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82-778: EcoLogic Development Fund is a nonprofit organization whose mission is to empower rural and indigenous people to restore and protect tropical ecosystems in Central America and Mexico . Latin America is home to some of the greatest biodiversity of plants and animals but also some of the poorest people in the western hemisphere. EcoLogic is motivated by the belief that resource use associated with conditions of poverty ( slash and burn agriculture , clearcutting , overfishing ) places tremendous pressure on fragile ecosystems. Similar threats are posed by ecologically unsustainable activities in mining, agribusiness , and oil exploration. It

164-405: A stem . Stems are classified by their last letters as vowel or consonant. Vowel stems are formed by adding a suffix to a shorter and more ancient segment called a root . Consonant stems are the root (roots end in consonants). The combination of the last letter of the stem and the case ending often results in an ending also called a case ending or termination. For example, the stem puella- receives

246-443: A case ending -m to form the accusative case puellam in which the termination -am is evident. In Classical Latin textbooks the declensions are named from the letter ending the stem or First, Second, etc. to Fifth. A declension may be illustrated by a paradigm , or listing of all the cases of a typical word. This method is less often applied to Old Latin, and with less validity. In contrast to Classical Latin, Old Latin reflects

328-643: A colony in New Mexico. However, the heartland of the Spanish colonies remained New Spain (including Mexico and most of Central America) and Peru (including most of South America). In the 17th century, French, English and Dutch trading posts multiplied in northern America to exploit whaling, fishing and fur trading. French settlements progressed up the St Lawrence river to the Great Lakes and down

410-615: A consonant declension, in the nominative singular, the -s was affixed directly to the stem consonant, but the combination of the two consonants produced modified nominatives over the Old Latin period. The case appears in different stages of modification in different words diachronically. The Latin neuter form (not shown) is the Indo-European nominative without stem ending; for example, cor < *cord "heart". The genitive singular endings include -is < -es and -us < *-os . In

492-532: A definition of Indigenous peoples stating that, "such a definition is not necessary for purposes of protecting their human rights." In determining coverage of Indigenous peoples, the commission uses the criteria developed in documents such as ILO Convention No. 169 and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The commission states that self-identification as indigenous

574-491: A deliberate strategy in defending their claims against European rivals. Although the establishment of colonies throughout the world by various European powers aimed to expand those powers' wealth and influence, settler populations in some localities became anxious to assert their own autonomy. For example, settler independence movements in thirteen of the British American colonies were successful by 1783, following

656-410: A few masculines indicates the nominative singular case ending may have been originally -s: paricidas for later parricida , but the -s tended to get lost. In the nominative plural, -ī replaced original -s as in the genitive singular. In the genitive singular, the -s was replaced with -ī from the second declension, the resulting diphthong shortening to -ai subsequently becoming -ae. The original form

738-454: A meaning as puella , so Roma, which is singular, and Syracusae, which is plural, have been substituted. The locative plural has already merged with the -eis form of the ablative. The stems of the nouns of the o-declension end in ŏ deriving from the o-grade of Indo-European ablaut . Classical Latin evidences the development ŏ > ŭ. Nouns of this declension are either masculine or neuter. Nominative singulars ending in -ros or -ris syncopate

820-625: A particular place – indeed how we/they came to be a place. Our/their relationships to land comprise our/their epistemologies, ontologies, and cosmologies". Indigenous peoples such as the Maasai and the Māori have oral traditional histories involving migration to their current location from somewhere else. Anthropologist Manvir Singh states that the term may lack coherence, pointing to inconsistencies in which ethnic groups are called Indigenous or not, and notes several scholars who suggest that it instead acts as

902-536: A relabeling of discredited and colonial ideas about "primitive" people. Singh states that some Indigenous people argue that the term and identity has resulted in pressure to appear "primordial" and "unchanging", and erases complex and modern identities. Other views It is sometimes argued that all Africans are Indigenous to Africa, all Asians are Indigenous to parts of Asia, or that there can be no Indigenous peoples in countries which did not experience large-scale Western settler colonialism. Many countries have avoided

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984-420: A somewhat vague term ... Bell, De locativi in prisca Latinitate vi et usu , Breslau, 1889, sets the later limit at 75 BC. A definite date is really impossible, since archaic Latin does not terminate abruptly, but continues even down to imperial times." Bennett's own date of 100 BC did not prevail; rather Bell's 75 BC became the standard as expressed in the four-volume Loeb Library and other major compendia. Over

