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115-723: The Johor Sultanate ( Malay : Kesultanan Johor or کسلطانن جوهر ; also called the Sultanate of Johor , Johor-Pahang-Riau-Lingga , or the Johor Empire ) was founded by Sultan of Malacca Mahmud Shah 's son, Alauddin Riayat Shah II in 1528. Prior to being a sultanate of its own right, Johor had been part of the Malaccan Sultanate before the Portuguese captured its capital in 1511 . At its height,

230-526: A French visitor in the 1620s reported "every day the King would have people’s noses cut off, eyes dug out, castrations, feet cut off, or hands, ears, and other parts mutilated, very often for some very small matter." He had his own son Crown Prince Meurah Pupok executed and named his son-in-law, the son of the captured Sultan of Pahang as his successor Iskandar Thani . During Iskandar Muda's reign, eminent Islamic scholars were attracted to Aceh and made it

345-484: A Minangkabau prince, Raja Kecil from Siak who claimed he was the posthumous son of Sultan Mahmud II. The prince met with the Bugis and promised the Bugis wealth and political power if they helped the prince to win the throne. However, Raja Kecil broke his promise and installed himself as the new Sultan of Johor (Sultan Abdul Jalil Rahmat Shah) without the knowledge of the Bugis. Sultan Abdul Jalil IV fled to Pahang where he

460-516: A centre of Islamic scholarship. Iskandar Muda favoured the tradition of the Sufi mystics Hamzah Pansuri and Syamsuddin of Pasai , both of whom resided at the court of Aceh. These writers' works were translated into other Indonesian languages, and had considerable influence across the peninsula. Both were later denounced for their heretical ideas by Nuruddin ar-Raniri , who arrived in the Aceh court during

575-672: A descendant of the Proto-Austronesian language , began to break up by at least 2000 BCE, possibly as a result of the southward expansion of Austronesian peoples into Maritime Southeast Asia from the island of Taiwan . The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods: Old Malay, the Transitional Period, the Classical Malay, Late Modern Malay and Modern Malay. Old Malay is believed to be

690-527: A lingua franca derived from Classical Malay as well as Makassar Malay , which appears to be a mixed language . Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malayic homeland being in western Borneo . A form known as Proto-Malayic was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE, it has been argued to be the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayic languages . Its ancestor, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian ,

805-555: A mid vowel [e, o] . Orthographic note : both /e/ and /ə/ are written with ⟨e⟩ . Orthographic /e, o/ are relatively rare, so the letter ⟨e⟩ usually represents /ə/ . There are some homographs; for example, perang is used for both /pəraŋ/ "war" and /peraŋ ~ piraŋ/ "blond". (In Indonesia, "blond" may be written perang or pirang .) Some analyses regard /ai, au, oi/ as diphthongs. However, [ai] and [au] can only occur in open syllables, such as cukai ("tax") and pulau ("island"). Words with

920-477: A new nobility of “war leaders” ( Malay language : hulubalang ; Acehnese : uleëbalang ), whom he gave districts ( mukim ) in feudal tenure. After his reign, however, the elite often supported weaker sultans, to maintain their own autonomy. He also sought to replace the Acehnese princes with royal officials called panglima , who had to report annually and were subject to periodic appraisal. An elite palace guard

1035-536: A noble who won the match eventually suffered a humiliating death, while generals who failed in their exploits had been on occasion forced to "eat a plate of turds ". As the Sultans in Aceh exert their symbol of power prestige in elephant possessions, Iskandar Muda has about 900 elephants in possession, while his son-in-law, Iskandar Thani , possessed one thousand elephants. It is recorded that Sultanate of Aceh during reign of Iskandar Muda has managed relationship with

1150-434: A phonetic diphthong in a closed syllable, such as baik ("good") and laut ("sea"), are actually two syllables. An alternative analysis therefore treats the phonetic diphthongs [ai] , [au] and [oi] as a sequence of a monophthong plus an approximant: /aj/ , /aw/ and /oj/ respectively. There is a rule of vowel harmony : the non-open vowels /i, e, u, o/ in bisyllabic words must agree in height, so hidung ("nose")

1265-431: A root word ( affixation ), formation of a compound word (composition), or repetition of words or portions of words ( reduplication ). Nouns and verbs may be basic roots, but frequently they are derived from other words by means of prefixes , suffixes and circumfixes . Malay does not make use of grammatical gender , and there are only a few words that use natural gender; the same word is used for 'he' and 'she' which

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1380-559: A scion of the lineage ( nasab ) and race ( bangsa ) of Iskandar Zulkarnain, Alexander the Great . Through this statement, the hikayat presented Aceh as a part of the Malay world, since Iskandar Zulkarnain was the purported ancestor of the Melaka , Johor , Perak and Pahang rulers. Among the Acehnese, Iskandar Muda is revered as a hero and symbol of Aceh's past greatness. Posthumously he

1495-480: A series of shifting capitals as it navigated conflict and the changing political landscape. From around the 1530s, Sayong Pinang served as an early center of power until 1536, when the capital was moved to Johor Lama until 1564 when it was sacked by Aceh forces, forcing the capital to move to Bukit Seluyut (along the Johor River ) from 1564 to 1570. The capital returned to Johor Lama from 1570 until 1587 when it

1610-432: A slice of the royal jackfruit. Subsequently, the sultan was assassinated in 1699 by Megat Sri Rama in revenge, leaving no heirs. The Orang Kayas, who were normally tasked with advising the sultan, went to Muar to meet Sa Akar DiRaja, Raja Temenggong of Muar , Mahmud II's uncle and asked for his counsel. He told them that Bendahara Abdul Jalil should inherit the throne which he did as Sultan Abdul Jalil IV . Many, particularly

