM ER 3883 (since neither preserves
23091-571: The name of the country. It did not come into widespread official use during the early colonial period, when the country was referred to as the East African Protectorate . The official name was changed to the Colony of Kenya in 1920. Hominids such as Homo habilis (1.8 to 2.5 million years ago) and Homo erectus (1.9 million to 350,000 years ago) are possible direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens , and lived in Kenya in
23270-468: The next five years, many political alliances were formed in preparation for the next elections. In 1994, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga died and several coalitions joined his FORD Kenya party to form a new party, United National Democratic Alliance. This party was plagued with disagreements. In 1995, Richard Leakey formed the Safina party, but it was denied registration until November 1997. In 1996, KANU revised
23449-645: The northern regions of Mozambique, Botswana, and Transvaal. The Transvaal (e.g., Soutpansberg , Waterberg ) rock art was specifically created by Sotho -speakers (e.g., Birwa , Koni, Tlokwa ) and Venda people . Concentric circles, stylized humans, stylized animals, ox-wagons, saurian figures, Depictions of crocodiles and snakes were included in the white finger-painted rock art tradition, both of which were associated with rainmaking and, crocodiles in particular, were also associated with fertility. The white finger-painted rock art may have been created for reasons relating to initiation rites and puberty rituals. Depictions from
23628-565: The origins of H. ergaster are obscured by the fact that the species marks a radical departure from earlier species of Homo and Australopithecus in its long limbs, height and modern body proportions. Though a large number of Pleistocene tools have been found in East Africa, it can not be fully ascertained that H. ergaster originated there without further fossil discoveries. It is assumed that H. ergaster evolved from earlier species of Homo , probably H. habilis . Though populations of H. ergaster outside of Africa have been inferred based on
23807-628: The other areas of Sub-Saharan Africa . The Kalundu ceramic type may have spread into Southeastern Africa . Additionally, the Eastern African Urewe ceramic type of Lake Victoria may have spread, via African shores near the Indian Ocean , as the Kwale ceramic type, and spread, via Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi, as the Nkope ceramic type. From the region of Kenya and Tanzania to South Africa , eastern Bantu-speaking Africans constitute
23986-608: The outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the governors of British East Africa (as the protectorate was generally known) and German East Africa initially agreed on a truce in an attempt to keep the young colonies out of direct hostilities. But Lieutenant Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck , the German military commander, determined to tie down as many British resources as possible. Completely cut off from Germany, Lettow-Vorbeck conducted an effective guerrilla warfare campaign , living off
24165-517: The past 5000 years. In Tanzania , genetic adaptation (e.g., greater amount of amylase genes than in African populations that consume low-starch foods) has been found in the Hadza people due to a food diet that especially includes consumption of tubers . Preceded by assumed earlier sites in the Eastern Sahara , tumuli with megalithic monuments developed as early as 4700 BCE in the Saharan region of Niger . These megalithic monuments in
24344-617: The people and the president is the head of state and government. Kenya is a member of the United Nations , the Commonwealth , World Bank , International Monetary Fund , World Trade Organization , COMESA , International Criminal Court , as well as other international organisations. It is also a major non-NATO ally of the United States . With a GNI of 1,840, Kenya is a lower-middle-income economy. Kenya's economy
24523-521: The present-day Hadza people . According to archaeological dating of associated artifacts and skeletal material, Cushitic speakers first settled in Kenya's lowlands between 3,200 and 1,300 BC, a phase known as the Lowland Savanna Pastoral Neolithic . Nilotic -speaking pastoralists (ancestral to Kenya's Nilotic speakers) began migrating from present-day South Sudan into Kenya around 500 BC. Bantu people settled at
24702-416: The presidency, running unopposed in elections held in 1979, 1983 ( snap elections ), and 1988, all of which were held under the single-party constitution. The 1983 elections were held a year early, and were a direct result of a failed military coup on 2 August 1982. The 1982 coup was masterminded by a low-ranking Air Force serviceman, Senior Private Hezekiah Ochuka , and was staged mainly by enlisted men of
