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53-544: Chinese era names were titles adopted for the purpose of identifying and numbering years in Imperial China. Era names originated as mottos or slogans chosen by the reigning monarch and usually reflected the political, economic and/or social landscapes at the time. For instance, the first era name proclaimed by the Emperor Wu of Han , Jianyuan ( 建元 ; lit. "establishing the origin"), was reflective of its status as

106-428: A Muslim guard and Sayyid Hussein from Hami. The guard was Yu Yung and the women were Uighur. It is unknown who really was behind the anti-pig slaughter edict. The speculation of him becoming a Muslim is remembered alongside his excessive and debauched behavior along with his concubines of foreign origin. Muslim Central Asian girls were favored by Zhengde, with Korean girls being favored by Xuande. A Uighur concubine

159-806: A burden on Goryeo and subjugated polities in the empire. As with all parts of the Mongol Empire, Goryeo provided palace women, eunuchs, Buddhist monks, and other personnel to the Mongols. Just as Korean women entered the Yuan court, the Korean Koryo kingdom also saw the entry of Mongol women. Great power was attained by some of the Korean women who entered the Yuan court. One example is the Empress Ki (Qi) and her eunuch Bak Bulhwa when they attempted

212-578: A country") of the Xin dynasty , Tiancewansui ( 天冊萬歲 ; lit. "Heaven-conferred longevity") of the Wu Zhou , and Tiancilishengguoqing ( 天賜禮盛國慶 ; lit. "Heaven-bestowed ritualistic richness, nationally celebrated") of the Western Xia are examples of Chinese era names that bore more than two characters. Era names were symbols of political orthodoxy and legitimacy. Hence, most Chinese monarchs would proclaim

265-602: A cultural naming taboo . Most emperors of the Imperial period also received a temple name ( 廟號 ; Miaohao ), used to venerate them in ancestor worship . From the rule of Emperor Wu of Han ( r.   141–87 BCE) onwards, emperors also adopted one or several era names ( 年號 ; Nianhao ), or "reign mottos", to divide their rule by important events or accomplishments. Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) rulers are referred to solely by their era names, of which they only had one. Apart from ethnic Han rulers, China

318-472: A major coup of Northern China and Koryo. King Ch'ungson (1309–1313) married two Mongol women, Princess Botasirin and a non-royal woman named Yesujin. She gave birth to a son and had a posthumous title of "virtuous concubine". In addition 1324, the Yuan court sent a Mongol princess of Wei named Jintong to the Koryo King Ch'ungsug. The entry of Korean women into the Yuan court was reciprocated by

371-456: A new era name to replace an existing era name was known as gǎiyuán ( 改元 ; lit. "change the origin"). Instituting a new era name would reset the numbering of the year back to year one, known as yuán nián ( 元年 ; lit. "year of origin"). On the first day of the Chinese calendar , the numbering of the year would increase by one. To name a year using an era name only requires counting years from

424-415: A new era upon the founding of a new dynasty. Rebel leaders who sought to establish independence and legitimacy also declared their own era names. Often, vassal states and tributary states of Imperial China would officially adopt the era name of the reigning Chinese monarch as a sign of subordination—a practice known as fèng zhēng shuò ( 奉正朔 ; lit. "following the first month of the year and the first day of

477-535: A new monarch ascended to the throne, he could either declare a new era immediately or inherit the usage of the existing era name from his predecessor. For example, the era name Wutai ( 武泰 ; lit. "exalted martial") of the Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei was immediately replaced with Jianyi ( 建義 ; lit. "establishing justice") when the Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei took the throne. On

530-533: A penchant for Korean cuisine and women. An anti pig slaughter edict led to speculation that the Zhengde Emperor adopted Islam, due to his use of Muslim eunuchs who commissioned the production of porcelain with Persian and Arabic inscriptions in white and blue color. Muslim eunuchs contributed money in 1496 to repairing Niujie Mosque. Central Asian women were provided to the Zhengde Emperor by

583-510: A ruler the Son of Heaven ( 天子 ; Tianzi ), giving them the right to rule " all under heaven " ( 天下 ; Tianxia ). Given the Mandate's subjective nature, rulers also utilized a variety of methods to retain support and justify their accession. This ranged from military enforcement, political patronage , establishing peace and solidity, institutional reform, and historical revisionism to legitimize