1725-571: A yearly stipend from the British. In return, Tengku Hussein would allow Raffles to establish a trading post in Singapore. This treaty was ratified on 6 February 1819. The British asked Bendehara Ali to recognise Tengku Hussein as a ruler. However, Bendehara Ali claimed that he had no connection to the events in Singapore, as it is the Temenggong's fief and stated that his loyalty lies only with

1840-402: Is dia or for 'his' and 'her' which is dia punya . There is no grammatical plural in Malay either; thus orang may mean either 'person' or 'people'. Verbs are not inflected for person or number, and they are not marked for tense; tense is instead denoted by time adverbs (such as 'yesterday') or by other tense indicators, such as sudah 'already' and belum 'not yet'. On the other hand, there

1955-456: Is a complex system of verb affixes to render nuances of meaning and to denote voice or intentional and accidental moods . Malay does not have a grammatical subject in the sense that English does. In intransitive clauses, the noun comes before the verb. When there is both an agent and an object , these are separated by the verb (OVA or AVO), with the difference encoded in the voice of the verb. OVA, commonly but inaccurately called "passive",

2070-430: Is allowed but * hedung is not. Pronunciation Pronunciation Pronunciation Study by Uri Tadmor which was published in 2003 shows that mutation of ⟨a⟩ in final open syllable is an areal feature. Specifically, it is an areal feature of Western Austronesia. Uri Tadmor classify those types into four groups as below. Malay is an agglutinative language , and new words are formed by three methods: attaching affixes onto

2185-568: Is an Austronesian language that is an official language of Brunei , Indonesia , Malaysia , and Singapore . It is also spoken in East Timor and parts of Thailand . Altogether, it is spoken by 290 million people (around 260 million in Indonesia alone in its own literary standard named " Indonesian ") across Maritime Southeast Asia . The language is pluricentric and a macrolanguage , i.e., several varieties of it are standardized as

2300-586: Is being followed? Unfair deeds like this will cause the Johor Sultanate be destroyed!". And she held on the royal regalia refusing to surrender it. Bendehara Ali was made aware of the affairs of the succession and decided to act. He prepared his fleet to go to Riau to "restore the adat". The British upon learning this despatched a fleet and set up a blockade to stop the forces of Bendehara Ali from advancing. With Temenggong Abdul Rahman's help, Raffles managed to smuggle Hussein, then living in exile on one of

2415-406: Is designated the bahasa persatuan/pemersatu ("unifying language" or lingua franca ) whereas the term "Malay" ( bahasa Melayu ) is domestically restricted to vernacular varieties of Malay indigenous to areas of Central to Southern Sumatra and West Kalimantan . Classical Malay , also called Court Malay, was the literary standard of the pre-colonial Malacca and Johor Sultanates and so

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2530-482: Is divided into Bornean and Sumatran Malay; some of the most widely spoken Sumatran Malay dialects are Riau Malay , Langkat , Palembang Malay and Jambi Malay . Minangkabau , Kerinci and Bengkulu are believed to be Sumatran Malay descendants. Meanwhile, the Jakarta dialect (known as Betawi ) also belongs to the western Malay group. The eastern varieties, classified either as dialects or creoles , are spoken in

2645-623: Is not a tonal language . The consonants of Malaysian and also Indonesian are shown below. Non-native consonants that only occur in borrowed words, principally from Arabic, Dutch and English, are shown in brackets. Orthographic note : The sounds are represented orthographically by their symbols as above, except: Loans from Arabic : Malay originally had four vowels, but in many dialects today, including Standard Malay, it has six, with /i/ split into /i, e/ and /u/ split into /u, o/ . Many words are commonly pronounced variably, with either [i, u] or [e, o] , and relatively few words require

2760-569: Is not readily intelligible with the standard language , and the same is true with some lects on the Malay Peninsula such as Kedah Malay . However, both Brunei and Kedah are quite close. Malay is now written using the Latin script , known as Rumi in Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore or Latin in Indonesia, although an Arabic script called Arab Melayu or Jawi also exists. Latin script

2875-651: Is official in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. Malay uses Hindu-Arabic numerals . Rumi (Latin) and Jawi are co-official in Brunei only. Names of institutions and organisations have to use Jawi and Rumi (Latin) scripts. Jawi is used fully in schools, especially the religious school, sekolah agama , which is compulsory during the afternoon for Muslim students aged from around 6–7 up to 12–14. Efforts are currently being undertaken to preserve Jawi in Malaysia, and students taking Malay language examinations in Malaysia have

2990-521: Is similar to Kelantanese Malay, but the language has no official status or recognition. Owing to earlier contact with the Philippines , Malay words—such as dalam hati (sympathy), luwalhati (glory), tengah hari (midday), sedap (delicious)—have evolved and been integrated into Tagalog and other Philippine languages . By contrast, Indonesian has successfully become the lingua franca for its disparate islands and ethnic groups, in part because

3105-624: Is the basic and most common word order. The Malay language has many words borrowed from Arabic (in particular religious terms), Sanskrit , Tamil , certain Sinitic languages , Persian (due to historical status of Malay Archipelago as a trading hub), and more recently, Portuguese , Dutch and English (in particular many scientific and technological terms). There is a group of closely related languages spoken by Malays and related peoples across Brunei , Indonesia , Malaysia , Singapore , Southern Thailand , Kampung Alor in East Timor , and

3220-525: Is the lack of possessive pronouns (and suffixes) in eastern dialects. Manado uses the verb pe and Ambon pu (from Malay punya 'to have') to mark possession. So 'my name' and 'our house" are translated in western Malay as namaku and rumah kita but kita pe nama and torang pe rumah in Manado and beta pu nama , katong pu rumah in Ambon dialect. The pronunciation may vary in western dialects, especially

3335-624: The Cham alphabet are used by the Chams of Vietnam and Cambodia . Old Malay was written using Pallava and Kawi script, as evident from several inscription stones in the Malay region. Starting from the era of kingdom of Pasai and throughout the golden age of the Malacca Sultanate, Jawi gradually replaced these scripts as the most commonly used script in the Malay region. Starting from the 17th century, under Dutch and British influence, Jawi