24881-458: The radical differences between H. ergaster and earlier Homo and australopithecines, it is unclear whether australopithecines were significantly more sexually diamorphic than H. ergaster or modern humans. Skeletal evidence suggests that sexes in H. ergaster differed no more in size than sexes in modern humans do, but a 2003 study by palaeoanthropologists Philip L. Reno, Richard S. Meindl, Melanie A. McCollum and C. Owen Lovejoy suggested that
25060-675: The regions of Southern Africa and Eastern Africa became established. Between 75,000 BP and 60,000 BP, Africans bearing haplogroup L3 emerged in East Africa and eventually migrated into and became present in modern West Africans , Central Africans , and non-Africans . As the largest migration since the Out of Africa migration , migration from Sub-Saharan Africa toward the North Africa occurred, by West Africans, Central Africans, and East Africans, resulting in migrations into Europe and Asia ; consequently, Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA
25239-750: The regions of the Middle Nile River, Lake Chad , and Benue - Niger River ) in Africa as well. Both potteries also spread along a north-to-west regional axis (e.g., Wadi Howar, Ennedi Plateau, Chad, Jebel Uweinat , Gilf Kebir , Egypt) near the Saharan regions of Sudan and Egypt. The tumuli from the kingdom of Kerma serve as a regional intermediary between the regions of the Nile River and the Niger River. The "Classical Sudanese" monarchic tumuli-building tradition, which lasted in Sudan (e.g., Kerma , Makuria , Meroe , Napata , Nobadia ) until
25418-408: The rest of their energy requirements. Multiple reasons make a fully meat-based diet in H. ergaster unlikely, the most prominent being that African ungulates (the primary prey available) are relatively low in fat and that high meat diets demand increased intake of water, which would have been difficult in an open and hot environment. Modern African hunter-gatherers who rely heavily on meat, such as
25597-475: The rock art tradition of Bantu-speaking farmers have been found on divination-related items (e.g., drums, initiation figurines, initiation masks); fertility terracotta masks from Transvaal have been dated to the 1st millennium CE. Along with Iron Age archaeological sites from the 1st millennium CE, this indicates that white finger-painted rock art tradition may have been spanned from the Early Iron Age to
25776-533: The royal tomb." Between the 8th millennia BCE and the 4th millennia BCE, riverine farmers and savanna herders traversed the interconnected region of the Middle Nile Valley. In the Saharan - Sahelian and Middle Nile Valley regions, dotted wavy line and wavy line pottery , which was produced between the 8th millennia BCE and the 4th millennia BCE (late Neolithic and early Bronze Age ), preceded
25955-404: The ruling party, other parties represented in the elections included FORD Kenya and FORD Asili. This election was marked by large-scale intimidation of opponents and harassment of election officials. It resulted in an economic crisis propagated by ethnic violence as the president was accused of rigging electoral results to retain power. This election was a turning point for Kenya as it signified
26134-413: The same was also true for the significantly earlier Australopithecus afarensis . Sexual dimorphism is difficult to measure in extinct species since the sex of fossils is usually not determinable. Historically, scientists have typically measured differences between the extreme ends (in terms of size and morphology) of the fossil material attributed to a species and assumed that the resulting ratio applies to
26313-403: The settlers banned the growing of coffee and introduced a hut tax, and the landless were granted less and less land in exchange for their labour. A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to make a living from the land dwindled. By the 1950s, there were 80,000 white settlers living in Kenya. Throughout World War II , Kenya was an important source of manpower and agriculture for
26492-402: The small volume of its braincase (600 cc), the form of the middle and upper face and the lack of an external nose. The mixture of skulls at Dmanisi suggests that the definition of H. ergaster (or H. erectus ) might most appropriately be expanded to contain fossils that would otherwise be assigned to H. habilis or that two separate species of archaic humans left Africa early on. In addition to
26671-646: The south of Kei River and Orange River by Khoisan hunter-gatherer-herders, in Malawi and Zambia by considerably dark-skinned , occasionally bearded, bow-and-arrow-wielding Akafula hunter-gatherers who resided in Malawi until the 19th century CE, and in Transvaal by the Vhangona people . Bantu-speaking farmers, or their Proto-Bantu progenitors, created the later white finger-painted rock art in some areas of Tanzania, Malawi, Angola, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, as well as in
