121-680: The State of East Indonesia ( Indonesian : Negara Indonesia Timur , old spelling : Negara Indonesia Timoer , Dutch : Oost-Indonesië ) was a post–World War II state formed in the eastern half of Dutch East Indies . Established in December 1946 by the Dutch, it was a puppet state formed during the Indonesian National Revolution that eventually became a part of the United States of Indonesia (USI) in 1949 at
242-737: A lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium. It might be attributed to its ancestor , the Old Malay language (which can be traced back to the 7th century). The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, the language used by Srivijayan empire. Since the 7th century, the Old Malay language has been used in Nusantara (archipelago) (Indonesian archipelago), evidenced by Srivijaya inscriptions and by other inscriptions from coastal areas of
363-534: A constituent state of the new federation. In much of Indonesia, the federal USI was seen as an illegitimate regime foisted on the islands by the Dutch, and many of the federal states began to merge with the Republic of Indonesia . However many in East Indonesia, with its non-Javanese population and sizable number of Christians, opposed moves toward a unitary state. At the end of 1949, elections were held for
484-454: A few cases, however, coinings permanently replaced earlier Dutch terms, including pajak (earlier meaning 'monopoly') instead of belasting (tax) and senam (meaning 'exercise') instead of gimnastik (gymnastics). The Komisi Bahasa is said to have coined more than 7000 terms, although few of these gained common acceptance. The adoption of Indonesian as the country's national language was in contrast to most other post-colonial states. Neither
605-450: A large proportion of Indonesian, at least, use two language daily, those are Indonesian and local languages. When two languages are used by the same people in this way, they are likely to influence each other. Aside from local languages, Dutch made the highest contribution to the Indonesian vocabulary, due to the Dutch colonization over three centuries, from the 16th century until the mid-20th century. Asian languages also influenced
726-470: A lingua franca between vernacular Malay dialects, Malay creoles, and regional languages. The Indonesian name for the language ( bahasa Indonesia ) is also occasionally used in English and other languages. Bahasa Indonesia is sometimes improperly reduced to Bahasa , which refers to the Indonesian subject ( Bahasa Indonesia ) taught in schools, on the assumption that this is the name of the language. But
847-427: A looser sense, it also encompasses the various local varieties spoken throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Standard Indonesian is confined mostly to formal situations, existing in a diglossic relationship with vernacular Malay varieties, which are commonly used for daily communication, coexisting with the aforementioned regional languages and with Malay creoles ; standard Indonesian is spoken in informal speech as
968-520: A meeting at the presidential palace and discussed breaking away from the RUSI in order to save the NIT. However, it was realised that federalists would not be able to secure the two-thirds majority necessary in parliament for an independence declaration. A declaration by the cabinet alone, backed up by Azi's troops was also considered, as was a coup, again with support from Azis as well as Soumokil and Matekohy, who
1089-544: A monophthong followed by an approximant, so ⟨ai⟩ represents /aj/ , ⟨au⟩ represents /aw/ , and ⟨oi⟩ represents /oj/ . On this basis, there are no phonological diphthongs in Indonesian. Diphthongs are differentiated from two vowels in two syllables, such as: Royal Netherlands East Indies Army The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army ( Dutch : Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger ; KNIL , pronounced [knɪl] ; Indonesian : Tentara Kerajaan Hindia Belanda )
1210-436: A parliament to replace the previous Provisional Representative Body . This resulted in almost half the seats being won by supporters of a unitary Indonesian state. When President Soekawati tried to form a new cabinet, the unitarists refused to participate unless it was committed to dissolving the state. On 16 March 1950, two days after its formation without any unitarist representation, the new cabinet bowed to pressure and lifted
1331-489: A recognition by the Dutch Indies Government of the special position of the rajas, whose power to govern the autonomous regions was handed down from one generation to the next. The Autonomous Region Regulation of 1938 gave the swaprajas wide de jure autonomy but most of the rajas were puppets of Dutch administrators. The State of East Indonesia sought to curtail the power of these raja-ruled regions, but
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#17327730392401452-616: A result of the southward expansion of Austronesian peoples into Maritime Southeast Asia from the island of Taiwan . Indonesian, which originated from Malay, is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia , the Pacific Ocean and Madagascar , with a smaller number in continental Asia . It has a degree of mutual intelligibility with the Malaysian standard of Malay, which
1573-613: A rift between the two standardized varieties. This has been based more upon political nuance and the history of their standardization than cultural reasons, and as a result, there are asymmetrical views regarding each other's variety among Malaysians and Indonesians. Malaysians tend to assert that Malaysian and Indonesian are merely different normative varieties of the same language, while Indonesians tend to treat them as separate, albeit closely related, languages. Consequently, Indonesians feel little need to harmonise their language with Malaysia and Brunei, whereas Malaysians are keener to coordinate
1694-461: A significant influence on the development of Malay in the colony: during the colonial era, the language that would be standardized as Indonesian absorbed a large amount of Dutch vocabulary in the form of loanwords . The nationalist movement that ultimately brought Indonesian to its national language status rejected Dutch from the outset. However, the rapid disappearance of Dutch was a very unusual case compared with other colonized countries, where
1815-560: A system which treats the open-mid vowels / ɛ / and / ɔ / as distinct phonemes. Poedjosoedarmo argued the split of the front mid vowels in Indonesian is due to Javanese influence which exhibits a difference between ⟨i⟩ [ i ], ⟨é⟩ [ e ] and è [ ɛ ]. Another example of Javanese influence in Indonesian is the split of back mid vowels into two allophones of [ o ] and [ ɔ ]. These splits (and loanwords) increase instances of doublets in Indonesian, such as ⟨ satai ⟩ and ⟨ saté ⟩. Javanese words adopted into Indonesian have greatly increased