3450-684: The Dutch were at war with the Portuguese and allied themselves to Johor. Two treaties were signed by Admiral Cornelis Matelief de Jonge on behalf of the Dutch Estates General and Raja Bongsu (later to be Sultan Abdullah Ma'ayat Shah ) of Johor in May and September 1606. In January 1641, the Dutch and Johor forces headed by Bendahara Skudai, captured Malacca from the Portuguese. By the time

3565-505: The Mughal Empire , as both were exchanging gifts, with one of the presents from Iskandar Muda sending emperor Shah Jahan with twelve elephants, while later, his daughter, Sultanah Safiatuddin, also presenting gift to successor of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb , with eight elephants. The economic foundations of the sultanate was the spice trade , especially in pepper. The conflicts between Aceh and Johor and Portuguese Malacca, as well as

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3680-638: The Orang Laut , felt that the declaration was improper. The Bugis , who played an important role in defeating Jambi two decades earlier, had huge influence in Johor. Another influential faction in Johor at that time were the Minangkabau . Both the Bugis and the Minangkabau realised that the death of Sultan Mahmud II had provided them with the chance to exert power in Johor. The Minangkabau introduced

3795-460: The Riau Islands , back into Singapore. According to a correspondence between Tengku Hussain and his brother, he left for Singapore out of his concern of his son's safety. There he was captured by Raffles and forced to make a deal. Their agreement stated that the British would acknowledge Tengku Hussein as the "legitimate ruler" of "Johor", and thus Tengku Hussein and the Temenggong would receive

3910-687: The Singapore River headed by Temenggong Abdul Rahman , son of Daeng Kechil. Though the island was nominally ruled by Johor, the political situation there was extremely murky. The reigning sultan, Abdul Rahman Muazzam Shah , was under the influence of the Dutch and the Bugis. Hence, he would not agree to a British base in Singapore . However, Abdul Rahman was ruler only because his older brother, Tengku Hussein or Tengku Long, had been away in Pahang getting married when their father died in 1812. He

4025-552: The Temenggong faction under Sultan Mahmud Shah III gained power at the expense of the Bugis. Engku Muda's son, Temenggong Abdul Rahman and his descendants would soon be responsible for the growth in prospects for the sultanate. In 1818, Sir Stamford Raffles was appointed as governor of Bencoolen in western Sumatra . He was convinced that the British needed to establish a new base in Southeast Asia to compete with

4140-471: The 17th century with Malacca was declining as an important port, allowing Johor to become the dominant regional power. The policy of the Dutch in Malacca drove traders to Riau, a port controlled by Johor. The trade there far surpassed that of Malacca. The VOC was unhappy with that but continued to maintain the alliance because the stability of Johor was important to trade in the region. The sultan provided all

4255-564: The Bendahara Ali. After waiting since 1835 for the 'appointment' as sultan, in 1852 Tengku Ali decided to return Johor to the former Johor-Riau Empire by paying homage to Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar in Lingga. For three years Johor's empire existed once again, except Singapore which was ceded to the British. Worried by the state of affairs, the British called Tengku Ali back to Singapore on the threat of cancelling his pension. In Singapore, he

4370-418: The Bugis. Daeng Parani's brother, Daeng Merewah, who was made Yam Tuan Muda (crown prince) was the actual controller of Johor. Throughout the latter reign of Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah in the mid-18th century, real power was held by the Bugis. By 1760, several Bugis lineages had intermarried into the royal Johor family and gained great power. These Bugis lineages held the office of Yam Tuan Muda, passing

4485-778: The Dutch and the English and split the Sultanate of Johor into modern Johor and the Riau-Lingga Sultanate . The treaty was signed secretly without the knowledge of the local nobility including the sultan and thus its legitimacy was called into question. Nevertheless, the British successfully sidelined Dutch political influence by proclaiming Hussein as the Sultan of Johor and Singapore to acquire legal recognition in their sphere of influence in Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia . The legitimacy of Sultan Hussein's proclamation as

4600-499: The Dutch-influenced Yam Tuan Muda of Riau and the Bugis nobility. It erupted into an open dispute between Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar and the Bugis nobility over the appointment of new Yam Tuan Muda of Riau. The Bugis' preferred candidate was also the Dutch choice. The sultan resented having another foreign-backed Yam Tuan Muda of Riau. It resulted in a deadlock and the sultan set sail to Singapore to calm down. It

4715-534: The Dutch. Though many in the British East India Company (EIC) opposed such an idea, Raffles convinced Lord Hastings of the EIC and governor-general of British India , to side with him. With the governor-general's consent, he and his expedition set out to search for a new base. When Raffles' expedition arrived in Singapore on 29 January 1819 he discovered a small Malay settlement at the mouth of

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4830-625: The Jambi beginning in 1666. The war was disastrous for Johor as its capital, Batu Sawar, was sacked by Jambi in 1673. Abdul Jalil Shah III escaped to Pahang and died four years later. His successor, Sultan Ibrahim Shah (1677–1685), then engaged the help of the Bugis in the war with Jambi. Johor won the war in 1679, but in a weakened position as the Bugis refused to go home, and the Minangkabaus of Sumatra had started to assert their influence. After

4945-530: The Malay but it was not until 1526 that the Portuguese razed Bintan to the ground. The sultan then retreated to Kampar in Sumatra and died two years later. He left behind two sons, Muzaffar Shah and Alauddin Riayat Shah II . The Johor Sultanate was founded in 1528 by Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II (1528–1564) and was based at Pekan Tua. Muzaffar Shah went on to establish Perak . Although Alauddin Riayat Shah II and his successor had to contend with attacks by