1066-411: A special relationship with their traditional territory, and an experience of subjugation and discrimination under a dominant cultural model. Estimates of the population of Indigenous peoples range from 250 million to 600 million. There are some 5,000 distinct Indigenous peoples spread across every inhabited climate zone and inhabited continent of the world. Most Indigenous peoples are in a minority in

1148-488: A state, a special relationship with their traditional territory, and an experience of subjugation and discrimination under a dominant cultural model. No definition of Indigenous peoples has been adopted by a United Nations agency. The Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues states, "in the case of the concept of 'indigenous peoples', the prevailing view today is that no formal universal definition of

1230-407: A strategy of community-led resource management by encouraging those closest to the land to steward resources that meet their needs and in ways that are ecologically compatible. Indigenous peoples There is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples , although in the 21st century the focus has been on self-identification, cultural difference from other groups in a state,

1312-539: Is a fundamental criterion. The World Bank states, "Indigenous Peoples are distinct social and cultural groups that share collective ancestral ties to the lands and natural resources where they live, occupy or from which they have been displaced." Amnesty International does not provide a definition of Indigenous peoples but states that they can be identified according to certain characteristics: Academics and other scholars have developed various definitions of Indigenous peoples. In 1986–87, José Martínez Cobo, developed

1394-419: Is maintained in some formulas, e.g. pater familiās . The genitive plural ending -āsōm (classical -ārum following rhotacism ), borrowed from the pronouns, began to overtake original -om. In the dative singular the final i is either long or short. The ending becomes -ae, -a (Feronia) or -e (Fortune). In the accusative singular, Latin regularly shortens a vowel before final m. In the ablative singular, -d

1476-466: Is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples in the United Nations or international law. Various national and international organizations, non-government organizations, governments, Indigenous groups and scholars have developed definitions or have declined to provide a definition. As a reference to a group of people, the term "indigenous" was first used by Europeans to differentiate

1558-579: Is not arbitrary, but the terms refer to spelling conventions and word forms not generally found in works written under the Roman Empire . This article presents some of the major differences. The earliest known specimen of Latin seems to be on the Praeneste fibula . An analysis done in 2011 declared it to be genuine "beyond any reasonable doubt" and dating from the Orientalizing period , in

1640-622: Is rarely used in Europe, where very few indigenous groups are recognized, with the exception of groups such as the Sámi . Old Latin Old Latin , also known as Early , Archaic or Priscan Latin (Classical Latin : prīsca Latīnitās , lit.   'ancient Latinity'), was the Latin language in the period roughly before 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . A member of

1722-506: Is the balance between human needs and environmental imperatives that EcoLogic finds most compelling in addressing the future of the planet. In its 2007 State of the World's Forests report, the UN 's Food and Agriculture Organization found that in the last 15 years, Latin America has lost over 158,000,000 acres (640,000 km) of forest. Central America alone has lost 19%, the largest percentage for

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1804-442: Is thought to be essentially the same as in classical Latin: These differences did not necessarily run concurrently with each other and were not universal; that is, c was used for both c and g. Old Latin is thought to have had a strong stress on the first syllable of a word until about 250 BC. All syllables other than the first were unstressed and were subjected to greater amounts of phonological weakening. Starting around that year,

1886-814: The American Revolutionary War . This resulted in the establishment of the United States of America as an entity separate from the British Empire . The United States continued and expanded European colonial doctrine through adopting a version of the discovery doctrine as law in 1823 with the US Supreme Court case Johnson v. McIntosh . Statements at the Johnson court case illuminated the United States' support for

1968-516: The Etruscan alphabet as it evolved into the Latin alphabet . The writing conventions varied by time and place until classical conventions prevailed. A part of old inscriptions, texts in the original writing system have been lost or transcribed by later copyists. Old Latin could be written from right to left (as were Etruscan and early Greek) or boustrophedon . Some differences between old and classical Latin were of spelling only; pronunciation

2050-539: The Italic languages , it descends from a common Proto-Italic language ; Latino-Faliscan is likely a separate branch from Osco-Umbrian . All these languages may be relatively closely related to Venetic and possibly further to Celtic ; compare the Italo-Celtic hypothesis. The use of "old", "early" and "archaic" has been standard in publications of Old Latin writings since at least the 18th century. The definition