1936-524: A total number of speakers in Indonesia of 248.5 million. It is common as a first language in urban areas, and as a second language by those residing in more rural parts of Indonesia. The VOA and BBC use Indonesian as their standard for broadcasting in Malay. In Australia , Indonesian is one of three Asian target languages, together with Japanese and Mandarin , taught in some schools as part of
2057-828: Is a standard language of "Riau Malay", which despite its common name is not based on the vernacular Malay dialects of the Riau Islands , but rather represents a form of Classical Malay as used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in the Riau-Lingga Sultanate . Classical Malay had emerged as a literary language in the royal courts along both shores of the Strait of Malacca , including the Johor Sultanate and Malacca Sultanate . Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra , Malay has been used as
2178-565: Is amplified by the use of Indonesian slang , particularly in the cities. Unlike the relatively uniform standard variety, Vernacular Indonesian exhibits a high degree of geographical variation, though Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian functions as the de facto norm of informal language and is a popular source of influence throughout the archipelago. There is language shift of first language among Indonesian into Indonesian from other language in Indonesia caused by ethnic diversity than urbanicity. The most common and widely used colloquial Indonesian
2299-551: Is heavily influenced by the Betawi language , a Malay-based creole of Jakarta , amplified by its popularity in Indonesian popular culture in mass media and Jakarta's status as the national capital. In informal spoken Indonesian, various words are replaced with those of a less formal nature. For example, tidak (no) is often replaced with the Betawi form nggak or the even simpler gak/ga , while seperti (like, similar to)
2420-419: Is named as 'Indonesian language' is a true Malay language derived from 'Riau Malay' but which had been added, modified or subscribed according to the requirements of the new age and nature, until it was then used easily by people across Indonesia; the renewal of Malay language until it became Indonesian it had to be done by the experts of the new nature, the national nature of Indonesia" — Ki Hajar Dewantara in
2541-470: Is officially known there as bahasa Malaysia , despite the numerous lexical differences. However, vernacular varieties spoken in Indonesia and Malaysia share limited intelligibility, which is evidenced by the fact that Malaysians have difficulties understanding Indonesian sinetron (soap opera) aired on Malaysia TV stations, and vice versa. Malagasy , a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in
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#17327730392402662-636: Is often replaced with kayak [kajaʔ] . Sangat or amat (very), the term to express intensity, is often replaced with the Javanese-influenced banget . As for pronunciation, the diphthongs ai and au on the end of base words are typically pronounced as /e/ and /o/ . In informal writing, the spelling of words is modified to reflect the actual pronunciation in a way that can be produced with less effort. For example, capai becomes cape or capek , pakai becomes pake , kalau becomes kalo . In verbs,
2783-498: Is perhaps the only language that has achieved the status of a national language in its true sense" since it truly dominates in all spheres of Indonesian society . The ease with which Indonesia eliminated the language of its former colonial power can perhaps be explained as much by Dutch policy as by Indonesian nationalism. In marked contrast to the French , Spanish and Portuguese, who pursued an assimilation colonial policy, or even
2904-564: The British , the Dutch did not attempt to spread their language among the indigenous population. In fact, they consciously prevented the language from being spread by refusing to provide education, especially in Dutch, to the native Indonesians so they would not come to see themselves as equals. Moreover, the Dutch wished to prevent the Indonesians from elevating their perceived social status by taking on elements of Dutch culture. Thus, until
3025-693: The Indian Ocean , also in some parts of the Sulu area of the southern Philippines and traces of it are to be found among people of Malay descent in Sri Lanka , South Africa , and other places. Indonesian is taught as a foreign language in schools, universities and institutions around the world, especially in Australia , the Netherlands , Japan , South Korea , Timor-Leste , Vietnam , Taiwan ,
3146-554: The Indian Ocean ; the Philippines national language, Filipino ; Formosan in Taiwan's aboriginal population; and the native Māori language of New Zealand are also members of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking. Many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language . There are many cognates found in
3267-646: The Japanese invaded , and this area was placed under the control of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Following the Japanese surrender and the Indonesian declaration of independence in August 1945, Indonesian republicans began fighting to secure Indonesian independence from Dutch colonial control . However, Dutch administrators backed by Australian troops arrived in the area previously controlled by
3388-757: The Japanese occupation , most of the Dutch and Ambonese personnel were interned in POW camps. During the Indonesian National Revolution , the KNIL's officers were still largely Dutch and Eurasians although most of its troops were recruited from predominantly Indonesian Christian ethnicities, particularly Batak, Moluccas, Timor and Manado. Although there were smaller numbers of Javanese, Sundanese , Sumatran and other Muslim troops in Dutch service, these received comparatively lower rates of pay than their Christian counterparts, leading to resentment and distrust. The Dutch sought to take advantage of these ethnic tensions by claiming that
3509-597: The Languages Other Than English programme. Indonesian has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1950s. In East Timor , which was occupied by Indonesia between 1975 and 1999, Indonesian is recognized by the constitution as one of the two working languages (the other being English ), alongside the official languages of Tetum and Portuguese . It is understood by the Malay people of Australia's Cocos Keeling Islands in
3630-678: The Republic of Indonesia agreed to the principle of a federal Indonesia in the Linggadjati Agreement of 15 November. The Denpasar Conference of 18–24 December was held to work out the details of a state which to be called the State of the Great East ( Indonesian : Negara Timoer Besar ). That state was established on 24 December and, on 27 December, renamed the State of East Indonesia ( Negara Indonesia Timoer or 'NIT'). Also at
