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42-463: In Chinese history, Eastern Barbarians may refer to: Dongyi 東夷, various ethnic groups to the East of China Donghu people 東胡, an ancient ethnic group Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Eastern Barbarians . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change

84-799: A "corpse"' with two bent legs or a "barbarian" custom of sitting with one's legs stretched out instead of the Chinese norm of squatting on one's heels . The early China historian Li Feng says the Western Zhou bronze graph for Yí was "differentiated from rén 人 (human) by its kneeling gesture, clearly implying a population that was deemed a potential source of slaves or servants", thus meaning "foreign conquerable". Axel Schuessler hypothesizes an Old Chinese etymological development from * li 夷 "extend; expose; display; set out; spread out" to * lhi 尸 "to spread out; lie down flat (in order to sleep); motionless; to set forth (sacrificial dishes)", to "personator of

126-518: A Slavicist interested in comparative linguistics . He graduated in 1909 with a bachelor's degree in Nordic, Greek, and Slavonic languages. Although he initially intended to specialize in the Scandinavian languages , on the advice of his elder brother Anton Karlgren (1882–1973) he decided to focus on Chinese instead, attracted to it also by the fact that, as Lundell had told him, Chinese contained

168-460: A dead ancestor", and to "corpse". Historical linguists have tentatively reconstructed yí 夷's ancient pronunciations and etymology . The Modern Standard Chinese pronunciation yí descends from (c. 6th–9th centuries CE) Middle Chinese and (c. 6th–3rd centuries BCE) Old Chinese . Middle and Old Chinese reconstructions of yí 夷 "barbarian; spread out" include i < * djər , yij < * ljɨj , jiɪ < * lil , and ji < * ləi . As to

210-400: A drama, The White Hind, set in that country in his early teens. His first scholarly article, a phonetic transcription, based on a system devised by Johan August Lundell , of traditional folk stories from his native province of Småland , was completed when he was 14, and published in 1908 when he was only 18 years old. He studied Russian at Uppsala University under Johan August Lundell ,

252-601: A few months of study, and prepared a questionnaire of 3,100 Chinese characters to gather information on Chinese dialects. After his grant money ran out, Karlgren supported himself by teaching French and, famously, English, which, according to one anecdote, he had never been taught but had picked up from English-speaking passengers on the ship from Europe to China. In fact he had received a high credit in English in his final High School exams. He eventually gathered data on 19 different Mandarin dialects , as well as Shanghainese ,

294-483: A great number of dialects. He departed for St. Petersburg, which, under the guidance of Vasily Vasilyev , had created one of the major European centres for the study of Chinese. While there, Karlgren, studying under A. I. Ivanov , won a grant to study Chinese dialects , even though he had no background in Chinese at that point. Karlgren lived in China from 1910 to 1912. He achieved basic fluency and literacy after only

336-885: A passage in The Analects that reads, "The Master (i.e., Confucius ) desired to live among the Nine Yi." The term "Dongyi" is not used for this period. Shang dynasty oracle shell and bone writings record yi but not Dongyi . Shima Kunio's concordance of oracle inscriptions lists twenty occurrences of the script for 夷 or 尸, most frequently (6 times) in the compound zhishi 祉尸 "bless the personator; blessed personator". Michael Carr notes some contexts are ambiguous, but suggests, "Three compounds refer to 'barbarians' (in modern characters, fayi 伐夷 'attack barbarians', zhengyi 征夷 'punish barbarians', and yifang 夷方 'barbarian regions')." Oracle inscriptions record that Shang King Wu Ding (r. c. 1250–1192 BCE) made military expeditions on

378-502: A person with a bent back and legs. The (121 CE) Shuowen Jiezi character dictionary, defines yí 夷 as "people of the east, big 大 bow 弓" 東方 之 人 也 從 大 從 弓 . Elsewhere in the Shuowen Jiezi , under the entry of qiang 羌 , the term yí is associated with benevolence and human longevity. Yí countries are therefore virtuous places where people live long lives. This is why Confucius wanted to go to yí countries when

420-441: A result, the systems he reconstructed often lack the symmetry and pattern which are in the phonological systems of natural languages." Nevertheless, Karlgren's groundbreaking works laid the foundation of modern Chinese historical linguistics and many of his works are still used as works of reference. In Swedish he published numerous popular works on Chinese language, culture and history. In the 1940s, he published three novels under