5060-404: The Malay world of Southeast Asia, and was one of the oldest testimonies to the advent of Islam as a state religion in the region. It contains the proclamation issued by a ruler of Terengganu known as Seri Paduka Tuan, urging his subjects to extend and uphold Islam and providing 10 basic Sharia laws for their guidance. The classical Malay language came into widespread use as the lingua franca of

5175-1057: The Malayic languages spoken by the Orang Asli ( Proto-Malay ) in Malaya . They are Jakun , Orang Kanaq , Orang Seletar , and Temuan . The other Malayic languages, included in neither of these groups, are associated with the expansion of the Malays across the archipelago. They include Riau-Johor Malay ( Malaysian and Indonesian ), Kedah Malay , Kedayan/Brunei Malay , Berau Malay , Bangka Malay , Jambi Malay , Kutai Malay , Natuna Malay, Riau Malay , Loncong , Pattani Malay , and Banjarese . Menterap may belong here. There are also several Malay-based creole languages , such as Betawi , Cocos Malay , Makassar Malay , Ambonese Malay , Dili Malay , Kupang Malay , Manado Malay , Papuan Malay , Pattani Malay , Satun Malay , Songkhla Malay , Bangkok Malay , and Sabah Malay , which may be more or less distinct from standard (Malaccan) Malay. Due to

5290-508: The Portuguese holding of Melaka . In 1629, he sent several hundred ships to attack Melaka, but the mission was a devastating failure. According to Portuguese sources, all of his ships were destroyed along with 19,000 men. He however only managed to capture two major port cities in Melaka . After this loss, Iskandar Muda launched only two more sea expeditions, in 1630/1 and 1634, both to suppress revolts in Pahang and to firmly establish Islam in

5405-628: The Portuguese in Malacca and by the Acehnese in Sumatra, they managed to maintain their hold on the Johor Sultanate. Alauddin Riayat Shah II established a new capital by the Johor River and from there continued to harass the Portuguese. He consistently worked together with his brother in Perak and the Sultan of Pahang to retake Malacca, which by this time was protected by the fort A Famosa . Around

5520-613: The Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar about the 1855 treaty. In his reply, the Bendahara reiterated that the Temenggong was supposed to swear fealty to his majesty and on the behaviour of Tengku Ali, the Bendehara claimed ignorance. He also reiterated that he was not a party to any discussion with the British or Dutch. The Dutch were also very worried. It seemed that the sultan was acting on his own and would not listen to any of

5635-475: The Sultan of Johor in Lingga. The Dutch were extremely displeased with Raffles' action. Tensions between the Dutch and British over Singapore persisted until 1824, when they signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty . Under the terms of that treaty, the Dutch officially withdrew their opposition to the British presence in Singapore. Many historians contend that the treaty divided the spheres of influence between

5750-627: The actual ancestor of Classical Malay. Old Malay was influenced by Sanskrit, the classical language of India . Sanskrit loan words can be found in Old Malay vocabulary. The earliest known stone inscription in the Old Malay language was found in Sumatra , Indonesia, written in the Pallava variety of the Grantha alphabet and is dated 1 May 683. Known as the Kedukan Bukit inscription , it

5865-578: The business was good. Like Malacca before it, Riau was also a centre of Islamic studies and teaching. Many orthodox scholars from the Indian Subcontinent and Arabia were housed in special religious hostels, while devotees of Sufism could seek initiation into one of the many Tariqah (Sufi Brotherhood) which flourished in Riau. The last sultan from the Malaccan dynasty, Sultan Mahmud II ,

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5980-412: The capital in 1688 until 1700, followed by Pancur from 1700 to 1708, then to Riau from 1708 to 1715 and again back to Pancur from 1715 to 1720, then again to Riau. 1°54′46.6″N 103°32′51.1″E  /  1.912944°N 103.547528°E  / 1.912944; 103.547528 Malay language Malay ( / m ə ˈ l eɪ / mə- LAY ; Malay: Bahasa Melayu , Jawi : بهاس ملايو )

6095-417: The colonial era, the mainland part was administered by the British, and the insular part by the Dutch, thus breaking up the sultanate into Johor and Riau . In 1511, Malacca fell to the Portuguese and Sultan Mahmud Shah was forced to flee Malacca. The sultan made several attempts to retake the capital but his efforts were fruitless. The Portuguese retaliated and forced the sultan to flee to Pahang . Later,

6210-555: The colonial language, Dutch, is no longer commonly spoken. (In East Timor , which was governed as a province of Indonesia from 1976 to 1999, Indonesian is widely spoken and recognized under its Constitution as a 'working language'.) Besides Indonesian , which developed from the Riau Malay dialect, there are many Malay varieties spoken in Indonesia; they are divided into western and eastern groups. Western Malay dialects are predominantly spoken in Sumatra and Borneo , which itself

6325-651: The conquest of Johor, its sultan, Alauddin Riayat Shah III , and other members of the royal family were brought to Aceh, along with a group of traders from the Dutch East India Company . However, Johor was able to expel the Acehnese garrison later that year, and Iskandar Muda was never able to assert permanent control over the area. Johor further built an alliance with Pahang , Palembang , Jambi , Inderagiri , Kampar and Siak against Aceh. Iskandar Muda's campaigns continued, however, and he

6440-747: The constitution as one of two working languages (the other being English ), alongside the official languages of Tetum and Portuguese . The extent to which Malay is used in these countries varies depending on historical and cultural circumstances. Malay is the national language in Malaysia by Article 152 of the Constitution of Malaysia , and became the sole official language in Peninsular Malaysia in 1968 and in East Malaysia gradually from 1974. English continues, however, to be widely used in professional and commercial fields and in

6555-400: The court moved to establish the Johor Sultanate, it continued using the classical language; it has become so associated with Dutch Riau and British Johor that it is often assumed that the Malay of Riau is close to the classical language. However, there is no closer connection between Malaccan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular. Among the oldest surviving letters written in Malay are