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636-674: A total of seven era names during his reign. The Hongwu Emperor started the tradition of having only one era name for one monarch—known as the yí shì yì yuán zhì ( 一世一元制 ; lit. "one-era-name-for-a-reign system"). Thus, modern historians would frequently refer to monarchs of the Ming and Qing dynasties by their respective era name. Notable exceptions to this "one-era-name" tradition included Zhu Qizhen who proclaimed two era names for his two separate reigns, Aisin Gioro Hong Taiji who used two era names to reflect his position as khan of

689-659: Is based on the era name system of Imperial China. Numerous attempts to reinstate monarchical rule in China had resulted in the declaration of additional era names after the founding of the Republic, but these regimes and their associated era names were short-lived. In 1949, the People's Republic of China was founded and the era was changed to the Common Era , for both internal and external affairs in mainland China . This notation

742-538: The Emperor Daizong of Tang replaced the era name Yongtai ( 永泰 ; lit. "perpetual peace") with Dali ( 大曆 ; lit. "great era") in the eleventh month of the Chinese calendar in 766 CE, the first year of Dali thus only consisted of the last two months of that particular year; the second year of Dali began on the first day of the Chinese calendar the following year, just two months after its initiation. When

795-753: The Later Jin and later as emperor of the Qing dynasty, as well as Aisin Gioro Puyi who adopted three era names in his capacity as emperor of the Qing dynasty and subsequently as ruler of Manchukuo . With the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912 CE, the Chinese era name system was superseded by the Republic of China calendar which remains in official use in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu Islands . The Republic of China calendar, while not an era name,

848-527: The Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs in order to give them to Yongle. Yongle said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and didn't deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again. Joseon sent a total of 114 women to the Ming dynasty, consisting of 16 virgin girls, accompanied by 48 female servants, 42 cooks (執饌女), and 8 musical performers (歌舞女). The women were sent to

901-547: The Xia dynasty of highly uncertain and contested historicity. During the subsequent Shang ( c.  1600–1046 BCE ) and Zhou (1046–256 BCE) dynasties, rulers were referred to as Wang 王 , meaning king . China was fully united for the first time by Qin Shi Huang ( r.   259–210 BCE), who established the first Imperial dynasty , adopting the title Huangdi ( 皇帝 ), meaning Emperor, which remained in use until

954-785: The 5th century the Wa (Japan during the Kofun period ) sent five tributes to the Jin and to the Liu Song dynasty and the emperors promoted the five kings to the title like Supreme Military Commander of the Six States of Wa, Silla, Mimana, Gaya, Jinhan and Mahan . According to the Xīn Táng shū the kingdom of Zhēnlà had conquered different principalities in Northwestern Cambodia after

1007-546: The 5th century, a status hierarchy was an explicit element of the tributary system in which Korea and Vietnam were ranked higher than others, including Japan , the Ryukyus , Siam and others. All diplomatic and trade missions were construed in the context of a tributary relationship with China , including: During Wang Mang 's reign, relations with many of the empire's allies and tributaries deteriorated, due in large part to Wang Mang's arrogance and inept diplomacy. In

1060-575: The Era System, their treaties with other countries are in the Dionysian Era ( AD ) system. In modern times, only Republic of China and Japan still continue to use the ancient Chinese era naming system. Even in the domestic arena, the era system can present difficult dilemmas. For example, in Japan, it is difficult to keep track of the age of people who were born in the previous era. Also, while

1113-535: The Imperial system's fall in 1912 . At no point during Ancient or Imperial China was there a formalized means to confer legitimate succession between rulers. From the Zhou dynasty onwards, monarchs justified their reigns by claiming the Mandate of Heaven ( 天命 ; Tianming ). The mandate held that a ruler and their successors had permission from the heavens to rule as long as they did so effectively. It also declared

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1166-612: The Qing Manchu regent Prince Dorgon . In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean Princess Uisun (義順). The Princess' name in Korean was Uisun, she was Prince Yi Kaeyoon's (Kumrimgoon) daughter. Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan. The tribute system did not dissolve in 1875, but tribute embassies became less frequent and regular: twelve more Korean embassies until 1894, one more (abortive) from Liuqiu in 1877, three more from Vietnam, and four from Nepal,