462-428: Is no external chronological point d'appui , we are nonetheless able to state, from internal evidence, that the Chinese tradition which places the reign of the emperor Yao in the twenty-fourth century B.C. is correct; that the Chinese even in those remote times were skilled astronomers; that they put down in writing in the Chinese language records of memorable events, and in all probability wrote their accounts soon after

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504-745: The Fuzhou dialect of Eastern Min , and Cantonese , plus the Vietnamese and Japanese pronunciations of the characters in his questionnaire. Karlgren returned to Europe in January 1912, first staying in London, then in Paris, before arriving in Uppsala , where in 1915 he produced his doctoral dissertation, " Études sur la phonologie chinoise " ("Studies on Chinese Phonology"). Although his dissertation

546-678: The Warring States period , owing to cultural changes in Chinese concepts of Self and Other. When the (c. 4th BCE) Classic of Rites recorded stereotypes about the Siyi "Four Barbarians" ( Dongyi , Xirong , Nanman , and Beidi ) in the four directions, Dongyi had acquired a clearly pejorative nuance. The people of those five regions – the Middle states, and the [Rong], [Yi], (and other wild tribes around them) – had all their several natures, which they could not be made to alter. The tribes on

588-716: The Yi might have been a certain tribe or group of people that was neighboring the Shang." During the Spring and Autumn period , Jin , Zheng , Qi and Song tried to seize control of the Huai River basin, which the Huaiyi occupied. Still, the region ultimately fell under the influence of Chu to the south. Simultaneously, people in the east and south ceased to be called Dongyi as they founded their own states. These Yifang states included

630-697: The character Yi . As for the Xià dynasty, some groups of people are referred to as the Yi. For example, the Yu Gong chapter of the Shu Ji or Book of Documents terms people in Qingzhou and Xuzhou Laiyi ( 萊夷 ), Yuyi ( 嵎夷 ) and Huaiyi ( 淮夷 ). Another Yi-related term is Jiu-Yi ( 九夷 ), literally Nine Yi , which could have also had the connotation The Numerous Yi or The Many Different Kinds of Yi , and which appears in

672-613: The dao could not be realized in the central states . The scholar Léon Wieger provided multiple definitions to the term yí : "The men 大 armed with bows 弓, the primitive inhabitants, barbarians, borderers of the Eastern Sea, inhabitants of the South-West countries." Bernhard Karlgren says that in the bronze script for yí inscribed on Zhou dynasty (c. 1045 BCE – c. 256 BCE) Chinese bronze inscriptions , "The graph has 'man' and 'arrow', or 'arrow' with something wound around

714-541: The 1920s, and later expanded to cover later periods as well as other parts of Asia. Karlgren had been in close contact with Andersson for many years, and also succeeded Andersson as editor of the museum's journal, the Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (BMFEA, 1929–) and continued in this position until the 1970s. Karlgren himself first published many of his own major works in this annual journal, or as books in

756-485: The Spring and Autumn period. At the same time, it continued to have a specific reference, denoting especially the Yi of the Huai River region, who constituted a recognized political entity. Paradoxically the Yi was considered the most 'civilized' of the non-Chinese peoples." It is not easy to determine people's times that a Classical Chinese document reflects. Literature describing a pre- Xia dynasty period does not use

798-523: The Yi under its control. The most notable example is the successful campaign against the Huaiyi and the Dongyi led by the Duke of Zhou . On the other hand, historian Huang Yang notes that in the Shang period, "the term Yi probably did not carry the sense of 'barbarian'. Rather it simply denoted one of the many tribes or regions that were the target of the Shang military campaigns ... Therefore, we see that

840-404: The Yi were Austroasiatic speakers. Laurent Sagart (2008) instead suggested that the Yi languages were ancestral to Austronesian languages and formed a sister-group to Sino-Tibetan . The sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank describes how Yi usages semantically changed. "Their name furnished the primary Chinese term for 'barbarian' and is sometimes used in such a generalized sense as early as

882-553: The Yi, and King Di Xin (r. c. 1075–1046 BCE) waged a massive campaign against the Yifang 夷方 "barbarian regions". It appears that the Yifang (夷方) were the same people as Huaiyi (淮夷 Huai River Yi), Nanhuaiyi (南淮夷 Southern Huai Yi ), Nanyi (南夷 Southern Yi in Yangtze River Delta ) and Dongyi (東夷 Eastern Yi / Shandong Yi) according to bronzeware inscriptions of the Western Zhou dynasty. The Zhou dynasty attempted to keep