6670-486: The early settlement of a Cape Malay community in Cape Town , who are now known as Coloureds , numerous Classical Malay words were brought into Afrikaans . The extent to which Malay and related Malayan languages are used in the countries where it is spoken varies depending on historical and cultural circumstances. Malay is the national language in Malaysia by Article 152 of the Constitution of Malaysia , and became

6785-474: The eastern part of the Malay or Nusantara archipelago and include Makassar Malay , Manado Malay , Ambonese Malay , North Moluccan Malay , Kupang Malay , Dili Malay , and Papuan Malay . The differences among both groups are quite observable. For example, the word kita means 'we, us' in western, but means 'I, me' in Manado, whereas 'we, us" in Manado is torang and Ambon katong (originally abbreviated from Malay kita orang 'we people'). Another difference

6900-728: The facility required by the traders. Under the patronage of the Johor elites, traders were protected and prospered. With a wide range of goods available and favourable prices, Riau boomed. Ships from various places such as Cambodia, Siam, Vietnam and all over the Malay Archipelago came to trade. Bugis ships made Riau the centre for spices. Items found in China such as cloth and opium were traded with locally sourced ocean and forest products, tin, pepper and locally grown gambier . Duties were low, and cargo could be discharged or stored easily. Traders found they did not need to extend credit, as

7015-590: The far southern parts of the Philippines . They have traditionally been classified as Malay, Para-Malay, and Aboriginal Malay, but this reflects geography and ethnicity rather than a proper linguistic classification. The Malayic languages are mutually intelligible to varying extents, though the distinction between language and dialect is unclear in many cases. Para-Malay includes the Malayic languages of Sumatra . They are: Minangkabau , Central Malay (Bengkulu), Pekal , Talang Mamak , Musi (Palembang), Negeri Sembilan (Malaysia), and Duano’ . Aboriginal Malay are

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7130-428: The fortress at Malacca surrendered, the town's population had already been greatly decimated by famine and disease (the plague). As per the agreement of May 1606, the Dutch took control of Malacca and agreed not to seek territories or wage war against Johor. Malacca then became a territory under the control of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and formally remained a Dutch possession until the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824

7245-521: The highlands of Sumatra , Indonesia . Terengganu Inscription Stone (Malay: Batu Bersurat Terengganu ; Jawi: باتو برسورت ترڠݢانو) is a granite stele carrying inscription in Jawi script that was found in Terengganu, Malaysia is the earliest evidence of classical Malay inscription. The inscription, dated possibly to 702 AH (corresponds to 1303 CE), constituted the earliest evidence of Jawi writing in

7360-505: The language is sometimes called Malacca, Johor or Riau Malay (or various combinations of those names) to distinguish it from the various other Malayic languages . According to Ethnologue 16, several of the Malayic varieties they currently list as separate languages, including the Orang Asli varieties of Peninsular Malay , are so closely related to standard Malay that they may prove to be dialects. There are also several Malay trade and creole languages (e.g. Ambonese Malay ) based on

7475-589: The languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities. Within Austronesian, Malay is part of a cluster of numerous closely related forms of speech known as the Malayic languages , which were spread across Malaya and the Indonesian archipelago by Malay traders from Sumatra. There is disagreement as to which varieties of speech popularly called "Malay" should be considered dialects of this language, and which should be classified as distinct Malay languages. The vernacular of Brunei— Brunei Malay —for example,

7590-401: The letters from Sultan Abu Hayat of Ternate , Maluku Islands in present-day Indonesia , dated around 1521–1522. The text is addressed to the king of Portugal , following contact with Portuguese explorer Francisco Serrão . The letters show sign of non-native usage; the Ternateans used (and still use) the unrelated Ternate language , a West Papuan language , as their first language . Malay

7705-431: The level of authority bestowed upon them by the Sultan of Johor. The Johor's empire was decentralised. It was made of four main fiefs and the sultan's territory. The fiefs were Muar and its territories under the Raja Temenggong of Muar; Pahang under the stewardship of the Bendahara; Riau under the control of Yamtuan Muda and mainland Johor and Singapore under the Temenggong. The rest of the empire were directly controlled by

7820-426: The national language ( bahasa kebangsaan or bahasa nasional ) of several nation states with various official names: in Malaysia, it is designated as either Bahasa Malaysia (" Malaysian ") or also Bahasa Melayu ("Malay language"); in Singapore and Brunei, it is called Bahasa Melayu ("Malay language"); in Indonesia, an autonomous normative variety called Bahasa Indonesia (" Indonesian language ")

7935-411: The numerous pepper-producing ports in the sultanate's domain, were the main causes of the military conflict. Other major exports included cloves and nutmegs , as well as betel nuts , whose narcotic properties bypassed the Muslim prohibition of alcohol. Exports, encouraged by the Ottoman Sultans as an alternative to the "infidel" (i.e. Portuguese)-controlled route around Africa, added to the wealth of

8050-412: The office back and forth between themselves. The death of Sultan Sulaiman triggered a succession dispute, which was lost by the combined Bendahara-Temenggong court elite to the Bugis faction. From 1760 to 1784, the latter group completely dominated the sultanate. The Johor economy was reanimated under Bugis rule, along with the introduction of Chinese traders. However, by the late 18th century, Engku Muda of

8165-431: The option of answering questions using Jawi. The Latin script, however, is the most commonly used in Brunei and Malaysia, both for official and informal purposes. Historically, Malay has been written using various scripts. Before the introduction of Arabic script in the Malay region, Malay was written using the Pallava , Kawi and Rencong scripts; these scripts are no longer frequently used, but similar scripts such as