3751-599: The United Kingdom and United States were forbidden from serving. Other foreigners who could not prove fluency in either Dutch or German were also not accepted for service. It was against the law to send Dutch conscripts from the Netherlands to the East Indies but Dutch volunteers continued to enlist for colonial service in the KNIL. In 1890 a Colonial Reserve Corps (Koloniale Reserve) was established in
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3872-540: The United States , and the United Kingdom . Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia , and its use is encouraged throughout the Indonesian archipelago. It is regulated in Chapter XV, 1945 Constitution of Indonesia about the flag, official language, coat of arms, and national anthem of Indonesia. Also, in Chapter III, Section 25 to 45, Government regulation No. 24/ 2009 mentions explicitly
3993-616: The fourth most populous nation globally. According to the 2020 census, over 97% of Indonesians are fluent in Indonesian, making it the largest language by number of speakers in Southeast Asia and one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. Indonesian vocabulary has been influenced by various regional languages such as Javanese , Sundanese , Minangkabau , Balinese , Banjarese , and Buginese , as well as by foreign languages such as Arabic , Dutch , Portuguese , and English . Many borrowed words have been adapted to fit
4114-433: The 13 regions. Complicating this structure was the fact that: More than 75% of the State of East Indonesia comprised autonomous regions, in total 115 autonomous regional governments under the rule of rajas ( swaprajas ). The position of these autonomous governmental heads was regulated by what were called korte verklaring (short-term declarations) and lange kontrakten (long-term contracts); these were actually intended as
4235-453: The 1927 Dutch colonial law and established the provisional governmental framework of the new state until a constitution could be approved. Although the draft constitution was passed by the legislative on 1 March 1949, it was never adopted and the 1946 regulations remained in place until the state was dissolved. The state was to have an executive president who would appoint a cabinet and a legislature. A number of powers were explicitly reserved for
4356-566: The 1930s, they maintained a minimalist regime and allowed Malay to spread quickly throughout the archipelago. Dutch dominance at that time covered nearly all aspects, with official forums requiring the use of Dutch, although since the Second Youth Congress (1928) the use of Indonesian as the national language was agreed on as one of the tools in the independence struggle. As of it, Mohammad Hoesni Thamrin inveighed actions underestimating Indonesian. After some criticism and protests,
4477-575: The 19th century. During the protracted Aceh War the numbers of European troops were kept to 12,000 but continued Achenese resistance necessitated the deployment of up to 23,000 indigenous soldiers (mainly from Java , Ambon , and Manado ). Even slaves of the Ashanti ( Ivory Coast and Ghana ) were recruited in limited numbers for service in the East Indies (see Belanda Hitam ). The ratio of foreign and indigenous troops to those of Dutch origin
4598-447: The 2010 census showing only 19.94% of over-five-year-olds speak mainly Indonesian at home. Standard Indonesian is used in books and newspapers and on television/radio news broadcasts. The standard dialect, however, is rarely used in daily conversations, being confined mostly to formal settings. While this is a phenomenon common to most languages in the world (for example, spoken English does not always correspond to its written standards),
4719-771: The 70 participants of the Denpasar Conference, opened its first session on 22 April 1947 in the presence of Lieutenant Governor General of the Dutch East Indies Hubertus van Mook . On 20 February 1950 the Provisional Representative Body of East Indonesia was disbanded after the general election, which had taken place between September and December 1949. It was replaced by the People's Representative Council of East Indonesia. The newly formed People's Representative Council
4840-496: The Congress of Indonesian Language I 1938, Solo Several years prior to the congress, Swiss linguist, Renward Brandstetter wrote An Introduction to Indonesian Linguistics in 4 essays from 1910 to 1915. The essays were translated into English in 1916. By "Indonesia", he meant the name of the geographical region , and by "Indonesian languages" he meant Malayo-Polynesian languages west of New Guinea, because by that time there
4961-442: The Dutch soldiers in that battalion interned and imprisoned 500 of their Indonesian native comrades within the camp. Harsh treatment and penalties were issued out by the Dutch on any independence seeking soldiers. This led to the deaths of two KNIL native soldiers; one was a possible suicide and the other was a protest leader. This brought about condemnation from Australian locals, who forced the Australian authorities to repatriate all
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5082-592: The Indonesian language is still in debate. High Malay was the official language used in the court of the Johor Sultanate and continued by the Dutch-administered territory of Riau-Lingga , while Low Malay was commonly used in marketplaces and ports of the archipelago. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language. When the Dutch East India Company (VOC) first arrived in
5203-558: The Japanese Navy, and prevented republicans from establishing an administration. From 16 to 25 July 1946, the Dutch organized a conference in the town of Malino on Celebes (Sulawesi) as part of their attempt to arrange a federal solution for Indonesia. The Malino Conference resulted in plans for a state in Borneo and another in eastern Indonesia, areas where the Dutch held both de facto and de jure control. Later that year,
5324-632: The Japanese as POWs . 25% of the POWs did not survive their internment. A handful of soldiers, mostly indigenous personnel, mounted guerrilla campaigns against the Japanese. These were usually unknown to, and unassisted by, the Allies until the end of the war. During early 1942, some KNIL personnel escaped to Australia. Some indigenous personnel were interned in Australia under suspicion of sympathies with
5445-669: The Japanese. The remainder began a long process of re-grouping. In late 1942, a failed attempt to land in East Timor , to reinforce Australian commandos waging a guerrilla campaign ended with the loss of 60 Dutch personnel. Four "Netherlands East Indies" squadrons (the RAAF-NEI squadrons ) were formed from ML-KNIL personnel, under the auspices of the Royal Australian Air Force , with Australian ground staff. KNIL infantry forces (much like their counterparts in
5566-547: The KNIL ceased to exist but its traditions are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army . At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65,000, of whom 26,000 were incorporated into the new Indonesian Army and should be received with the same rank. Some of them later in the 70s reached the rank of Major General in Indonesian Army. It is estimated that around 39,000 of