2132-565: The United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP) was on 9 August 1982 and this date is now celebrated as the International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples . In the 21st century, the concept of Indigenous peoples is understood in a wider context than only the colonial experience. The focus has been on self-identification as indigenous peoples, cultural difference from other groups in

2214-722: The kings , mainly songs. Thus, the laws of the Twelve Tables (5th century BC) from the early Republic were comprehensible, but the Carmen Saliare , probably written under Numa Pompilius (who according to tradition reigned from 715 to 673 BC), was not entirely clear (and remains so). On the other hand, Polybius , a Greek historian of Rome who flourished in the late second century BC, commented on "the first treaty between Rome and Carthage ", (which he dated to 28 years before Xerxes I crossed into Greece; that is, in 508 BC) that "the ancient Roman language differs so much from

2296-519: The 10th century, however, the majority of the population of north Africa spoke Arabic and practiced Islam. From 1402, the Guanche of the Canary Islands resisted Spanish attempts at colonization. The islands finally came under Spanish control in 1496. Mohamed Adhikari has called the conquest of the islands a genocide . Early 15th-century Portuguese exploration of the west coast of Africa

2378-572: The 17th and 18th centuries, had extensive contact with Europeans when the continent was progressively colonized by the British from 1788. During colonization, the Aboriginal people experienced depopulation from disease and settler violence, dispossession of their land, and severe disruption of their traditional cultures. By 1850, indigenous peoples were a minority in Australia. From the 15th to

2460-636: The 19th centuries, European powers used a number of rationales for the colonization of newly encountered lands populated by indigenous peoples. These included a duty to spread the Gospel to non-Christians, to bring civilization to barbarian peoples, a natural law right to explore and trade freely with other peoples, and a right to settle and cultivate uninhabited or uncultivated land which they considered terra nullius ("no one's land"). Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt and Tracey Lindberg argue that European powers rationalized their colonization of

2542-625: The 21st century, Indigenous groups and advocates for Indigenous peoples have highlighted numerous apparent violations of the rights of Indigenous peoples. Indigenous is derived from the Latin word indigena , meaning "sprung from the land, native". The Latin indigena is based on the Old Latin indu "in, within" + gignere "to beget, produce". Indu is an extended form of the Proto-Indo-European en or "in". There

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2624-558: The 377 years from 452 to 75 BC, Old Latin evolved from texts partially comprehensible by classicists with study to being easily read by scholars. Old Latin authored works began in the 3rd century BC. These are complete or nearly complete works under their own name surviving as manuscripts copied from other manuscripts in whatever script was current at the time. There are also fragments of works quoted in other authors. Many texts placed by various methods (painting, engraving, embossing) on their original media survive just as they were except for

2706-551: The Aztec Empire and its fall. The Cempoalans, Tlaxcalans and other allies of the Spanish were given some autonomy, but the Spanish were de facto rulers of Mexico. Smallpox devastated the indigenous population and aided the Spanish conquest. In 1530, the Spanish sailed south from Panama to the lands of the Inca Empire in the west of South America. The Inca, weakened by a smallpox epidemic and civil war, were defeated by

2788-520: The Bahamas and Cuba, leading to a severe decline in the Indigenous populations from disease, malnutrition, settler violence and cultural disruption. In the 1520s, the peoples of Mesoamerica encountered the Spanish who entered their lands in search of gold and other resources. Some indigenous peoples chose to ally with the Spanish to end Aztec rule. The Spanish incursions led to the conquest of

2870-680: The Classical Latin stress system began to develop. It passed through at least one intermediate stage, found in Plautus , in which the stress occurred on the fourth last syllable in four-syllable words with all short syllables. Most original PIE ( Proto-Indo-European ) diphthongs were preserved in stressed syllables, including /ai/ (later ae ); /ei/ (later ī ); /oi/ (later ū , or sometimes oe ); /ou/ (from PIE /eu/ and /ou/ ; later ū ). The Old Latin diphthong ei evolves in stages: ei > ẹ̄ > ī . The intermediate sound ẹ̄

2952-621: The French. The indigenous inhabitants of the Hawaiian Islands first encountered Europeans in 1778 when Cook explored the region. Following increasing contact with European missionaries, traders and scientific expeditions, the indigenous population fell before their lands were annexed by the United States in 1893. The Māori of New Zealand also had sporadic encounters with Europeans in the 17th and 18th centuries. Following encounters with Cook's exploration parties in 1769–70, New Zealand

