Misplaced Pages

#31968

76-648: The 15th century was the century which spans the Julian calendar dates from 1 January 1401 (represented by the Roman numerals MCDI) to 31 December 1500 (MD). In Europe , the 15th century includes parts of the Late Middle Ages , the Early Renaissance , and the early modern period . Many technological, social and cultural developments of the 15th century can in retrospect be seen as heralding

152-464: A common "Saharan-Sudanese culture", and drew their reinforcements from the same great source, even though, as time went by, they also absorbed a number of wanderers from the Near East". Biological anthropologists Shomarka Keita and A.J. Boyce have stated that the "Studies of crania from southern predynastic Egypt , from the formative period (4000-3100 B.C.), show them usually to be more similar to

228-582: A large circular dwelling, and a palace-like structure. Classic Kerma rulers employed "a good many Egyptians", according to the Egyptian Execration texts. Kerma culture was militaristic, as attested by many archers' burials and bronze daggers/swords found in their graves. Other signs of Nubia's military prowess are the frequent use of Nubians in Egypt's military and Egypt's need to construct numerous fortresses to defend their southern border from

304-592: A lasting legacy that was merged with indigenous C-group customs. Egyptians remaining at the garrison towns started to merge with the C-group Nubians in Lower Nubia. The C-group quickly adopted Egyptian customs and culture, as attested by their graves, and lived together with the remaining Egyptians in garrison towns. After Upper Nubia annexed Lower Nubia around 1700 BC, the Kingdom of Kush began to control

380-683: A military occupation of Thebes to the High Priest, which later led to the Civil war in Thebes. By 1082 BC, Ramesses XI finally sent help to the High Priest. Panehesy continued his revolt and the city of Thebes suffered from "war, famine, and plunderings". Panehesy initially succeeded and the High Priest fled Thebes. Panehesy pursued the High Priest as far as Middle Egypt before Egyptian forces pushed Panehesy and his troops out of Egypt and into Lower Nubia. Ramesses sent new leadership to Thebes: Herihor

456-619: A millennium. Their eventual decline started not only the partition of Nubia, which was split into the northern half conquered by the Ottomans and the southern half by the Sennar sultanate , in the sixteenth century, but also a rapid Islamization and partial Arabization of the Nubian people . Nubia was reunited with the Khedivate of Egypt in the nineteenth century. Today, the region of Nubia

532-761: A monumental scale." At Karnak, the Sacred Lake structures, the kiosk in the first court, and the colonnades at the temple entrance are all built by Taharqa and Mentuemhet. In addition to architecture, the Kingdom of Kush was deeply influenced by Egyptian culture. By 780 BC, Amun was the main god of Kush and "intense contacts with Thebes" were maintained. Kush used the methods of Egyptian art and writing. The Nubian elite adopted many Egyptian customs and gave their children Egyptian names. Although some Nubian customs and beliefs (e.g. burial practices) continued to be practiced, Egyptianization dominated in ideas, practices, and iconography. The cultural Egyptianization of Nubia

608-434: A multiple of 100 ( 100n ), i.e. the 20th century comprises the years 1901 to 2000 , and the 21st century comprises the years 2001 to 2100 in strict usage. In popular perception and practice, centuries are structured by grouping years based on sharing the 'hundreds' digit(s). In this model, the n -th century starts with the year that ends in "00" and ends with the year ending in "99"; for example, in popular culture ,

684-844: A route to reach to India from the African coast. In Asia , the Timurid Empire collapsed and the Afghan Pashtun Lodi dynasty took control of the Delhi Sultanate . Under the rule of the Yongle Emperor , who built the Forbidden City and commanded Zheng He to explore the world overseas , the Ming dynasty 's territory reached its pinnacle. In Africa , the spread of Islam led to the destruction of

760-474: A series of towns below the Second Cataract with heavy fortresses that had enclosures and drawbridges. Sesotris III relentlessly expanded his kingdom into Nubia (from 1866 to 1863 BC) and erected massive river forts including Buhen , Semna , Shalfak and Toshka at Uronarti to gain more control over the trade routes in Lower Nubia. They also provided direct access to trade with Upper Nubia, which

836-669: Is a region along the Nile river encompassing the confluence of the Blue and White Niles (in Khartoum in central Sudan ), and the area between the first cataract of the Nile (south of Aswan in southern Egypt ) or more strictly, Al Dabbah . It was the seat of one of the earliest civilizations of ancient Africa , the Kerma culture , which lasted from around 2500 BC until its conquest by