8280-634: The pronunciation of words ending in the vowel 'a'. For example, in some parts of Malaysia and in Singapore, kita (inclusive 'we, us, our') is pronounced as /kitə/ , in Kelantan and Southern Thailand as /kitɔ/ , in Riau as /kita/ , in Palembang as /kito/ , in Betawi and Perak as /kitɛ/ and in Kedah and Perlis as /kitɑ/. Iskandar Muda The future Iskandar Muda was born in about 1593. His father

8395-484: The region during the Malacca Sultanate era (1402–1511). It was the period the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature. The development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion of Arabic , Sanskrit , and Tamil vocabularies, called Classical Malay . Under the Sultanate of Malacca the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay. When

8510-479: The region. His sultanate maintained control over northern Sumatra , but was never able to gain supremacy in the strait or expand the empire to the rich pepper -producing Inderapura Kingdom and the region of Lampung on the southern part of the island, which was under the control of the sultanate of Banten . Iskandar Muda was also known to be cruel as he devised torture techniques and caused humiliation to those who failed to please him. In one cockfighting match,

8625-494: The reign of Ali Jalla (1571–1597) which was sacked by the Portuguese in 1587, then to Batu Sawar, and Lingga (again sacked by the Portuguese). This is followed by a period with no fixed capital (places included Tanah Puteh and Makam Tauhid) during the reign of Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah III before he moved it to Batu Sawar in 1640. After Batu Sawar was sacked by Jambi, later capitals included Kota Tinggi , Riau, and Pancur. In

8740-567: The reign of Iskandar Thani, and their books were ordered to be burnt. The chronicle Hikayat Aceh ("The Story of Aceh") was probably written during the reign of Iskandar Muda, although some date it later. It describes the history of the sultanate and praises Iskandar Muda in his youth. It was apparently inspired by the Persian Akbarnama for the Mogul Emperor Akbar . The Hikayat Aceh described Iskandar Muda as

8855-446: The sacking of Batu Sawar in 1673, the capital of Johor was frequently moved to avoid the threat of attack from Jambi. All through its history, the rulers of Johor had constantly shifted their centre of power many times in their efforts to keep the sultanate together. Johor Lama (Kota Batu) was initially founded by Alauddin Riayat Shah II but was sacked by the Acehnese in 1564. It was then moved to Seluyut, later back to Johor Lama during

8970-583: The same time, the Aceh Sultanate in northern Sumatra was beginning to gain substantial influence over the Strait of Malacca . With the fall of Malacca to Christian forces, Muslim traders often skipped Malacca in favour of Aceh or to Johor's capital Johor Lama (Kota Batu). Therefore, Malacca and Aceh became direct competitors. With the Portuguese and Johor frequently in conflict, Aceh launched multiple raids against both sides to tighten its grip over

9085-590: The sole official language in West Malaysia in 1968, and in East Malaysia gradually from 1974. English continues, however, to be widely used in professional and commercial fields and in the superior courts. Other minority languages are also commonly used by the country's large ethnic minorities. The situation in Brunei is similar to that of Malaysia. In Singapore, Malay was historically the lingua franca among people of different nationalities. Although this has largely given way to English, Malay still retains

9200-435: The status of national language and the national anthem , Majulah Singapura , is entirely in Malay. In addition, parade commands in the military, police and civil defence are given only in Malay. Most residents of the five southernmost provinces of Thailand —a region that, for the most part, used to be part of an ancient Malay kingdom called Pattani —speak a dialect of Malay called Yawi (not to be confused with Jawi), which

9315-433: The strait. The rise and expansion of Aceh encouraged the Portuguese and Johor to sign a truce and divert their attention to Aceh. The truce, however, was short-lived and with Aceh severely weakened, Johor and the Portuguese had each other in their sights again. During the reign of Sultan Iskandar Muda , Aceh attacked Johor in 1613 and again in 1615. In the early 17th century, the Dutch reached Southeast Asia . At that time

9430-444: The sultan of Johor and Singapore was controversial to some of the other Malay rulers. As he was placed on the throne by the British and was seen as a puppet ruler. Temenggong Abdul Rahman's position, on the other hand, was strengthened as it was with his co-operation that the British successfully took de facto control of Johor and Singapore; with the backing of the British he gained influence as Raja Ja'afar. Meanwhile, Sultan Abdul Rahman

9545-405: The sultan sailed to Bintan and established a new capital there. With a base established, the sultan rallied the disarrayed Malay forces and organised several attacks and blockades against the Portuguese position. Frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship which helped to convince the Portuguese to destroy the exiled sultan's forces. A number of attempts were made to suppress

9660-572: The sultan. The sultan resided in Lingga. All the Orang Kayas except Raja Temenggong Muar reported directly to the sultan; Raja Temenggong Muar was a suzerain recognised by the sultan. As the Johor Sultanate replaced the Malacca Sultanate , it covered most of Malacca's former territory including the southern Malay Peninsula, parts of south-eastern Sumatra and the Riau Islands and its dependencies. By 1836, Newbold writes that "Johor" occupies

9775-735: The sultanate controlled territory in what is now modern-day Johor , Pahang , Terengganu , territories stretching from the rivers of Klang to the Linggi and Tanjung Tuan , situated respectively in Selangor , Negeri Sembilan and Malacca (as an exclave), Singapore , Pulau Tinggi and other islands off the east coast of the Malay Peninsula , the Karimun Islands, the islands of Bintan , Bulang , Lingga and Bunguran , and Bengkalis , Kampar and Siak in Sumatra . During

9890-410: The sultanate. Iskandar Muda also made shrewd economic decisions that supported growth, such as low interest rates and the widespread use of small gold coins ( mas ). However, like other sultanates in the area it had trouble compelling the farms in the hinterland to produce sufficient excess food for the military and commercial activities of the capital. Indeed, one of the aims of Iskandar Muda's campaigns

10005-608: The superior courts. Other minority languages are also commonly used by the country's large ethnic minorities. The situation in Brunei is similar to that in Malaysia. In the Philippines , Indonesian is spoken by the overseas Indonesian community concentrated in Davao City . Functional phrases are taught to members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines as well as local students. Malay, like most Austronesian languages,