3034-510: The Indigenous peoples of the Americas from enslaved Africans. The first known use was by Sir Thomas Browne in 1646, who wrote "and although in many parts thereof there be at present swarms of Negroes serving under the Spaniard , yet were they all transported from Africa , since the discovery of Columbus ; and are not indigenous or proper natives of America ." In the 1970s, the term

3116-671: The Mississippi to Louisiana. English and Dutch settlements multiplied down the Atlantic coast from modern Massachusetts to Georgia. Native peoples formed alliances with the Europeans in order to promote trade, preserve their autonomy, and gain allies in conflicts with other native peoples. However, horses and new weapons made inter-tribal conflicts more deadly and the native population was devastated by introduced diseases. Native peoples also experienced losses from violent conflict with

3198-648: The New World by the discovery doctrine , which they trace back to papal decrees authorizing Spain and Portugal to conquer newly discovered non-Christian lands and convert their populations to Christianity. Kent McNeil, however, states, "While Spain and Portugal favoured discovery and papal grants because it was generally in their interests to do so, France and Britain relied more on symbolic acts, colonial charters, and occupation." Benton and Strauman argue that European powers often adopted multiple, sometimes contradictory, legal rationales for their acquisition of territory as

3280-506: The New World. In 1488, Portuguese ships rounded the Cape of Good Hope and by the 17th century, Portugal had established seaborn trading routes and fortified coastal trading posts from West Africa to India and Southern China, and a settler colony in Brazil. In 1532, the first African slaves were transported directly to the Americas. The trade in slaves expanded sharply in the 17th century, with

3362-526: The Spanish at Cajamarca in 1532, and the emperor Atahualpa was captured and executed. The Spanish appointed a puppet emperor and captured the Inca capital of Cuzco with the support of a number of native peoples. The Spanish established a new capital in 1535 and defeated an Inca rebellion in 1537, thus consolidating the conquest of Peru. In the 1560s, the Spanish established colonies in Florida and in 1598 founded

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3444-447: The United Nations (UN) adopted a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples including their rights to self-determination and to protect their cultures, identities, languages, ceremonies, and access to employment, health, education and natural resources. Indigenous peoples continue to face threats to their sovereignty, economic well-being, languages, cultural heritage, and access to the resources on which their cultures depend. In

3526-511: The adjective always meant these remnants of a previous language, which, in Roman philology , was taken to be much older in fact than it really was. Viri prisci , "old-time men", meant the population of Latium before the founding of Rome . In the Late Latin period, when Classical Latin was behind them, Latin- and Greek-speaking grammarians were faced with multiple phases, or styles, within

3608-564: The ancestors of the Greeks , or as an earlier group of people who inhabited Greece before the Greeks. The disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer , Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. Dionysius of Halicarnassus in his book, Roman Antiquities , gives a synoptic interpretation of the Pelasgians based on

3690-445: The basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal systems. Martínez Cobo states that the following factors are relevant to historical continuity: occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part of them; common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands; cultural factors such as religion, tribalism, dress, etc.; language; residence in certain parts of

3772-685: The circumstances of the people would allow them to exercise. ... [This loss of native property and sovereignty rights was justified, the Court said, by] the character and religion of its inhabitants ... the superior genius of Europe ... [and] ample compensation to the [Indians] by bestowing on them civilization and Christianity, in exchange for unlimited independence. Estimates of the population of Indigenous peoples range from 250 million to 600 million. The United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million Indigenous people living in over 90 countries worldwide. This would equate to just fewer than 6% of

3854-737: The colonists and the progressive dispossession of their traditional lands. In 1492, the population of the Americas as a whole was about 50 to 100 million. By 1700, introduced diseases had reduced the native population by 90%. European migration and transfer of slaves from Africa reduced the native population to a minority. By 1800 the population of North America comprised about 5 million Europeans and their descendants, one million Africans and 600,000 indigenous Americans. Native populations also encountered new animals and plants introduced by Europeans. These included pigs, horses, mules, sheep and cattle; wheat, barley, rye, oats, grasses and grapevines. These exotic animals and plants radically transformed