SECTION 10

#1732781063032

912-423: Is based on strict construction, while the other is based on popular perception. According to the strict construction, the 1st century AD , which began with AD 1 , ended with AD 100 , and the 2nd century with AD 200 ; in this model, the n -th century starts with a year that follows a year with a multiple of 100 (except the first century as it began after the year 1 BC ) and ends with the next coming year with

988-495: Is indicative of her role as a goddess of resurrection, since black is both the color of the fertile land of Egypt and that of the underworld. However, there is no known depiction of her painted during her lifetime (she is represented with the same light skin as other represented individuals in tomb TT15, before her deification); the earliest black skin depiction appears in tomb TT161, c. 150 years after her death. Egyptologist Barbara Lesko wrote in 1996 that Ahmose-Nefertari

1064-543: Is split between Egypt and Sudan. The primarily archaeological science dealing with ancient Nubia is called Nubiology . Historically, the people of Nubia spoke at least two varieties of Nubian languages , a subfamily that includes Nobiin (the descendant of Old Nubian), Dongolawi , Midob and several related varieties in the northern part of the Nuba Mountains in South Kordofan . The Birgid language

1140-595: The Bengal Sultanate had attracted European traders to trade with Bengal, but the trade was subsequently lower, due to the rise of the Ottoman Empire, which introduced new taxes and tariffs against European traders. This had led to explorers like Christopher Columbus finding a route to reach India, which eventually reached the Americas. Explorers like Vasco da Gama , a Portuguese traveller, also found

1216-516: The C-Group culture and the Blemmyes ) spoke Cushitic languages before the spread of Eastern Sudanic languages from southern or Upper Nubia . Nubia was divided into three major regions: Upper, Middle, and Lower Nubia, in reference to their locations along the Nile . "Lower" referred to regions downstream (further north) and "upper" to regions upstream (further south). Lower Nubia lay between

1292-688: The First Dynasty of Egypt buried at Abydos were of Nubian origin. However, several biological anthropological studies have shown the Badarian and Naqada people to be closely related to the Nubian and other, tropical African populations. Also, the proto-dynastic kings emerged from the Naqada region. A uniform culture of nomadic herders, called the Gash group , existed from 3000 to 1500 BC to

1368-908: The Medjay ( mḏꜣ , ) arriving from the desert east of the Nile river. One feature of Pan Grave culture was shallow grave burial. The Pan Grave and C-Group definitely interacted: Pan Grave pottery is characterized by more limited incised lines than the C-Group's and generally have interspersed undecorated spaces within the geometric schemes. In 2300 BC, Nubia was first mentioned in Old Kingdom Egyptian accounts of trade missions. The Egyptians referred to Lower Nubia as Wawat, Irtjet, and Setju, while they referred to Upper Nubia as Yam. Some authors believe that Irtjet and Setju could also have been in Upper Nubia. They referred to Nubians dwelling near

1444-514: The New Kingdom of Egypt under Pharaoh Thutmose I around 1500 BC, whose heirs ruled most of Nubia for the next 400 years. Nubia was home to several empires , most prominently the Kingdom of Kush , which conquered Egypt in the eighth century BC during the reign of Piye and ruled the country as its 25th Dynasty (to be replaced a century later by the native Egyptian 26th Dynasty ). From

1520-760: The Twelfth Dynasty had strong Nubian features, due to the origin of the dynasty in the Aswan region of southern Egypt. He also identified the pharaoh Sequenre Tao of the Seventeenth Dynasty , as having Nubian features. Many scholars in recent years have argued that the mother of Amenemhat I, founder of the Twelfth Dynasty was of Nubian origin. After a period of withdrawal, the Middle Kingdom of Egypt conquered Lower Nubia from 2000 to 1700 BC. By 1900 BC, King Sesostris I began building

1596-733: The " European miracle " of the following centuries. The architectural perspective , and the modern fields which are known today as banking and accounting were founded in Italy . The Hundred Years' War ended with a decisive French victory over the English in the Battle of Castillon . Financial troubles in England following the conflict resulted in the Wars of the Roses , a series of dynastic wars for