10120-585: The territories of Muar , Batu Pahat , Pontian , Sedili and Johor Lama . Also in the early 19th century, the Tuhfat al-Nafis and the Hikayat Negeri Johor also includes Riau as part of the territory of Johor. The administrative centre of the empire was at various times at Sayong Pinang, Kota Kara, Seluyut, Johor Lama, Batu Sawar, Kota Tinggi and Pahang. All on mainland Johor, Pahang and later at Riau and Lingga. The Johor Sultanate established

10235-474: The territories of Johor (mainland), the Temenggong and his descendants' right to rule it, mutual protection and mutual recognitions of Pahang and Johor. With the signing of this treaty, the remnants of the empire became two independent states, Johor and Pahang. The Johor Sultanate continued the system of administration previously practised in Malacca. The highest authority lay in the hands of the Yang di-Pertuan who

10350-443: The weaker sultans who preceded and succeeded him, was his ability to suppress the Acehnese elite, known as the orang kaya ("powerful men"). Through the royal monopoly on trade, he was able to keep them dependent on his favour. The orang kaya were forced to attend court where they could be supervised, and were prohibited from building independent houses, which could be used for military purposes or hold cannons. He sought to create

10465-618: Was Mansur Syah, son of Sultan Abdul Jalil, son of the third Sulṭān of the Acèh Darussalam , Alauddin al-Kahar . His mother Puteri Raja Inderabangsa was the daughter of the tenth Sultan Alauddin Ri'ayat Syah Sayyid al-Mukammal . Therefore, through his parentage he combined the two branches of the Acehnese sultan's dynasty. His childhood and youth are described at great length in the Hikayat Aceh , which extols his personal qualities. He

10580-512: Was a person of unstable disposition. When Tun Habib was the Bendahara , he effectively shielded the people from Mahmud II's eccentricities. After Tun Habib's death he was replaced by Abdul Jalil . As the Bendahara was only a cousin, he could not rein in Mahmud II's eccentric behaviour. Sultan Mahmud II ordered the pregnant wife of a noble, Orang Kaya Megat Sri Rama killed, as she had taken

10695-594: Was able to defeat a Portuguese fleet at Bintan in 1614. In 1617 he conquered Pahang and carried its sultan Ahmed Syah to Aceh , and thus achieved a foothold on the Malayan peninsula. This conquest was followed by Kedah in 1619, in which the capital was laid waste and the surviving inhabitants were brought to Aceh. A similar capture of Perak occurred in 1620, when 5,000 people were captured and left to die in Aceh. He again sacked Johor in 1623 and took Nias in 1624/5. At this point Aceh's strength seriously threatened

10810-559: Was able to secure the throne on the same day. He imprisoned his other uncle Husain and later had him killed. The successes of Iskandar Muda were based on his military strength. His armed forces consisted of a navy of heavy galleys each with 600–800 men, a cavalry using Persian horses, an elephant corps, conscripted infantry forces and more than 2000 cannons and guns (of both Sumatran and European origin). Upon gaining power, he began consolidating control over northern Sumatra. In 1612 he conquered Deli , and in 1613 Aru and Johor . Upon

10925-609: Was an attempt of an alliance between Johor and Jambi with a promised marriage between the heir Raja Muda and daughter of the Pengeran of Jambi. However, the Raja Muda instead married the daughter of the Laksamana Abdul Jamil who, concerned about the dilution of power from such an alliance, offered his own daughter for marriage instead. The alliance therefore broke down, and a 13-year war then ensued between Johor and

11040-529: Was appointed by the Yam Tuan Muda of Riau, Raja Jaafar because according to him, in a Malay tradition, a person has to be by the dying sultan's side to be considered as the new ruler. However the matter has to be decided by the Bendehara as the "keeper of adat (tradition)". The older brother was not happy with the development. Raja Jaafar's sister, the queen of the late Sultan, protested her brother's actions with stating, "... Which adat of succession

11155-559: Was attacked and sacked by the Portuguese , leading to a move to Batu Sawar, a major center of regional trade along the Johor River, from 1587 to 1618. The capital shifted to Lingga in 1618 until 1625, from this time on, Johor had no fixed capital until 1640, when it returned again to Batu Sawar. The town was eventually attacked by Jambi forces in 1675 during the Johor-Jambi war and the court settled temporarily in Pahang (1675–1680) and later in Riau (1680–1688) until Kota Tinggi became

11270-444: Was created, consisting of 3,000 women. He passed legal reforms which created a network of courts using Islamic jurisprudence . His system of law and administration became a model for other Islamic states in Indonesia. Iskandar Muda's reign was also marked by considerable brutality, directed at disobedient subjects. He also did not hesitate to execute wealthy subjects and confiscate their wealth. Punishments for offences were gruesome;

11385-635: Was discovered by the Dutchman M. Batenburg on 29 November 1920 at Kedukan Bukit, South Sumatra , on the banks of the Tatang, a tributary of the Musi River . It is a small stone of 45 by 80 centimetres (18 by 31 in). For centuries, Srivijaya , through its expansion, economic power and military prowess, was responsible for the widespread of Old Malay throughout the Malay Archipelago . It

11500-401: Was due to displeasure of the Bendahara over the affairs of Singapore. Conditions imposed during the appointment included paying a visit of fealty to the ruling Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar in Lingga. Sultan Hussein of Singapore died in 1835 and his prince Tengku Ali wished for the legitimacy granted to Temenggong Ibrahim, by the British and some Malay nobles. The British forwarded the request in 1841 to