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924-437: The east were called [Yi]. They had their hair unbound and tattooed their bodies. Some of them ate their food without it being cooked. Those on the south were called Man. They tattooed their foreheads and had their feet turned in towards each other. Some of them (also) ate their food without it being cooked. Those on the west were called [Rong]. They had their hair unbound and wore skins. Some of them did not eat grain-food. Those on

966-490: The ethnonym might have referred to a people living by the sea, When analyzing possible Austroasiatic loanwords into Old Chinese, Schuessler noticed that one layer of loanwords, from one or more Austroasiatic language(s) into Old Chinese spoken in the Yellow River basin, showed affinities to modern Khmeric and Khmuic languages , and occasionally to Monic . Earlier, Edwin G. Pulleyblank (1983, 1999) also proposed that

1008-569: The events; in short, that a well-developed Chinese civilization—resting undoubtedly on foundations many centuries old—together with the Chinese language, existed on Chinese soil two thousand years before Christ." Although important as a pioneer of historical Chinese linguistics, Karlgren's original findings have been surpassed. Today the phonological systems proposed by Karlgren have largely been superseded, as their weaknesses are obvious: "Karlgren saw himself as reconstructing phonetics, not phonology, and paid little attention to phonological structure. As

1050-482: The late Shang king Di Yi against the Rénfāng ( 人方 ), a group occupying the area of southern Shandong and Jianghuai (northern Anhui and Jiangsu ). Many Chinese archaeologists apply the historical name "Dongyi" to the archaeological Yueshi culture (1900–1500 BCE). Other scholars, such as Fang Hui, consider this identification problematic because of the high frequency of migrations in prehistoric populations of

1092-491: The late Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BCE). This oracle bone script was used interchangeably for yí 夷, rén 人 "human", and shī 尸 "corpse; personator of the dead ; inactive; lay out". The archeologist and scholar Guo Moruo believed the oracle graph for yi denotes "a dead body, i.e., the killed enemy", while the bronze graph denotes "a man bound by a rope, i.e., a prisoner or slave". The historical linguist Xu Zhongshu explains this oracle character depicts either

1134-447: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Barbarians&oldid=1052994549 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Dongyi Oracle bone inscriptions from the early 11th century BCE refer to campaigns by

1176-489: The monograph series of the museum. In 1946, Karlgren began a far-reaching attack on the then rather loosely argued historiography of ancient China. Reviewing the literature on China's pre-Han history in his article Legends and Cults in Ancient China , he pointed out that "a common feature to most of these treatises is a curious lack of critical method in the handling of the material". In particular, Karlgren criticised

1218-543: The most recent reconstruction, William H. Baxter and Laurent Sagart (2014) reconstruct the Old Chinese name of yí 夷 as * ləj . As Yuèjuèshū ( 越絕書 ) states that the Yue word for "sea" is also 夷 (* li → yí ), Sinologist Axel Schuessler proposes an Austroasiatic etymology for the ethnonym * li by comparing to Khmer ทะเล dhle "sea", from Pre-Angkorian Old Khmer ទន្លេ danle(y) "large expanse of water"; thus

1260-490: The north were called [Di]. They wore skins of animals and birds and dwelt in caves. Some of them also did not eat grain-food. The people of the Middle States, and of those [Yi], Man, [Rong], and [Di], all had their dwellings, where they lived at ease; their flavors which they preferred; the clothes suitable for them; their proper implements for use; and their vessels which they prepared in abundance. In those five regions,

1302-402: The people's languages were not mutually intelligible, and their likings and desires were different. To make what was in their minds apprehended, and to communicate their likings and desires, (there were officers) – in the east, called transmitters; in the south, representations; in the west, [Di-dis]; and in the north, interpreters. The more " China " expanded, the further east the term "Dongyi"

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1344-471: The region. The Chinese word yí in Dōngyí has a long history and complex semantics. The modern Chinese regular script character 夷 for yí combines radicals (recurring character elements) da 大 "big" and gong 弓 "bow", which are also seen in the seal script . However, yí was written in the earlier bronze script as a person wrapped with something, and in the earliest oracle bone script as