SECTION 20

#1732781063032

1672-468: The 15th Dynasty, isolated Nubian communities in Egypt, and some bowmen communities. C-Group pottery is characterized by all-over incised geometric lines with white infill and impressed imitations of basketry. Lower Nubia was controlled by Egypt from 2000 to 1700 BC and Upper Nubia from 1700 to 1525 BC. From 2200 to 1700 BC, the Pan Grave culture appeared in Lower Nubia. Some of the people were likely

1748-539: The 25th Dynasty's founder and "central to a myth of the origins of the kingdom". Alara's sister was the priestess of Amun, which created a system of royal secession and an "ideology of royal power in which Kushite concepts and practice were united with contemporary Egyptian concepts of kingship". Later, Kashta's daughter, the Kushite princess Amenirdis, was installed as God's Wife of Amun Elect and later Divine Adoratrice (effectively governor of Upper Egypt), which signaled

1824-597: The 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD, northern Nubia was invaded and annexed to Egypt, ruled by the Greeks and Romans . This territory was known in the Greco-Roman world as Dodekaschoinos . Kush's collapse in the fourth century AD was preceded by an invasion from the Ethiopian Kingdom of Aksum and the rise of three Christian kingdoms: Nobatia , Makuria and Alodia . Makuria and Alodia lasted for roughly

1900-476: The Americas, beginning the European colonization of the Americas , changed the course of modern history. Century A centennial or centenary is a hundredth anniversary, or a celebration of this, typically the remembrance of an event which took place a hundred years earlier. Although a century can mean any arbitrary period of 100 years , there are two viewpoints on the nature of standard centuries. One

1976-520: The C-group in Upper Nubia vanish by 2000 BC and Kerma culture began to dominate Upper Nubia. The power of an independent Upper Nubia increased around 1700 BC and Upper Nubia dominated Lower Nubia. An Egyptian official, Harkhuf, mentions that Irtjet, Setjet, and Wawat all combined under a single ruler. By 1650 BC, Egyptian texts started to refer to only two kingdoms in Nubia: Kush and Shaat. Kush

2052-759: The Catholic Church and the unrest associated with the Hussite movement would become factors in the rise of the Protestant Reformation in the following century. Islamic Spain became dissolved through the Christian Reconquista , followed by the forced conversions and the Muslim rebellion , ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule and returning southern Spain to Christian rulers. The spices, wines and precious metals of

2128-652: The Christian kingdoms of Nubia , by the end of the century, leaving only Alodia (which was to collapse in 1504). The formerly vast Mali Empire teetered on the brink of collapse, under pressure from the rising Songhai Empire . In the Americas , both the Aztec Empire and the Inca Empire reached the peak of their influence, but the voyages of Christopher Columbus and other European voyages of discovery in

2204-589: The Early A-Group culture , arose in Lower Nubia. They were sedentary agriculturalists, traded with the Egyptians and exported gold. This trade is supported archaeologically by large amounts of Egyptian commodities deposited in the A-Group graves. The imports consisted of gold objects, copper tools, faience amulets and beads, seals, slate palettes, stone vessels, and a variety of pots. During this time,

2280-659: The Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation. Several scholars have argued that the African origins of the Egyptian civilization derived from pastoral communities which emerged in both the Egyptian and Sudanese regions of the Nile Valley in the fifth millennium BCE. Dietrich Wildung (2018) examined Eastern Saharan pottery styles and Sudanese stone sculptures and suggested these artefacts were transmitted across

2356-635: The Egyptian military as scouts and minor workers before being incorporated into the Egyptian army. In the army, the Medjay served as garrison troops in Egyptian fortifications in Nubia and patrolled the deserts as a kind of gendarmerie , or elite paramilitary police force, to prevent their fellow Medjay tribespeople from further attacking Egyptian assets in the region. The Medjay were often used to protect valuable areas, especially royal and religious complexes. Although they are most notable for their protection of

15th century - Misplaced Pages Continue

2432-430: The Egyptian occupation of Nubia, there were temple towns with Egyptian cults, but "production and redistribution" was based mostly on indigenous social structures. The El Kurru chiefdom likely played a major role in the development of the Kingdom of Kush due to its access to gold producing areas, control of caravan routes, more arable land, and participation in international trade. "There can be no doubt that el-Kurru

2508-861: The First and the Second Cataracts within the current borders of Egypt, Middle Nubia lay between the Second and the Third Cataracts, and Upper Nubia lay south of the Third Cataract. Archaeological evidence attests to long histories of fishing-hunting-gathering, and later herding, throughout the Nile Valley. Affad 23 is an archaeological site located in the Affad region of southern Dongola Reach in northern Sudan , which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of