5687-594: The KNIL were involved in an abortive coup in Bandung planned by Raymond Westerling and Sultan Hamid II . The coup failed and only accelerated the dissolution of the federal Republic of the United States of Indonesia . The KNIL was disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining the newly formed Indonesian military . However, efforts to integrate former KNIL units were impeded by mutual distrust between
5808-632: The Metekohy Plan, to secure independence for the NIT. The four stages were: Following the events in Makassar, the cabinet lost parliamentary support. Following the failure to attract any support for independence, President Soekawati accepted the end of the NIT. On 21 April, he agreed to the NIT being dissolved into the United States of Indonesia if the Republic of Indonesia would do the same. The formation of East Indonesia's last cabinet in May 1950 with
5929-638: The NIT from the USI. Because of rumours of republican troops from the USI army (APRIS) being sent from Jakarta, ex-soldiers of the Dutch colonial army, the KNIL became increasingly concerned about their future within the Java-dominated KNIL. On 23 April the Jakarta government announced it was sending APRIS troops to the NIT. This was part of the central government's plan to establish military control over
6050-961: The Netherlands East Indies were severely weakened by the defeat and occupation of the Netherlands itself, by Nazi Germany , in 1940. The KNIL was cut off from external Dutch assistance, except by Royal Netherlands Navy units. The KNIL, hastily and inadequately, attempted to transform into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from foreign invasion. By December 1941, Dutch forces in Indonesia numbered around 85,000 personnel: regular troops consisted of about 1,000 officers and 34,000 enlisted soldiers, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. The remainder were made up of locally organised militia, territorial guard units and civilian auxiliaries. The KNIL air force, Militaire Luchtvaart KNIL ( Royal Netherlands East Indies Air Force ; ML-KNIL) numbered 389 planes of all types, but
6171-441: The Netherlands itself to recruit and train these volunteers and to re-integrate them into Dutch society upon the conclusion of their overseas service. On the eve of the Japanese invasion in December 1941, Dutch regular troops in the East Indies consisted of about 1,000 officers and 34,000 men, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. The largest proportion of these "native troops" had always consisted of Javanese and Sundanese soldiers. During
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#17327730392406292-518: The Regulations for the Formation of the State of East Indonesia ( Peratoeran Pembentoekan Negara Indonesia Timoer ), were South Celebes, Minahasa, Sangihe and Talaud, North Celebes, Central Celebes, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba, Timor and surrounding islands, South Moluccas, and North Moluccas. The residencies were to be eliminated after the construction of functioning administration in
6413-464: The Regulations for the Formation of the State of East Indonesia obliged the state to recognise their special status. The remaining area of the state not part of the swaprajas comprised directly governed regions ( rechtstreeks bestuurd gebied ). Directly governed areas included Minahasa, the South Moluccas, Gorontalo , the districts of Macassar and Bonthain , and Lombok. The following were
6534-643: The UK ), were augmented by recruitment among Dutch expatriates around the world and by colonial troops from as far away as the Dutch West Indies . During 1944–45, some small units saw action in the New Guinea campaign and Borneo campaign . Just south of Casino, New South Wales , a camp was established in 1942 for a KNIL Technical Battalion. Upon the declaration of the Indonesian Republic,
6655-546: The archipelago at the start of the 1600s, the Malay language was a significant trading and political language due to the influence of the Malaccan Sultanate and later the Portuguese . However, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the administrative language of their trading outpost in
6776-665: The archipelago was considered pacified the KNIL was mainly involved with military policing tasks. To ensure a sizeable European military segment in the KNIL and reduce costly recruitment in Europe, the colonial government introduced obligatory military service for all resident male conscripts in the European legal class in 1917. In 1922 a supplemental legal enactment introduced the creation of the Home Guard ( Dutch : Landstorm ) for European conscripts older than 32. Dutch forces in
6897-415: The archipelago, such as Sojomerto inscription . Trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago. Indonesian (in its standard form) has essentially
7018-433: The area including the Padri War (1821–1845), the Java War (1825–1830), crushing the final resistance of Bali inhabitants to colonial rule in 1849, and the prolonged Aceh War (1873–1904). In 1894, Lombok and Karangasem were annexed in response to reports of the local Balinese aristocracy oppressing the native Sasak people. Bali was finally taken under full control with the Dutch intervention in Bali (1906) and
7139-476: The army consisted of European soldiers, while the other half was made up of indigenous soldiers. However, starting from the late 1830s the ratio between European soldiers and indigenous soldiers went from 1:1 to 1:3. The reason for this was that there were not enough European volunteers to keep up with the recruitment of indigenous soldiers. Besides European volunteers and indigenous recruits the KNIL also recruited foreign mercenaries of several nationalities during
7260-572: The ban on demonstrations. The following day, there was a huge demonstration in Makassar calling for the dissolution of the NIT into the Republic of Indonesia. As a result, restrictions were reimposed, and Justice Minister Soumokil ordered the arrest of non-parliamentary unitarist supporters. In the second week of March Soekawati asked cabinet director J.C. van Krieken to prepare an NIT declaration of independence, although van Krieken advised against this. Soekawati and Soumokil, along with former cabinet minister Dolf Metekohy, began to draw up plans to separate
7381-427: The colonial language generally has continued to function as the language of politics, bureaucracy , education, technology , and other fields of importance for a significant time after independence. The Indonesian scholar Soenjono Dardjowidjojo [ id ] even goes so far as to say that when compared to the situation in other Asian countries such as India, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines, "Indonesian