1386-701: The section of "Siyi" (barbarians in four directions) along with "Xirong", "Nanman", and "Beidi". The Book of Sui , the Book of Tang and the New Book of Tang adopt the section of "Dongyi" and covers eastern Manchuria, Korea, Japan, and, optionally, Sakhalin and Taiwan. During the Song dynasty, the official history books replaced Dongyi with Waiguo ( 外國 ) and Waiyi ( 外夷 ). Bernhard Karlgren Klas Bernhard Johannes Karlgren ( Swedish pronunciation: [ˈbæ̌ːɳaɖ ˈkɑ̂ːɭɡreːn] ; 15 October 1889 – 20 October 1978)

1428-632: The shaft." The Yi, or Dongyi, are associated with the bow and arrow: K. C. Wu says the modern character 夷 designating the historical "Yí peoples", is composed of the characters for 大 "big (person)" and 弓 "bow"; which implies a big person carrying a bow, and also that this old form of this Chinese Character was composed with an association of a particular group of people with the use of the bow in mind. Some classic Chinese history records like Zuo Zhuan , Shuowen Jiezi , Classic of Rites , all have some similar records about this. The earliest records of yi were inscribed on oracle bones dating from

1470-556: The states of Xu , Lai , Zhongli, Ju and Jiang. The small state of Jie was based around present-day Jiaozhou . The state of Xu occupied large areas of modern Jiangsu and Anhui provinces between the Huai and Yangtze Rivers. Eventually, after warring with Chu and Wu, it was conquered by the State of Wu in 512 BCE. Chu annexed the State of Jiang, destroyed the State of Ju, whose territory

1512-541: The unselective use of documents from different ages when reconstructing China's ancient history. "In this way very full and detailed accounts have been arrived at—but accounts that are indeed caricatures of scientifically established ones." In 1950, Karlgren was inducted into the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences . Karlgren died on 20 October 1978 in Stockholm at age 89. Karlgren

1554-447: Was a Swedish sinologist and linguist who pioneered the study of Chinese historical phonology using modern comparative methods . In the early 20th century, Karlgren conducted large surveys of the varieties of Chinese and studied historical information on rhyming in ancient Chinese poetry, then used them to create the first ever complete reconstructions of what are now called Middle Chinese and Old Chinese . Bernhard Karlgren

1596-431: Was annexed by the State of Qi. Recent archaeological excavations reveal that the State of Xu's presence extended to western Jiangxi in modern Jing'an County. This includes bronzeware inscriptions about the State of Xu and a tomb with many nanmu coffins containing sacrificial female victims. Dongyi customs include burials with many sacrificial victims and veneration of the sun. References to Dongyi became ideological during

1638-750: Was applied to. The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian uses the term "Manyi" ( 蠻夷 ), but not "Dongyi". It puts the section of "Xinanyi (southwestern Yi) liezhuan (biographies)", but not "Dongyi liezhuan". The Book of Han does not put this section either but calls a Dongye ( 濊 ) chief in the Korean Peninsula as Dongyi. The Book of Later Han puts the section of "Dongyi liezhuan (東夷列傳)" and covers Buyeo , Yilou , Goguryeo , Eastern Okjeo , Hui, Samhan and Wa , in other words, eastern Manchuria , Korea , Japan and some other islands. The Book of Jin positioned Dongyi inside

1680-548: Was born on 15 October 1889 in Jönköping , Sweden . His father, Johannes Karlgren, taught Latin , Greek , and Swedish at the local high school. Karlgren showed ability in linguistics from a young age, and was interested in Sweden's dialects and traditional folk stories. He mastered classical languages and was an accomplished translator of Greek poetry into his native language. He displayed an early interest in China, and wrote

1722-725: Was the first scholar to use European-style principles of historical linguistics to study the Chinese language. He was also the first one to reconstruct the sounds of what are now called Middle Chinese and Old Chinese (what he called "Ancient Chinese" and "Archaic Chinese" respectively). Karlgren suggested that at the very earliest stage recoverable, the personal pronouns were declined for case. Karlgren attempted to unearth Chinese history itself from its linguistic development and diffusion. As he writes in his English adaptation Sound and Symbol in Chinese (1923), Chapter I: "Thus, though Chinese traditions give no hint whatever of an immigration from any foreign country, and though there consequently

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1764-650: Was written in French, most of his subsequent scholarly works were in English. After obtaining his doctorate, Karlgren taught at the University of Gothenburg , serving as its rector from 1931 to 1936. In 1939, Karlgren succeeded Johan Gunnar Andersson as director of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities ( Östasiatiska Museet ), a post he held until 1959. This public museum was founded in 1926 on Andersson's pioneering discoveries of prehistoric archaeology made in China in

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