1219-742: The ROC and Japan both continue to use the ancient Chinese era system, since they have partially adopted the Gregorian calendar for non-governmental use, it is more difficult to track down dates that fall on February 29 leap year in the Western calendar. Furthermore, in Japan, in theory it is difficult to mention future dates since it is sometimes hard to tell whether the current emperor will live long enough for its citizens to use that era name. However, in practice, documents like driver's licenses and 50-year leases use era dates without regard to this problem. On

1272-625: The Yongle and Xuande emperors in a total of 7 missions between 1408 and 1433. Xuande was the last Ming emperor to receive human tribute from Korea. with his death in 1435, 53 Korean women were repatriated. There was much speculation that the Yongle Emperor 's real mother was a Korean or Mongolian concubine. Relations between Ming China and Joseon Korea improved dramatically and became much more amicable and mutually profitable during Yongle's reign. Yongle and Xuande were said to have

1325-538: The ambassadors were arrogant, such as Sin Kwi-saeng who, in 1398, got drunk and brandished a knife at a dinner in the presence of the king. Sino-Korean relations later became amiable, and Korean envoys' seating arrangement in the Ming court was always the highest among the tributaries. A total of 198 eunuchs were sent from Korea to Ming. On 30 Jan 1406, the Ming Yongle Emperor expressed horror when

1378-530: The biases and attitudes of a particular historian; however, era names are useful for dating events that were unique in Chinese history. Most Chinese dictionaries have a comprehensive list of era names, while booklets of more detailed and often searchable lists can be found in libraries . List of Chinese monarchs The Chinese monarchs were the rulers of China during Ancient and Imperial periods. The earliest rulers in traditional Chinese historiography are of mythological origin , and followed by

1431-429: The dissolution of previous dynasties and their own succession. For most of Imperial China, the wuxing ( 五行 ; "Five Elements") philosophical scheme was also central to justify dynastic succession. Most Chinese monarchs had many names. They were given a personal name ( 名字 ; Mingzi ) at birth, but later referred to by a posthumous name ( 謚號 ; Shihao )—which memorialized their accomplishments or character—due to

1484-464: The earliest Chinese people is unknown, since most accounts of them were written from the Warring States period ( c.  475–221 BCE) onwards. The sinologist Kwang-chih Chang has generalized the typical stages: "the first period was populated by gods , the second by demigods / culture hero , and the third by the legendary kings ." The primordial god Pangu is given by many texts as

1537-412: The earliest figure and is credited with forming the world by separating heaven and earth. Other gods include Nüwa , who repaired heaven; Hou Yi , a mythical archer; and Gonggong , a serpent-like water deity . Demigod and hero rulers from hero myths—the largest group Chinese myths —are attributed the invention of specific items, practices or traditions. Among the more important of them are Fuxi ,

1590-695: The end of the Yǒnghuī (永徽) era (i.e. after 31 January 656), which previously (in 638/39) paid tribute to China. The Chinese retaliated against Cham which was raiding the Rinan coast around 430s-440s by seizing Qusu, and then plundering the capital of the Cham around Huế . Around 100,000 jin in gold was the amount of plunder. Lin Yi then paid 10,000 jin in gold, 100,000 jin in silver, and 300,000 jin in copper in 445 as tribute to China. The final tribute paid to China from Lin Yi

1643-654: The entry of Yuan princesses into the Goryeo court, and this affected relations between Korea and the Yuan. Marriages between the imperial family of Yuan existed between certain states. These included the Onggirat tribe, Idug-qut's Uighur tribe, the Oirat tribe, and the Koryo (Korean) royal family. Under the Ming dynasty, countries that wanted to have any form of relationship with China, political, economic or otherwise, had to enter

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1696-513: The first era name. Similarly, the era name Jianzhongjingguo ( 建中靖國 ; lit. "establishing a moderate and peaceful country") used by the Emperor Huizong of Song was indicative of Huizong's idealism towards moderating the rivalry among the conservative and progressive factions regarding political and social reforms. The process of declaring an era name was referred to in traditional Chinese historical texts as jiànyuán ( 建元 ). Proclaiming