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#17327730392407502-444: The conference, Balinese nobleman Tjokorda Gde Raka Soekawati was elected president. Although opponents joked that "NIT" stood for negara ikoet toean or 'state which goes along with the master', i.e. the Dutch, nevertheless, it was recognized by the Republic of Indonesia as a state within the United States of Indonesia on 19 January 1948. With the realization of the United States of Indonesia on 27 December 1949, East Indonesia became
7623-431: The development of national culture, science, technology, and mass media. It also serves as a vehicle of communication among the provinces and different regional cultures in the country. According to Indonesian law, the Indonesian language was proclaimed as the unifying language during the Youth Pledge on 28 October 1928 and developed further to accommodate the dynamics of Indonesian civilization. As mentioned previously,
7744-417: The early European traders and explorers brought to Southeast Asia. Indonesian also receives many English words as a result of globalization and modernization , especially since the 1990s, as far as the Internet's emergence and development until the present day. Some Indonesian words correspond to Malay loanwords in English, among them the common words orangutan , gong , bamboo , rattan , sarong , and
7865-452: The east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC, the Batavian Republic took control of the colony in 1799, and it was only then that education in and promotion of Dutch began in the colony . Even then, Dutch administrators were remarkably reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a small elite: in 1940, only 2% of the total population could speak Dutch. Nevertheless, it did have
7986-417: The end of the conflict and was dissolved in 1950 with the end of the USI. It comprised all the islands to the east of Borneo ( Celebes and the Moluccas , with their offshore islands) and of Java ( Bali and the Lesser Sunda Islands ). The Dutch authorities, after various changes to the administration of the eastern islands of the East Indies, established the Great East region in 1938. Four years later,
8107-483: The evening of the next day, Soumokil appointed former KNIL lieutenant Andi Aziz to lead any action against the landings. On 5 April, the day the troops were due to land, in response, Andi Aziz took control of the city , deployed artillery and successfully turned the troopships away. The NIT government refused to support Azis. On 13 April, Soekawati, Prime Minister Jan Engelbert Tatengkeng , Parliament Speaker Hoesain Poeang Limboro, federalist legislators and Azis held
8228-415: The evolution of the language with Indonesians, although the 1972 Indonesian alphabet reform was seen mainly as a concession of Dutch-based Indonesian to the English-based spelling of Malaysian. In November 2023, the Indonesian language was recognised as one of the official languages of the UNESCO General Conference. Currently there are 10 official languages of the UNESCO General Conference, consisting of
8349-423: The final Dutch intervention in Bali (1908) . In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the KNIL resumed the conquest of the Indonesian archipelago. After 1904 the Netherlands East Indies were considered pacified, with no large-scale armed opposition to Dutch rule until World War II , and the KNIL served a mainly defensive role protecting the Dutch East Indies from the possibility of foreign invasion. Once
8470-464: The frequency of Indonesian ⟨é⟩ and ⟨o⟩. In traditional Malay, high vowels (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) could not appear in a final syllable if a mid-vowel (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) appeared in the previous syllable, and conversely, mid-vowels (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) could not appear in the final syllable if a high vowel (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) appeared in the previous syllable. Traditional Malay does not allow the mid-central schwa vowel to occur in consonant open or closed word-final syllables. The schwa vowel
8591-476: The future United States of Indonesia, of which East Indonesia would be a constituent member. Balinese nobleman Tjokorda Gdé Raka Soekawati was elected president at the Denpasar Conference that established the state, and held that position for the duration of the state's existence (24 December 1946 – 17 August 1950). The Provisional Representative Body for the State of East Indonesia ( Dewan Perwakilan Sementara Negara Indonesia Timoer ), initially consisting of
8712-757: The future president and vice-president, Sukarno and Hatta. Journalists, beginning a practice that has continued to the present, did not wait for the Komisi Bahasa to provide new words, but actively participated themselves in coining terms. Many of the Komisi Bahasa's terms never found public acceptance and after the Japanese period were replaced by the original Dutch forms, including jantera (Sanskrit for 'wheel'), which temporarily replaced mesin (machine), ketua negara (literally 'chairman of state'), which had replaced presiden (president) and kilang (meaning 'mill'), which had replaced pabrik (factory). In
8833-506: The imprisoned soldiers, despite being reluctant to heed earlier requests for assistance. Following World War II, the KNIL was used in two large military campaigns in 1947 and 1948 to re-establish Dutch control of Indonesia. The KNIL and its Ambonese auxiliaries have been accused of committing war crimes during this "police action". Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony failed and Netherlands recognition of Indonesian sovereignty came on 27 December 1949. On 26 January 1950, elements of
8954-592: The intention implementing this led to open rebellion in the largely Christian Moluccas and the proclamation of an independent Republic of the South Moluccas (RMS). The USI was dissolved on 17 August 1950 and the rebellion in the Moluccas was crushed in November of the same year. The Denpasar Conference of 18–24 December 1946 approved the Regulations for the Formation of the State of East Indonesia ( Peratoeran Pembentoekan Negara Indonesia Timoer ) which supplemented
9075-1355: The language and established bahasa Indonesia as the national language of the new nation. The term bahasa Indonesia itself had been proposed by Mohammad Tabrani in 1926, and Tabrani had further proposed the term over calling the language Malay language during the First Youth Congress in 1926. Indonesian language (old VOS spelling): Jang dinamakan 'Bahasa Indonesia' jaitoe bahasa Melajoe jang soenggoehpoen pokoknja berasal dari 'Melajoe Riaoe' akan tetapi jang soedah ditambah, dioebah ataoe dikoerangi menoeroet keperloean zaman dan alam baharoe, hingga bahasa itoe laloe moedah dipakai oleh rakjat diseloeroeh Indonesia; pembaharoean bahasa Melajoe hingga menjadi bahasa Indonesia itoe haroes dilakoekan oleh kaoem ahli jang beralam baharoe, ialah alam kebangsaan Indonesia Indonesian (modern EYD spelling): Yang dinamakan 'Bahasa Indonesia' yaitu bahasa Melayu yang sungguhpun pokoknya berasal dari 'Melayu Riau' akan tetapi yang sudah ditambah, diubah atau dikurangi menurut keperluan zaman dan alam baru, hingga bahasa itu lalu mudah dipakai oleh rakyat di seluruh Indonesia; pembaharuan bahasa Melayu hingga menjadi bahasa Indonesia itu harus dilakukan oleh kaum ahli yang beralam baru, ialah alam kebangsaan Indonesia English : "What