3936-427: The consonant-stem in the pre-Latin period and went further in Old Latin. I/y and u/w can be treated as either consonants or vowels; hence they are semi-vowels . Mixed-stem declensions are partly like consonant-stem and partly like i-stem. Consonant-stem declensions vary slightly depending on which consonant is root-final: stop-, r-, n-, s-, etc. The paradigms below include a stop-stem (reg-) and an i-stem (igni-). For

4018-678: The convention covers: peoples in independent countries who are regarded as indigenous on account of their descent from the populations which inhabited the country, or a geographical region to which the country belongs, at the time of conquest or colonisation or the establishment of present state boundaries and who, irrespective of their legal status, retain some or all of their own social, economic, cultural and political institutions. The convention also covers "tribal peoples" who are distinguished from Indigenous peoples and described as "tribal peoples in independent countries whose social, cultural and economic conditions distinguish them from other sections of

4100-541: The country, or in certain regions of the world; and other relevant factors. In 2004, James Anaya , defined Indigenous peoples as "living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire and conquest". In 2012, Tuck and Yang propose a criterion based on accounts of origin: "Indigenous peoples are those who have creation stories, not colonization stories, about how we/they came to be in

4182-1037: The early songs). This eventually also evolved to ī . Old Latin often had different short vowels from Classical Latin, reflecting sound changes that had not yet taken place. For example, the very early Duenos inscription has the form duenos "good", later found as duonos and still later bonus . A countervailing change wo > we occurred around 150 BC in certain contexts, and many earlier forms are found (e.g. earlier votō, voster, vorsus vs. later vetō, vester, versus ). Old Latin frequently preserves original PIE thematic case endings -os and -om (later -us and -um ). There are many unreduced clusters, e.g. iouxmentom (later iūmentum , "beast of burden"); losna (later lūna , "moon") < * lousna < */leuksnā/; cosmis (> cōmis , "courteous"); stlocum , acc. (> locum , "place"). Early du /dw/ becomes b : duenos > duonos > bonus "good"; duis > bis "twice"; duellom > bellum "war". Final /d/ occurred in ablatives, such as puellād "from

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4264-417: The ending: *agros > *agrs > *agers > *agerr > ager . (The form terr "three times" for later ter < *tris appears in Plautus .) Many alternative spellings occur: This declension contains nouns that are masculine, feminine, and neuter. The stem ends in the root consonant, except in the special case where it ends in -i (i-stem declension). The i-stem, which is a vowel-stem, partly fused with

4346-541: The evolution of the language from an ancestor spoken in Latium . The endings are multiple. Their use depends on time and place. Any paradigm selected would be subject to these constraints and if applied to the language universally would give false constructs, hypothetical words not attested in the Old Latin corpus. Nevertheless, the endings are shown below by quasi-classical paradigms. Alternate endings from different stages of development are given, but they may not be attested for

4428-579: The exploitation of natural resources, spreading Christianity, and establishing strategic military bases, colonies and settlements. From 1492, the Arawak peoples of the Caribbean islands encountered Spanish colonizers initially led by Christopher Columbus . The Spanish enslaved some of the native population and forced others to work on farms and gold mines in a system of labor called encomienda . Spanish settlements spread from Hispaniola to Puerto Rico,

4510-584: The first half of the seventh century BC. Other Old Latin inscriptions dated to either the late Roman Kingdom or early Roman Republic include the Lapis Niger stone, the Duenos Inscription on a kernos vase, and the Garigliano bowl of Bucchero type. The concept of Old Latin ( Prisca Latinitas ) is as old as the concept of Classical Latin – both labels date to at least as early as

4592-524: The following "working definition" : Indigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those that, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as

4674-406: The genitive plural, some forms appear to affix the case ending to the genitive singular rather than the stem: regerum < * reg-is-um . In the dative singular, -ī succeeded -eī and -ē after 200 BC. In the accusative singular, -em < *-ṃ after a consonant. In the ablative singular, the -d was lost after 200 BC. In the dative and ablative plural, the early poets sometimes used -būs. In

4756-423: The girl" or campōd "from the field", later puellā and campō . In verb conjugation, the third-person ending - d later became - t , e.g. Old Latin faced > Classical facit. Latin nouns have grammatical case , with an ending, or suffix, showing its use in the sentence: subject, predicate, etc. A case for a given word is formed by suffixing a case ending to a part of the word common to all its cases called