1749-549: The first ruler to declare an era name. Prior to the introduction of the first era name in 140 BCE, Chinese monarchs utilized the Qianyuan ( 前元 ), Zhongyuan ( 中元 ) and Houyuan ( 後元 ) systems to identify and number years. Prior to the Ming dynasty , it was common for Chinese sovereigns to change the era name during their reigns, resulting in the use of more than one era name for one ruler. For instance, Emperor Xuan of Han used

1802-401: The first year of the era. For example, 609 CE was the fifth year of Daye ( 大業 ; lit. "great endeavour"), as the era began in 605 CE; traditional Chinese sources would therefore refer to 609 CE as Dàyè wǔ nián ( 大業五年 ). The numbering of the year would still increase on the first day of the Chinese calendar each year, regardless of the month in which the era name was adopted. For example, as

1855-402: The following countries are listed to have paid tribute to the Ming emperors: The Hongwu Emperor started tributary relations in 1368, emissaries being sent to countries like Korea, Vietnam, Champa, Japan, of which Korea, Vietnam, and Champa sent back tribute in 1369. During Hongwu's rule, Liuch'iu sent 20, Korea sent 20, Champa sent 19, and Vietnam sent 14 tribute missions. The tribute system

1908-652: The form of servants, eunuchs , and virgin girls came from: Ming's various ethnic-minority tribes, tribes on the Mongolian Plateau, Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Central Asia, Siam, Champa, and Okinawa. There were Korean, Jurchen, Mongol, Central Asian, and Vietnamese eunuchs under the Yongle Emperor, including Mongol eunuchs who served him while he was the Prince of Yan. In 1381, Muslim and Mongol eunuchs were captured from Yunnan , and possibly among them

1961-478: The inventor of hunting; Suiren , who invented fire; and Shennong , who invented both agriculture and medicine. The subsequent legendary kings began with the Yellow Emperor ( 黃帝 ), known as Huangdi , a major culture hero of Chinese civilization whose reign was considered exemplary. Succeeding rulers include some combination of Shaohao , Zhuanxu , Emperor Ku , Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun . Since

2014-697: The late Warring States onwards, early Chinese monarchs have traditionally been ground into the concept of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors ; however, the chosen figures of this grouping varies considerably between sources. Generally, most accounts include at least Fuxi and Shennong among the Three Sovereigns as well as the Yellow Emperor, Yao and Shun among the Five Emperors. The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period

2067-465: The month"). For example, Korean regimes such as Silla , Goryeo , and Joseon at various times formally adopted the era names of the Tang , Wu Zhou, Later Liang , Later Tang , Later Jin , Later Han , Later Zhou , Northern Song , Liao , Jin , Yuan , Northern Yuan , Ming , and Qing dynasties of China for both domestic and diplomatic purposes. The Emperor Wu of Han is conventionally regarded as

2120-725: The name of the dynasty or the ruler before the era name for the purpose of disambiguation. For example, when referencing the year 410 CE, Chinese sources could either render it as Běi Yān Tàipíng èr nián ( 北燕太平二年 ; lit. "second year of Taiping of the Northern Yan ") or Běi Yān Wéngchéng Dì Tàipíng èr nián ( 北燕文成帝太平二年 ; lit. "second year of Taiping of the Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan ). Most Chinese era names consisted of two Chinese characters , even though era names with three, four and six characters also existed. Shijianguo ( 始建國 ; lit. "the beginning of establishing

2173-540: The other hand, others suggest that the AD system has too much Christian connotation behind it and it is a form of cultural imperialism when an essentially European system of dating is forced upon other civilizations with their own long-used and equally legitimate dating systems. However, with globalization, the AD system is becoming more acceptable in Japan and the ROC. Modern history researchers do not care about era names except for supporting other arguments, such as figuring out

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2226-582: The other hand, the era name Tianxian ( 天顯 ; lit. "heavenly intent") was originally proclaimed by the Emperor Taizu of Liao but its usage was continued by the Emperor Taizong of Liao upon assuming the throne. There were numerous era names that saw repeated use throughout Chinese history. For instance, the era name Taiping ( 太平 ; lit. "great peace") was used on at least ten occasions in China. In such cases, Chinese sources would often affix

2279-469: The reign of Wu Ding (1250–1192), putting the exact details of earlier rulers into doubt. Six Dynasties & Mid Imperial Era List of tributary states of China This is a list of states that paid tribute to the Imperial dynasties of China under the tributary system . It encompassed states in Central Asia , East Asia , North Asia , South Asia , Southeast Asia , and Europe . In