9196-412: The language of politics , education , and nation-building in general, Indonesian became one of the few success stories of an indigenous language effectively overtaking that of a country's colonisers to become the de jure and de facto official language. Today, Indonesian continues to function as the language of national identity as the Congress of Indonesian Youth envisioned, and also serves as
9317-432: The language of education, literacy , modernization , and social mobility . Despite still being a second language to most Indonesians, it is unquestionably the language of the Indonesian nation as a whole, as it has had unrivalled success as a factor in nation-building and the strengthening of Indonesian identity. Indonesian is spoken as a mother tongue and national language. Over 200 million people regularly make use of
9438-612: The language was based on Riau Malay, though linguists note that this is not the local dialect of Riau, but the Malaccan dialect that was used in the Riau court . Since its conception in 1928 and its official recognition in the 1945 Constitution, the Indonesian language has been loaded with a nationalist political agenda to unify Indonesia (former Dutch East Indies ). This status has made it relatively open to accommodate influences from other Indonesian ethnic languages, most notably Javanese as
9559-481: The language with the most native speakers (Javanese) nor the language of the former European colonial power (Dutch) was to be adopted. Instead, a local language with far fewer native speakers than the most widely spoken local language was chosen (nevertheless, Malay was the second most widely spoken language in the colony after Javanese, and had many L2 speakers using it for trade, administration, and education). In 1945, when Indonesia declared its independence, Indonesian
9680-470: The language's wordstock. The Japanese agreed to the establishment of the Komisi Bahasa (Language Commission) in October 1942, formally headed by three Japanese but with a number of prominent Indonesian intellectuals playing the major part in its activities. Soewandi, later to be Minister of Education and Culture, was appointed secretary, Alisjahbana was appointed an 'expert secretary' and other members included
9801-417: The language, with Chinese influencing Indonesian during the 15th and 16th centuries due to the spice trade ; Sanskrit , Tamil , Prakrit and Hindi contributing during the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms from the 2nd to the 14th century; followed by Arabic after the spread of Islam in the archipelago in the 13th century. Loanwords from Portuguese were mainly connected with articles that
9922-627: The languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities. There are more than 700 local languages in Indonesian islands, such as Javanese , Sundanese , etc. While Malay as the source of Indonesian is the mother tongue of ethnic Malay who lives along the east coast of Sumatra, in the Riau Archipelago, and on the south and west coast of Kalimantan (Borneo). There are several areas, such as Jakarta, Manado, Lesser Sunda islands, and Mollucas which has Malay-based trade languages. Thus,
10043-465: The less common words such as paddy , sago and kapok , all of which were inherited in Indonesian from Malay but borrowed from Malay in English. The phrase "to run amok" comes from the Malay verb amuk (to run out of control, to rage). Indonesian is neither a pidgin nor a creole since its characteristics do not meet any of the criteria for either. It is believed that the Indonesian language
10164-589: The likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western Borneo stretching to the Bruneian coast. A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayan languages . Its ancestor, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian , a descendant of the Proto-Austronesian language , began to break up by at least 2000 BCE, possibly as
10285-535: The majority ethnic group, and Dutch as the previous coloniser. Compared to the indigenous dialects of Malay spoken in Sumatra and Malay peninsula or the normative Malaysian standard, the Indonesian language differs profoundly by a large number of Javanese loanwords incorporated into its already-rich vocabulary. As a result, Indonesian has more extensive sources of loanwords , compared to Malaysian Malay. The disparate evolution of Indonesian and Malaysian has led to
10406-465: The majority of the population and that would not divide the nation by favouring one ethnic group, namely the Javanese, over the others. In 1945, Indonesian was already in widespread use; in fact, it had been for roughly a thousand years. Over that long period, Malay, which would later become standardized as Indonesian, was the primary language of commerce and travel . It was also the language used for
10527-458: The mid-front vowel /e/ is sometimes represented with a diacritic as ⟨é⟩ to distinguish it from the mid-central vowel ⟨ê⟩ /ə/. Since 2015, the auxiliary graphemes ⟨é⟩ and ⟨è⟩ are used respectively for phonetic [ e ] and [ ɛ ] in Indonesian, while Standard Malay has rendered both of them as ⟨é⟩. The phonetic realization of the mid vowels / e / and / o / ranges from close-mid ( [e] / [o] ) to open-mid ( [ɛ] / [ɔ] ) allophones . Some analyses set up
10648-414: The more classical School Malay and it was accused of publishing Dutch written with an Indonesian vocabulary. Alisjahbana would no doubt have taken the criticism as a demonstration of his success. To him the language of Pujangga Baru pointed the way to the future, to an elaborated, Westernised language able to express all the concepts of the modern world. As an example, among the many innovations they condemned
10769-430: The national language, with varying degrees of proficiency. In a nation that is home to more than 700 native languages and a vast array of ethnic groups, it plays an important unifying and cross-archipelagic role for the country. Use of the national language is abundant in the media, government bodies, schools , universities , workplaces , among members of the upper-class or nobility and also in formal situations, despite
10890-408: The need to develop Indonesian so that it could take its place as a fully adequate national language, able to replace Dutch as a means of entry into modern international culture. In 1933, he began the magazine Pujangga Baru (New Writer — Poedjangga Baroe in the original spelling) with co-editors Amir Hamzah and Armijn Pane. The language of Pujangga Baru came in for criticism from those associated with