26850-606: The southern end of the Red Sea or along the Nile Valley , but there are no fossil hominins known from either region in the Early Pleistocene. The earliest Homo fossils outside Africa are the Dmanisi skulls from Georgia (dated to 1.77–1.85 million years old, representing either early H. ergaster or a new taxon, H. georgicus ), three incisors from Ubeidiya in Israel (about 1.4 to 1 million years old) and
27029-476: The sovereign's return and reunification with the primordial mound upon his death." Faraji (2022) indicates that there may have been a cultural expectation of "postmortem resurrection " associated with tumuli in the funerary traditions of the West African Sahel (e.g., northern Ghana , northern Nigeria , Mali ) and Nile Valley (e.g., Ballana , Qustul , Kerma , Kush ). Based on artifacts found in
27208-661: The species and what it should encompass. Some researchers, such as palaeoanthropologist Ian Tattersall in 2013, have questioned H. erectus since it contains an "unwieldly" number of fossils with "substantially differing morphologies". In the 1970s, palaeoanthropologists Richard Leakey and Alan Walker described a series of hominin fossils from Kenyan fossil localities on the eastern shore of Lake Turkana . The most notable finds were two partial skulls; KNM ER 3733 and KNM ER 3883 , found at Koobi Fora . Leakey and Walker assigned these skulls to H. erectus , noting that their brain volumes (848 and 803 cc respectively) compared well to
27387-418: The species. A nearly complete fossil, interpreted as a young male (though the sex is actually undetermined), was discovered at the western shore of Lake Turkana in 1984 by Kenyan archaeologist Kamoya Kimeu . The fossils were described by Leakey and Walker, alongside paleoanthropologists Frank Brown and John Harris, in 1985 as KNM-WT 15000 (nicknamed "Turkana Boy"). They interpreted the fossil, consisting of
27566-742: The subsequent traditions in other areas of Ethiopia likely developed. In the late 1st millennium BCE, the urban civilization of Axum developed a megalithic stelae -building tradition, which commemorated Axumite royalty and elites, that persisted until the Christian period of Axum . In the Sidamo Province, the megalithic monoliths of the stelae-building cultural tradition were utilized as tombstones in cemeteries (e.g., Arussi, Konso, Sedene, Tiya, Tuto Felo), and have engraved anthropomorphic features (e.g., swords, masks), phallic form, and some of that served as markers of territory. Sidamo Province has
27745-545: The third millennium BCE in Uganda and Ethiopia. Its cultivation had spread to South India by 1800 BCE. In the uplands of Nakfa , there is painted rock art (e.g., petroglyphs ) in Karora depicting symbolic representations, men, and animals (e.g., horses , camels , antelopes , goats , sheep , cattle ), which has been dated to the 2nd millennium BCE. In 2nd millennium BCE, Namoratunga megaliths were constructed as burials
27924-403: The time H. ergaster could use for resting, socialising and travelling. Though this would have been possible, it is considered unlikely, especially since the jaws and teeth of H. ergaster are reduced in size compared to those of the australopithecines, suggesting a shift in diet away from fibrous and difficult-to-chew foods. Regardless of energy needs, the small gut of H. ergaster also suggests
28103-481: The time of H. ergaster , this behaviour had probably resulted in the development of true hunter-gatherer behaviour, a first among primates. H. ergaster was an apex predator . Further behaviours that might first have arisen in H. ergaster include male-female divisions of foraging and true monogamous pair bonds. H. ergaster also marks the appearance of more advanced tools of the Acheulean industry, including
28282-537: The torso proportions of H. ergaster implies a relatively small gut, which means that energy needs might not necessarily have been higher in H. ergaster than in earlier hominins. This is because the earlier ape (and australopithecine) gut was large and energy-expensive since it needed to synthesize fat through fermenting plant matter, whereas H. ergaster likely ate significantly more animal fat than their predecessors. This would have allowed more energy to be diverted to brain growth, increasing brain size while maintaining
28461-408: The true earliest representative of Homo was H. ergaster . Au. africanus Au. garhi H. habilis H. rudolfensis H. ergaster H. erectus H. antecessor H. heidelbergensis H. neanderthalensis H. sapiens Since its description as a separate species in 1975, the classification of the fossils referred to H. ergaster has been in dispute. H. ergaster