2584-529: The Kushite conquest of Egyptian territories. The Napatan Empire ushered in the age of Egyptian archaism, or a return to a historical past, which was embodied by a concentrated effort at religious renewal and restoration of Egypt's holy places. Piye expanded the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal by adding "an immense colonnaded forecourt". Shabaka restored the great Egyptian monuments and temples, "unlike his Libyan predecessors". Taharqa enriched Thebes on

2660-646: The Middle East. The primitive working conditions for the slaves are recorded by Diodorus Siculus . One of the oldest maps known is of a gold mine in Nubia: the Turin Papyrus Map dating to about 1160 BC; it is also one of the earliest characterized road maps in existence. Nubians were an integral part of New Kingdom Egyptian society. Some scholars state that Nubians were included in the 18th Dynasty of Egypt 's royal family. Ahmose-Nefertari , "arguably

2736-467: The Naqada people and the Nubian A-Group people were from different cultures. Kathryn Bard states that "Naqada cultural burials contain very few Nubian craft goods, which suggests that while Egyptian goods were exported to Nubia and were buried in A-Group graves, A-Group goods were of little interest further north." According to anthropologist Jane Hill, there is no evidence that the pharaohs of

2812-607: The New Kingdom pharaohs brought all of Nubia under Egyptian rule from 1500 to 1070 BC. After 1070 BC, there were continued hostilities with Egypt, which led Nubians to concentrate in Upper Nubia. Within 200 years, a fully formed Kushite state, based at Napata, began to exert its influence on Upper (Southern) Egypt. When the Middle Kingdom Egyptians pulled out of the Napata region around 1700 BC, they left

2888-577: The Nile Valley and influenced the pre-dynastic Egyptian culture in the Neolithic period. The poorly known " pre-Kerma " culture existed in Upper (Southern) Nubia on a stretch of fertile farmland just south of the Third Cataract . Nubia has one of the oldest civilizations in the world. This history is often intertwined with Egypt to the north. Around 3500 BC, the second "Nubian" culture, termed

2964-685: The Nubians began creating distinctive black topped, red pottery. The A-Group population have been described as ethnically “very similar” to the pre-dynastic Egyptians in physical characteristics. Around 3100 BC, the A-group transitioned from the Early to Classical phases. "Arguably royal burials are known only at Qustul and possibly Sayala." During this period, the wealth of A-group kings rivaled Egyptian kings. Royal A-group graves contained gold and richly decorated pottery. Some scholars believe Nubian A-Group rulers and early Egyptian pharaohs used related royal symbols; similarities in A-Group Nubia and Upper Egypt rock art support this position. Scholars from

3040-439: The Nubians. Despite assimilation, the Nubian elite remained rebellious during Egyptian occupation. There were numerous rebellions and "military conflict occurred almost under every reign until the 20th dynasty". At one point, Kerma came very close to conquering Egypt: Egypt suffered a serious defeat at the hands of the Kingdom of Kush . According to Davies, head of the joint British Museum and Egyptian archaeological team,

3116-407: The Qustul rulers adopted or emulated the symbols of Egyptian pharaohs. According to David Wengrow , the A-Group polity of the late 4th millenninum BCE is poorly understood since most of the archaeological remains are submerged underneath Lake Nasser. Frank Yurco also remarked that depictions of pharonic iconography such as the royal crowns, Horus falcons and victory scenes were concentrated in

15th century - Misplaced Pages Continue

3192-423: The University of Chicago Oriental Institute excavated at Qustul (near Abu Simbel in Sudan), in 1960–64, and found artifacts which incorporated images associated with Egyptian pharaohs. Archeologist Bruce Williams studied the artifacts and concluded that "Egypt and Nubia A-Group culture shared the same official culture", "participated in the most complex dynastic developments", and "Nubia and Egypt were both part of

3268-514: The Upper Egyptian Naqada culture and A-Group Nubia. He further elaborated that "Egyptian writing arose in Naqadan Upper Egypt and A-Group Nubia, and not in the Delta cultures, where the direct Western Asian contact was made, further vitiates the Mesopotamian-influence argument". The archaeological cemeteries at Qustul are no longer available for excavations since the flooding of Lake Nasser . The earliest representations of pharaonic iconography have been excavated from Nag el-Hamdulab in Aswan ,