11011-445: The number of Africans much higher ) and at least 1,666 Eurasian recruits. The officer corps was wholly European and was probably close to 1,300. There were also about 1,300 horses. Recruitment was carried out in the Netherlands and Indonesia, with over 1,000 Dutch subjects and 500 foreigners enlisting annually. The foreign troops consisted of Flemish , German , Swiss , and French volunteers. Walloons , Arabs , and nationals of both
11132-616: The phonetic and grammatical rules of Indonesian, enriching the language and reflecting Indonesia's diverse linguistic heritage. Most Indonesians, aside from speaking the national language, are fluent in at least one of the more than 700 indigenous local languages ; examples include Javanese and Sundanese , which are commonly used at home and within the local community. However, most formal education and nearly all national mass media , governance , administration , and judiciary and other forms of communication are conducted in Indonesian. Under Indonesian rule from 1976 to 1999, Indonesian
11253-562: The predominantly Ambonese KNIL troops and the Javanese -dominated Republican military, leading to clashes at Makassar in April and the attempted secession of an independent Republic of South Maluku (RMS) in July. These revolts were suppressed by November 1950 and approximately 12,500 Ambonese KNIL personnel and their families opted for temporary resettlement in the Netherlands. Following this,
11374-473: The prefix me- is often dropped, although an initial nasal consonant is often retained, as when mengangkat becomes ngangkat (the basic word is angkat ). The suffixes -kan and -i are often replaced by -in . For example, mencarikan becomes nyariin , menuruti becomes nurutin . The latter grammatical aspect is one often closely related to the Indonesian spoken in Jakarta and its surrounding areas. Malay historical linguists agree on
11495-417: The propagation of Islam in the 13th to 17th centuries, as well as the language of instruction used by Portuguese and Dutch missionaries attempting to convert the indigenous people to Christianity . The combination of these factors meant that the language was already known to some degree by most of the population, and it could be more easily adopted as the national language than perhaps any other. Moreover, it
11616-436: The proximity of spoken Indonesian (in terms of grammar and vocabulary) to its normative form is noticeably low. This is mostly due to Indonesians combining aspects of their own local languages (e.g., Javanese , Sundanese , and Balinese ) with Indonesian. This results in various vernacular varieties of Indonesian, the very types that a foreigner is most likely to hear upon arriving in any Indonesian city or town. This phenomenon
11737-611: The remaining KNIL troops who majority of whom came from Ambon , took the option of retiring or joining the Royal Dutch Armed Forces and serving in Papua or Suriname. Some of them were involved in the Dutch contingent in Korean War (1950–1953). During its formation, it was stated that the KNIL would include both European and indigenous soldiers. In the beginning the KNIL was equally divided, which meant that half
11858-482: The residencies and their autonomous regions. Dutch East Indies under East Indonesia Indonesian language Indonesian ( Bahasa Indonesia ; [baˈhasa indoˈnesija] ) is the official and national language of Indonesia . It is a standardized variety of Malay , an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. With over 280 million inhabitants, Indonesia ranks as
11979-552: The same material basis as the Malaysian standard of Malay and is therefore considered to be a variety of the pluricentric Malay language. However, it does differ from Malaysian Malay in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. These differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar ( lit. ' market Malay ' ), which
12100-820: The six United Nations languages, namely English , French , Arabic , Chinese , Russian , and Spanish , as well as four other languages of UNESCO member countries, namely Hindi , Italian , Portuguese , and Indonesian. As regulated by Indonesian state law UU No 24/2009, other than state official speeches and documents between or issued to Indonesian government, Indonesian language is required by law to be used in: However, other languages may be used in dual-language setting to accompany but not to replace Indonesian language in: agreements, information regarding goods / services, scientific papers, information through mass media, geographical names, public signs, road signs, public facilities, banners, and other information of public services in public area. While there are no sanctions of
12221-430: The status of the Indonesian language. The national language is Indonesian. Indonesian functions as a symbol of national identity and pride, and is a lingua franca among the diverse ethnic groups in Indonesia and the speakers of vernacular Malay dialects and Malay creoles. The Indonesian language serves as the national and official language, the language of education, communication, transaction and trade documentation,
12342-486: The use of Indonesian was allowed since the Volksraad sessions held in July 1938. By the time they tried to counter the spread of Malay by teaching Dutch to the natives, it was too late, and in 1942, the Japanese conquered Indonesia. The Japanese mandated that all official business be conducted in Indonesian and quickly outlawed the use of the Dutch language. Three years later, the Indonesians themselves formally abolished
12463-529: The uses of other languages, in Indonesian court's point of view, any agreements made in Indonesia but not drafted in Indonesian language, is null and void. In any different interpretations in dual-language agreements setting, Indonesian language shall prevail. Indonesian has six vowel phonemes as shown in the table below. In standard Indonesian orthography, the Latin alphabet is used, and five vowels are distinguished: a, i, u, e, o . In materials for learners,
12584-453: The whole of the country. Soekawari held meetings with the soldiers and told them they had his support, but told them that if they wanted to take any action to prevent the landings, it would have to be on their own initiative as he was constitutionally unable to order any action. On 3 April there was a mass meeting of 700 KNIL troops, at which a motion was passed opposing any landings before the KNIL troops had been fully incorporated into APRIS. On
12705-422: The word bahasa only means language. For example, French language is translated as bahasa Prancis , and the same applies to other languages, such as bahasa Inggris (English), bahasa Jepang (Japanese), bahasa Arab (Arabic), bahasa Italia (Italian), and so on. Indonesians generally may not recognize the name Bahasa alone when it refers to their national language. Standard Indonesian