28640-402: The tumuli from West Africa and Nubia , there may have been "a highly developed corporate ritual in which the family members of the deceased brought various items as offerings and tribute to the ancestors" buried in the tumuli and the tumuli may have "served as immense shrines of spiritual power for the populace to ritualize and remember their connection to the ancestral lineage as consecrated in
28819-437: The type specimen of H. erectus , in 2013, Ian Tattersall concluded that referring to the African material as H. ergaster rather than "African H. erectus " was a "considerable improvement" as there were many autapomorphies distinguishing the material of the two continents from one another. Tattersall believes it to be appropriate to use the designation H. erectus only for eastern Asian fossils, disregarding its previous use as
28998-594: The willingness of Somalis in Kenya to join Somalia . The result of the referendum showed that 86% of Somalis in Kenya wanted to join Somalia , yet the British colonial administration rejected the result and the Somalis remained in Kenya. The first direct elections for native Kenyans to the Legislative Council took place in 1957. Despite British hopes of handing power to "moderate" local rivals, it
29177-465: The world and 7th most populous in Africa. Kenya's capital and largest city is Nairobi , while its oldest and second-largest city, is the major port city of Mombasa , situated on Mombasa Island in the Indian Ocean and the surrounding mainland. Mombasa was the capital of the British East Africa Protectorate , which included most of what is now Kenya and southwestern Somalia, from 1889 to 1907. Other important cities include Kisumu and Nakuru . Kenya
29356-623: The years, including a massive set of jaws from Indonesia which were perceived to be similar to those of australopithecines and dubbed Meganthropus (now believed to be an unrelated hominid ape ). The discovery of H. floresiensis in 2003, which preserved primitive foot and wrist anatomy reminiscent of that of H. habilis and Australopithecus again led to suggestions of pre- erectus hominins in Asia, though there are no known comparable foot or wrist bones from H. erectus which makes comparisons impossible. The idea that H. ergaster / H. erectus first evolved in Asia before expanding back into Africa
29535-439: Was called. Kivoi told him " Kĩ-Nyaa " or " Kĩlĩma- Kĩinyaa ", probably because the pattern of black rock and white snow on its peaks reminded him of the feathers of the male ostrich. In archaic Kikuyu , the word 'nyaga' or more commonly 'manyaganyaga' is used to describe an extremely bright object. The Agikuyu, who inhabit the slopes of Mt. Kenya, call it Kĩrĩma Kĩrĩnyaga (literally 'the mountain with brightness') in Kikuyu , while
29714-668: Was either a single but variable species, several subspecies divided by time and geography or several geographically dispersed but closely related species. In 2015, paleoanthropologists David Strait, Frederick Grine and John Fleagle listed H. ergaster as one of the seven "widely recognized" species of Homo , alongside H. habilis , H. rudolfensis , H. erectus , H. heidelbergensis , H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens , noting that other species, such as H. floresiensis and H. antecessor , were less widely recognised or more poorly known. Comparing various African fossils attributed to H. erectus or H. ergaster to Asian fossils, notably
29893-677: Was flat and receding, merging at an angle with the brow ridge above their eyes. A noticeable difference between Turkana Boy and the australopithecines and H. habilis would have been their nose, which would have been similar to that of modern humans in projecting forwards and having nostrils oriented downwards. This external nose may have also been an adaptation towards a warmer climate, since the noses of modern humans are usually cooler than their central bodies, condensing moisture that would otherwise have been exhaled and lost during periods of increased activity. The face of Turkana Boy would have been longer from top to bottom than that of modern humans, with
30072-435: Was formed and ultimately mobilised over 400,000 Africans, contributing to their long-term politicisation. In 1920, the East Africa Protectorate was turned into a colony and renamed Kenya after its highest mountain. During the early part of the 20th century, the interior central highlands were settled by British and other European farmers, who became wealthy farming coffee and tea. One depiction of this period of change from
30251-417: Was greater than expected for a single species when compared to modern humans and chimpanzees , but fell well within the variation expected for a species when compared to gorillas , and even well within the range expected for a single subspecies when compared to orangutans (though this is partly due to the great sexual dimorphism exhibited in gorillas and orangutans). Baab concluded that H. erectus s.l.