4838-747: The heavily forested areas of Latin America are leading the way in the introduction of sequestration as a solution to local conservation efforts and global environmental well-being. EcoLogic takes a people-centered approach to the conservation of tropical and semi-tropical habitats, holding that conservation efforts too often impose restrictions that fail to take into account the needs of people living in and around threatened areas. A goal of long-term, effective stewardship requires understanding and integrating local needs. Additionally, EcoLogic recognizes that local people are often excluded from important decisions regarding their land, resulting in resource extraction from which they see little benefit. Thus, EcoLogic employs

4920-432: The involvement of the French, Dutch and English, before declining in the 19th century. At least 12 million slaves were transported from Africa. The slave trade increased inter-tribal warfare and stunted population growth and economic development in the west African interior. Indigenous encounters with Europeans increased during the age of discovery . The Europeans were motivated by a range of factors including trade,

5002-468: The language. Isidore of Seville ( c. 560 – 636) reports a classification scheme that had come into existence in or before his time: "the four Latins" ("Moreover, some people have said that there are four Latin languages"; "Latinas autem linguas quattuor esse quidam dixerunt" ). They were: This scheme persisted with little change for some thousand years after Isidore. In 1874, John Wordsworth used this definition: "By Early Latin I understand Latin of

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5084-404: The late Roman Republic . In that period Cicero , along with others, noted that the language he used every day, presumably upper-class city Latin, included lexical items and phrases that were heirlooms from a previous time, which he called verborum vetustas prisca , translated as "the old age/time of language". In the classical period, Prisca Latinitas , Prisca Latina and other idioms using

5166-461: The local environment and disrupted traditional agriculture and hunting practices. The indigenous populations of the Pacific had increasing contact with Europeans in the 18th century as British, French and Spanish expeditions explored the region. The natives of Tahiti had encounters with the expeditions of Wallis (1766), Bougainville (1768), Cook (1769) and many others before being colonized by

5248-523: The modern that it can only be partially made out, and that after much application by the most intelligent men". There is no sharp distinction between Old Latin, as it was spoken for most of the Republic, and Classical Latin, but the earlier grades into the latter. The end of the republic was too late a termination for compilers after Wordsworth; Charles Edwin Bennett said, " 'Early Latin' is necessarily

5330-551: The national community and whose status is regulated wholly or partially by their own customs or traditions or by special laws or regulations." The convention states that self-identification as indigenous or tribal is a fundamental criterion for determining the groups to which the convention applies. The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples does not define Indigenous peoples but affirms their right to self-determination including determining their own identity. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights does not provide

5412-469: The principles of the discovery doctrine: The United States ... [and] its civilized inhabitants now hold this country. They hold, and assert in themselves, the title by which it was acquired. They maintain, as all others have maintained, that discovery gave an exclusive right to extinguish the Indian title of occupancy, either by purchase or by conquest; and gave also a right to such a degree of sovereignty, as

5494-463: The ravages of time. Some of these were copied from other inscriptions. No inscription can be older than the introduction of the Greek alphabet into Italy but none survive from that early date. The imprecision of archaeological dating makes it impossible to assign a year to any one inscription, but the earliest survivals are probably from the 6th century BC. Some texts, however, that survive as fragments in

5576-527: The region. This habitat devastation accelerates the loss of species, endangers critical sources of safe water, and contributes the massive release of greenhouse gases that exacerbates global warming. One approach that EcoLogic uses to address the anticipated challenges of climate change is to plant and protect trees that store the carbon dioxide our society produces ( CO 2 sequestration ). Tropical forests have been identified as especially effective areas to serve this function. EcoLogic's conservation efforts in

5658-695: The sources available to him then, concluding that Pelasgians were Greek. In European late antiquity, many Berbers , Copts and Nubians of north Africa converted to various forms of Christianity under Roman rule, although elements of traditional religious beliefs were retained. Following the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, many Berbers were enslaved or recruited into the army. The majority of Berbers, however, remained nomadic pastoralists who also engaged in trade as far as sub-Saharan Africa. Coptic Egyptians remained in possession of their lands and many preserved their language and Christian religion. By

5740-404: The spelling of original occurrences of ī that did not evolve from ei (e.g. in the genitive singular -ī , which is always spelled -i in the oldest inscriptions but later on can be spelled either -i or -ei ). In unstressed syllables, *oi and *ai had already merged into ei by historic times (except for one possible occurrence of poploe for populī "people" in a late manuscript of one of