12826-548: Was appointed by the president. However, much real power remained with the Dutch East Indies authorities. The State of East Indonesia was initially divided into five residencies of the Great East which were in turn divided into districts ( afdeling ) and subdistricts ( onderafdeling ), an administrative structure inherited from the Dutch. Within the residencies were 13 autonomous regions. These regions, listed in Article 14 of
12947-481: Was designated as the official language of Timor Leste . It has the status of a working language under the country's constitution along with English . In November 2023, the Indonesian language was recognized as one of the official languages of the UNESCO General Conference. The term Indonesian is primarily associated with the national standard dialect ( bahasa baku ). However, in
13068-436: Was formally declared the national language, despite being the native language of only about 5% of the population. In contrast, Javanese and Sundanese were the mother tongues of 42–48% and 15% respectively. The combination of nationalistic , political , and practical concerns ultimately led to the successful adoption of Indonesian as a national language. In 1945, Javanese was easily the most prominent language in Indonesia. It
13189-605: Was introduced in closed syllables under the influence of Javanese and Jakarta Malay, but Dutch borrowings made it more acceptable. Although Alisjahbana argued against it, insisting on writing ⟨a⟩ instead of an ⟨ê⟩ in final syllables such as koda (vs kodə 'code') and nasionalisma (vs nasionalismə 'nationalism'), he was unsuccessful. This spelling convention was instead survived in Balinese orthography. Indonesian has four diphthong phonemes only in open syllables. They are: Some analyses assume that these diphthongs are actually
13310-569: Was largely outclassed by superior Japanese planes. The Royal Netherlands Navy Air Service, or MLD, also had significant forces in the NEI. During the Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941–42, by forces of the Empire of Japan, most of the KNIL and other Allied forces were quickly defeated. Most European soldiers, which in practice included all able bodied Indo-European males, were interned by
13431-409: Was later disbanded following the dissolution of East Indonesia. In May 1949, a Provisional Senate was established, tasked initially with deliberating proposed constitution for East Indonesia. The Provisional Senate was later disbanded following the dissolution of East Indonesia, before any promulgation of the proposed constitution. The state had a parliamentary cabinet led by a prime minister, who
13552-558: Was not part of the Royal Netherlands Army , but a separate military arm specifically formed for service in the Netherlands East Indies . Its establishment coincided with the Dutch drive to expand colonial rule from the 17th century area of control to the far larger territories constituting the Dutch East Indies seventy years later. The KNIL was involved in many campaigns against indigenous groups in
13673-456: Was one of the means to achieve independence, but it is opened to receive vocabulary from other foreign languages aside from Malay that it has made contact with since the colonialism era, such as Dutch, English and Arabic among others, as the loan words keep increasing each year. In 2020, Indonesian had 71.9 million native speakers and 176.5 million second-language speakers, who speak it alongside their local mother tongue , giving
13794-525: Was particularly keen on the plan, but there was no agreement to proceed. The following day, following a guarantee of his safety from the USI government, Azis travelled to Jakarta, where he was arrested. On 19 March his troops surrendered to the NIT APRIS commander, and the next day, the troops from Jakarta landed unopposed. It subsequently emerged that the Azis affair had been part of a four-part plan, known as
13915-478: Was reported to be 60% to 40%. After the Aceh War, the enlistment of non-Dutch European troops ceased and the KNIL came to consist of Dutch regulars recruited in the Netherlands itself, Indonesians, Indos (Eurasians), and Dutch colonists living in the East Indies and undertaking their military service. In 1884 personnel strength was numbered at 13,492 European, 14,982 Indonesian, 96 African (though some sources put
14036-400: Was still no notion of Indonesian language. Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana was a great promoter of the use and development of Indonesian and he was greatly exaggerating the decline of Dutch. Higher education was still in Dutch and many educated Indonesians were writing and speaking in Dutch in many situations (and were still doing so well after independence was achieved). He believed passionately in
14157-440: Was the language of the sultanate of Brunei and of future Malaysia , on which some Indonesian nationalists had claims . Over the first 53 years of Indonesian independence , the country's first two presidents, Sukarno and Suharto constantly nurtured the sense of national unity embodied by Indonesian, and the language remains an essential component of Indonesian identity. Through a language planning program that made Indonesian
14278-407: Was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been heavily influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax, by English. The question of whether High Malay (Court Malay) or Low Malay (Bazaar Malay) was the true parent of
14399-642: Was the military force maintained by the Kingdom of the Netherlands in its colony of the Dutch East Indies , in areas that are now part of Indonesia . The KNIL's air arm was the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force . Elements of the Royal Netherlands Navy and Government Navy were also stationed in the Netherlands East Indies. The KNIL was formed by royal decree on 14 September 1814. It
14520-445: Was the native language of nearly half the population, the primary language of politics and economics , and the language of courtly , religious , and literary tradition. What it lacked, however, was the ability to unite the diverse Indonesian population as a whole. With thousands of islands and hundreds of different languages, the newly independent country of Indonesia had to find a national language that could realistically be spoken by
14641-649: Was use of the word bisa instead of dapat for 'can'. In Malay bisa meant only 'poison from an animal's bite' and the increasing use of Javanese bisa in the new meaning they regarded as one of the many threats to the language's purity. Unlike more traditional intellectuals, he did not look to Classical Malay and the past. For him, Indonesian was a new concept; a new beginning was needed and he looked to Western civilisation, with its dynamic society of individuals freed from traditional fetters, as his inspiration. The prohibition on use of Dutch led to an expansion of Indonesian language newspapers and pressure on them to increase
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