2332-467: The tribute system. As a result, tribute was often paid for opportunistic reasons rather than as a serious gesture of allegiance to the Chinese emperor, and the mere fact that tribute was paid may not be understood in a way that China had political leverage over its tributary. Also some tribute missions may just have been up by ingenious traders. A number of countries only paid tribute once, as a result of Zheng He 's expeditions. As of 1587, in Chinese sources

2385-440: The use of era names today. While the era system is a more traditional system of dating that preserves Chinese and Japanese culture, it presents a problem for the more globalized Asian society and for everyday life. For example, even though within the nation people will know what era they are in, it is relatively meaningless for other nations. In addition, while the Republic of China (ROC) and Japan only recognize documents dated in

2438-652: Was also ruled by various non-Han monarchs, including Jurchen , Khitan , Manchu , Mongol and Tangut and many others. To justify their reign, non-Han rulers sometimes aligned themselves with the Confucian sages or the Chakravarti of Chinese Buddhism . There are numerous lengthy periods where many competing kingdoms claimed the throne, many of whose legitimacy is still debated by scholars. In traditional Chinese historiography , various models of mythological founding rulers exist. The relevancy of these figures to

2491-422: Was an economically profitable form of government trade, and Korea requested and successfully increased the number of tributes sent to Ming from once every three years to three times each year starting in 1400, and eventually four times each year starting in 1531. The 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa and Ming Turpan Border Wars were either started by or marked by disruptions in the tribute system. Tribute in

2544-420: Was extended to Hong Kong in 1997 and Macau in 1999 (de facto extended in 1966) through Annex III of Hong Kong Basic Law and Macau Basic Law , thus eliminating the ROC calendar in these areas. The concept of era name also saw its adoption by neighboring Korea and Vietnam since the middle of the 6th century CE, and by Japan since the middle of the 7th century CE. Notably, Japan still officially retains

2597-631: Was followed by the Xia dynasty in traditional historiography. Founded by Yu the Great , both the dynasty and its rulers are of highly uncertain and controversial historicity. Unlike the Xia, the Shang dynasty 's historicity is firmly established, due to written records on divination objects known as Oracle bones . The oldest such oracle bones date to the Late Shang ( c.  1250—1046 BCE ), during

2650-853: Was in 749, among the items were 100 strings of pearls, 30 jin gharuwood, baidi, and 20 elephants. Enslaved people from tributary countries were sent to Tang China by various groups, the Cambodians sent albinos, the Uyghurs sent Turkic Karluks , the Japanese sent Ainu , and Göktürk (Tujue) and Tibetan girls were also sent to China. Prisoners captured from Liaodong, Korea, and Japan were sent as tribute to China from Balhae. Tang dynasty China received 11 Japanese girl dancers as tribute from Balhae in 777. The Song dynasty received 302 tribute missions from other countries. Vietnamese missions consisted of 45 of them, another 56 were from Champa. More tribute

2703-662: Was kept by Zhengde. Uighur and Mongol women were favored by the Zhengde emperor. This list covers states that sent tribute between 1662 and 1875, and were not covered under the Lifan Yuan . Therefore, Tibet or the Khalkha are not included, although they did send tribute in the period given: After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea, Joseon Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to

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2756-659: Was sent by Champa in order to curry favor from China against Vietnam. Champa brought as tribute Champa rice , a fast-growing rice strain, to China, which massively increased Chinese yields of rice. In 969 the son of King Li Shengtian named Zongchang sent a tribute mission to China. According to Chinese accounts, the King of Khotan offered to send in tribute to the Chinese court a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar in 970. The Mongols extracted tribute from throughout their empire. From Goryeo, they received gold, silver, cloth, grain, ginseng, and falcons. The tribute payments were

2809-540: Was the great Ming maritime explorer Zheng He . Vietnamese eunuchs like Ruan Lang, Ruan An, Fan Hong, Chen Wu, and Wang Jin were sent by Zhang Fu to the Ming. During Ming's early contentious relations with Joseon, when there were disputes such as competition for influence over the Jurchens in Manchuria, Korean officials were even flogged by Korean-born Ming eunuch ambassadors, when their demands were not met. Some of

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