5822-681: The state or traditional territory they inhabit and have experienced domination by other groups, especially non-Indigenous peoples. Although many Indigenous peoples have experienced colonization by settlers from European nations, Indigenous identity is not determined by Western colonization. The rights of Indigenous peoples are outlined in national legislation, treaties and international law. The 1989 International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples protects Indigenous peoples from discrimination and specifies their rights to development, customary laws, lands, territories and resources, employment, education and health. In 2007,

5904-861: The term Indigenous peoples or have denied that Indigenous peoples exist in their territory, and have classified minorities who identify as Indigenous in other ways, such as 'hill tribes' in Thailand, 'scheduled tribes' in India, 'national minorities' in China, 'cultural minorities' in the Philippines, 'isolated and alien peoples' in Indonesia, and various other terms. Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge Indigenous people whom they referred to as " Pelasgians ". Ancient writers saw these people either as

5986-483: The term is necessary, given that a single definition will inevitably be either over- or under-inclusive, making sense in some societies but not in others." However, a number of UN agencies have provided statements of coverage for particular international agreements concerning Indigenous peoples or "working definitions" for particular reports. The International Labour Organization's (ILO) Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (ILO Convention No. 169), states that

6068-636: The total world population. This includes at least 5,000 distinct peoples. As there is no universally accepted definition of Indigenous Peoples, their classification as such varies between countries and organizations. In the Americas, Australia and New Zealand, Indigenous status is often applied unproblematically to groups descended from the peoples who lived there prior to European settlement. However, In Asia and Africa, Indigenous status has sometimes been rejected by certain peoples, denied by governments or applied to peoples who may not be considered "Indigenous" in other contexts. The concept of indigenous peoples

6150-455: The whole period of the Republic, which is separated very strikingly, both in tone and in outward form, from that of the Empire." Although the differences are striking and can be easily identified by Latin readers, they are not such as to cause a language barrier. Latin speakers of the empire had no reported trouble understanding Old Latin, except for the few texts that must date from the time of

6232-557: The word of the paradigm. For example, in the second declension, * campoe "fields" is unattested, but poploe "peoples" is attested. The locative was a separate case in Old Latin but gradually became reduced in function, and the locative singular form eventually merged with the genitive singular by regular sound change. In the plural, the locative was captured by the ablative case in all Italic languages before Old Latin. The stems of nouns of this declension usually end in -ā and are typically feminine. A nominative case ending of -s in

6314-400: The works of classical authors, had to have been composed earlier than the republic, in the time of the monarchy . These are listed below. Some authors, especially in recent texts, refer to the oldest Latin documents (7th–5th c. BCE) as Very Old Latin (VOL). Notable Old Latin fragments with estimated dates include: Authors: Old Latin surviving in inscriptions is written in various forms of

6396-589: Was motivated by a quest for gold and crusading against Islam. Portugal's first attempt at colonization in what is now Senegal ended in failure. In the 1470s, the Portuguese established a fortified trading post on the West coast of Africa, south of the Akan goldfields. The Portuguese engaged in extensive trade of goods for gold and, in later years, slaves for their sugar plantations in the islands off West Africa and in

6478-399: Was regularly lost after a long vowel. In the dative and ablative plural, the -abos descending from Indo-European *-ābhos is used for feminines only ( deabus ). *-ais > -eis > -īs is adapted from -ois of the o-declension. The vocative singular had inherited short -a. This later merged with the nominative singular when -ā was shortened to -ă. The locative case would not apply to such

6560-465: Was simply written e but must have been distinct from the normal long vowel ē because ẹ̄ subsequently merged with ī while ē did not. It is generally thought that ẹ̄ was a higher sound than e (e.g. perhaps [eː] vs. [ɛː] during the time when both sounds existed). Even after the original vowel /ei/ had merged with ī , the old spelling ei continued to be used for a while, with the result that ei came to stand for ī and began to be used in

6642-412: Was used as a way of linking the experiences, issues, and struggles of groups of colonized people across international borders. At this time 'indigenous people(s)' also began to be used to describe a legal category in Indigenous law created in international and national legislation. The use of the plural 'peoples' recognizes the cultural differences between various Indigenous peoples. The first meeting of

6724-509: Was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing, and trading ships. From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population. The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor. New Zealand became a British Crown colony in 1841. The Aboriginal inhabitants of Australia, after brief encounters with European explorers in

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