30430-454: Was immediately dismissed by Leakey and Walker and many influential researchers, such as palaeoanthropologist G. Philip Rightmire, who wrote an extensive treatise on H. erectus in 1990, continued to prefer a more inclusive and comprehensive H. erectus . Overall, there is no doubt that the group of fossils composing H. erectus and H. ergaster represent the fossils of a more or less cohesive subset of closely related archaic humans. The question
30609-406: Was in need of significant revision. In 2000, French palaeoanthropologist Valéry Zeitoun suggested that KNM ER 3733 and KNM ER 3883 should be referred to two separate species, which she dubbed H. kenyaensis (type specimen KNM ER 3733) and H. okotensis (type specimen KNM ER 3883), but these designations have found little acceptance. Although frequently assumed to have originated in East Africa ,
30788-501: Was introduced into Europe and Asia. In 78,300 BP, amid the Middle Stone Age , a two and half to three year old human child was buried at Panga ya Saidi , in Kenya . At Mlambalasi rockshelter, in Tanzania , an individual, dated between 20,345 BP and 17,025 BP, carried undetermined haplogroups. In 19,000 BP, Africans, bearing haplogroup E1b1a-V38 , likely traversed across the Sahara , from east to west . Between 15,000 BP and 7000 BP, 86% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA
30967-684: Was introduced into Southwest Asia by East Africans , largely in the region of Arabia , which constitute 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia . In the modern period, 68% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced by East Africans and 22% was introduced by West Africans, which constitutes 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia. In 13,000 BP, Nubians , who were found to be morphologically different from newer Nubian populations and morphologically similar to Sub-Saharan Africans (e.g., Kerma , modern Eastern Africans , modern Western Africans ), resided in tropical Jebel Sahaba . During
31146-543: Was notably held by Eugène Dubois , who first described H. erectus fossils in the 19th century and considered the fossils of Java Man, at the time undeniably the earliest known hominin fossils, as proof of the hypothesis. Though the discovery of australopithecines and earlier Homo in Africa meant that Homo itself did not originate in Asia, the idea that H. erectus (or H. ergaster ) in particular did, and then expanded back into Africa, has occasionally resurfaced. Various fossil discoveries have been used to support it through
31325-460: Was similar to that of modern humans but that the postnatal (post-birth) growth and development was intermediate between that of chimpanzees and modern humans. The faster development rate suggests that altriciality (an extended childhood and a long period of dependency on your parents) evolved at a later stage in human evolution, possibly in the last common ancestor of Neanderthals and modern humans. The faster development rate might also indicate that
31504-447: Was substantially weakened by the dating of the DNH 134 skull as approximately 2 million years old, predating all other known H. ergaster / H. erectus fossils. The only well-preserved post-cranial remains of H. ergaster come from the Turkana Boy fossil. Unlike the australopithecines, Turkana Boy's arms were not longer relative to their legs than the arms of living people and the cone-shaped torso of their ancestors had evolved into
31683-401: Was the Kenya African National Union (KANU) of Jomo Kenyatta that formed a government. The Colony of Kenya and the Protectorate of Kenya each came to an end on 12 December 1963, with independence conferred on all of Kenya. The U.K. ceded sovereignty over the Colony of Kenya. The Sultan of Zanzibar agreed that simultaneous with independence for the colony, he would cease to have sovereignty over
31862-485: Was the Swynnerton Plan , which was used to both reward loyalists and punish Mau Mau. This left roughly 1/3rd of Kikuyu bereft of any tenancy land arrangement and thus propertyless at the time of independence. Before Kenya got its independence, Somali ethnic people in present-day Kenya in the areas of Northern Frontier Districts petitioned Her Majesty's Government not to be included in Kenya. The colonial government decided to hold Kenya's first referendum in 1962 to check
32041-476: Was the end result of gradual modifications within a single lineage of hominin evolution. As the perceived transitional form between early hominins and modern humans, H. erectus , originally assigned to contain archaic human fossils in Asia, came to encompass a wide range of fossils covering a large span of time (almost the entire temporal range of Homo ). Since the late twentieth century, the diversity within H. erectus has led some to question what exactly defines
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