11615-513: Was during the Singapore trip that Mahmud Muzaffar was deposed by the Bugis nobility in 1857. After the ousting of Mahmud Muzaffar the Bugis nobles elected the new sultan, Sulaiman Badrul Shah, the sultan of the "new" Riau-Lingga Kingdom built on the Riau remnants of the Johore Empire. The sultan signed an agreement with the Dutch. In the agreement he agreed to acknowledge the overlordship of the Dutch government among others. The Johor Empire

11730-403: Was frequently visited by Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar, and their relationship was cordial. The British were worried by this development and forced the 1855 treaty between Temenggong Ibrahim and Tengku Ali. In exchange for recognition as sultan, Tengku Ali agreed to "give up all of Johor". The treaty was intended to solidify the position of Temenggong Ibrahim, their key ally. Bendahara Ali was asked by

11845-456: Was gradually replaced by the Rumi script. Malay is spoken in Brunei , Indonesia , Malaysia , East Timor , Singapore and southern Thailand . Indonesia regulates its own normative variety of Malay, while Malaysia and Singapore use a common standard. Brunei, in addition to Standard Malay, uses a distinct vernacular dialect called Brunei Malay . In East Timor , Indonesian is recognised by

11960-631: Was held. The Bendahara conducted ceremonies (as per adat) aimed at re-educating the nobility and the sultan about their respective duties and responsibilities. Islam and politics were discussed. It was attended by all the nobles from across the empire, hence, proving that the British appointed Sultan of Johor was not recognised by the Malays. The ceremonies also included the installation of Tengku Mahmud (later ruling as Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar) as crown prince and Tun Mutahir as bendehara -in-waiting. In 1841, Bendahara Ali appointed Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim to replace his father, who died in 1825. The long interval

12075-455: Was installed as the Sultan of Lingga in November 1822, complete with the royal regalia. Sultan Abdul Rahman, who had devoted himself to religion, became contented with his political sphere of influence in Lingga, where his family continued to maintain his household under the administrative direction of Raja Ja'afar who ruled under the auspices of the Dutch. Sultan Abdul Rahman died in 1832 and

12190-626: Was known as the sultan. The sultan was assisted by a body known as the Majlis Orang Kaya (Council of Rich Men) which was tasked with advising the sultan. Among them were the Bendahara, Temenggong, Laksamana, Shahbandar and Seri Bija Diraja . During the 18th century, the bendahara lived in Pahang and the Temenggong Johor in Teluk Belanga, Singapore. Each one managed the administration of their individual areas based on

12305-438: Was known under a number of names and titles, especially Perkasa Alam, which was also the name he used after his accession ("Iskandar Muda" is however not a posthumous name as sometimes suggested since it occurs on his coins ). In about 1605 he fell out with his uncle, Sultan Ali Ri'ayat Syah III , and fled to Pidië where another uncle, Husain, was the vassal ruler. Together they planned a rebellion against Sultan Ali. Perkasa Alam

12420-405: Was later killed by an assassin hired by Raja Kecil. Dissatisfied with Raja Kecil's accession, the son of Sultan Abdul Jalil IV, Raja Sulaiman, asked Daeng Parani of the Bugis to aid him reclaiming the throne. In 1722, Raja Kecil was dethroned by Raja Sulaiman's supporters with the assistance of the Bugis. Raja Sulaiman became the new Sultan of Johor but he was a weak ruler and became a puppet of

12535-467: Was put in command of the Pidië troops, but in the end they refused to fight and Perkasa Alam was imprisoned by the sultan. However, when the Portuguese invaded Aceh in 1606 he was let out of prison and distinguished himself in the fight against the infidels. The invasion force was beaten back and withdrew, and Perkasa Alam rose in esteem at the court. When Sultan Ali suddenly died on 4 April 1607, Perkasa Alam

12650-585: Was signed. With the fall of Portuguese Malacca in 1641 and the decline of Aceh due to the growing power of the Dutch, Johor started to re-establish itself as a power along the Strait of Malacca during the reign of Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah III (1623–1677). Its influence extended to Pahang, Sungei Ujong , Malacca, Klang and the Riau Archipelago . During the triangular war, Jambi emerged as a regional economic and political power in Sumatra. Initially there

12765-634: Was split into two parts with Sulaiman Badrul Shah giving up the sovereignty of his part to the Dutch. This also marked the end of the original Johor-Riau Sultanate, that descended from the Malacca Sultanate . This division remains today with Pahang and Johor in Malaysia and what was the Riau-Lingga Sultanate in Indonesia . Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim of Johore signed a treaty with Bendahara Tun Mutahir of Pahang in 1861. The treaty recognised

12880-439: Was succeeded by his son, Sultan Muhammad Shah (r. 1832–1841). When Raja Jaffar, Yam Tuan Muda of Riau, died and Muhammad Shah was in no hurry to appoint a successor. The sultan saw the damage that was done to the palace during his father's reign and decided to reemphasis and restore adat as a rule governing personal behaviour and politics. He summoned Bendahara Ali (Raja Bendahara Pahang) to Lingga. At Lingga, an adat-steeped function

12995-562: Was the working language of traders and it was used in various ports, and marketplaces in the region. Other evidence is the Tanjung Tanah Law in post-Pallava letters. This 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text was produced in the Adityawarman era (1345–1377) of Dharmasraya , a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end of Srivijayan rule in Sumatra . The laws were for the Minangkabau people , who today still live in

13110-469: Was to bring prisoners-of-war who could act as slaves for agricultural production. He was known as a centralizing leader who was intolerant of private trade and adopted a policy of monopolizing the court as the primary contact person with foreigners that were able to establish important terms of trade. He adopted a more predictable legal process and was able to amass a large fortune and a powerful army. One reason for Iskandar Muda's success, in contrast to

13225-928: Was used solely as a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communications. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean , with a smaller number in continental Asia . Malagasy , a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean , is also a member of this language family. Although these languages are not necessarily mutually intelligible to any extent, their similarities are often quite apparent. In more conservative languages like Malay, many roots have come with relatively little change from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language . There are many cognates found in

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