3344-416: The area. At this point, C-group Nubians and Egyptians began to proclaim their allegiance to the Kushite King in their inscriptions. Egypt conquered Lower and Upper Nubia from 1500 to 1070 BC. However, the Kingdom of Kush survived longer than Egypt. After the Theban 17th Dynasty New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1532–1070 BC) expelled the Canaanite Hyksos from Egypt, they turned their imperial ambitions to Nubia. By

3420-689: The astronomical year -1 corresponding to 2 BC, and so on. Informally, years may be referred to in groups based on the hundreds part of the year. In this system, the years 1900–1999 are referred to as the nineteen hundreds ( 1900s ). Aside from English usage, this system is used in Swedish , Danish , Norwegian , Icelandic , Finnish and Hungarian . The Swedish nittonhundratalet (or 1900-talet ), Danish nittenhundredetallet (or nittenhundredetallet ), Norwegian nittenhundretallet (or 1900-tallet ), Finnish tuhatyhdeksänsataaluku (or 1900-luku ) and Hungarian ezerkilencszázas évek (or 1900-as évek ) refer unambiguously to

3496-405: The attack was so devastating that, if the Kerma forces had chosen to stay and occupy Egypt, they might have permanently eliminated the Egyptians and brought the nation to extinction. During Egypt's Second Intermediate period, the Kushites reached the height of their Bronze Age power and completely controlled southern trade with Egypt. They maintained diplomatic ties with the Thebans and Hyksos until

3572-405: The crania of ancient Nubians, Kushites, Saharans, or modern groups from the Horn of Africa than to those of dynastic northern Egyptians or ancient or modern southern Europeans." Archaeological evidence has attested that population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as the Late Pleistocene era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in

3648-411: The desert roamed far to the north. The culture of Upper Egypt , which became dynastic Egyptian civilization, could fairly be called a Sudanese transplant." British Africanist Basil Davidson outlined that "The ancient Egyptians belonged, that is, not to any specific Egyptian region or Near Eastern heritage but to that wide community of peoples who lived between the Red Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, shared

3724-428: The east and west of Nubia. In Lower Nubia, the A-group moved from the Classical to Terminal phase. At this time, kings at Qustul likely ruled all of Lower Nubia and demonstrated the political centralization of Nubian society. The A-Group culture came to an end sometime between 3100 and 2900 BC, when it was apparently destroyed by the First Dynasty rulers of Egypt. There are no records of settlement in Lower Nubia for

3800-400: The end of Thutmose I 's reign (1520 BC), all of Lower Nubia had been annexed. After a long campaign, Egypt also conquered the Kingdom of Kerma in Upper Nubia and held both areas until 1070 BC. The Egyptian empire expanded into the Fourth Cataract, and a new administrative center was built at Napata , which became a gold and incense production area. Egypt became a prime source of gold in

3876-414: The end of the Middle Ages. This led to the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy, while Johannes Gutenberg 's invention of a mechanical movable type began the printing press . These two events played key roles in the development of the Renaissance . The Roman papacy was split in two parts in Europe for decades (the so-called Western Schism ), until the Council of Constance . The division of

SECTION 50

#1732781063032

3952-475: The extreme southern region of Egypt which borders the Sudan, with an estimated dating range between 3200 and 3100 BC. Writing developed in Egypt around 3300 BC. In their writings, Egyptians referred to Nubia as " Ta-Seti ", or "The Land of the Bow," as the Nubians were known to be expert archers. More recent and broader studies have determined that the distinct pottery styles, differing burial practices, different grave goods, and site distribution all indicate that

4028-433: The first Nubian kingdom to unify much of the region arose. The Classic Kerma culture, named for its royal capital at Kerma , was one of the earliest urban centers in the Nile region and oldest city in Africa outside of Egypt. The Kerma group spoke either languages of the Cushitic branch or, according to more recent research, Nilo-Saharan languages of the Eastern Sudanic branch. By 1650 BC (Classic Kerma phase),

4104-499: The great East African substratum". Williams also wrote that Qustul "could well have been the seat of Egypt's founding dynasty". David O'Connor wrote that the Qustul incense burner provides evidence that the A-group Nubian culture in Qustul marked the "pivotal change" from predynastic to dynastic "Egyptian monumental art". However, "most scholars do not agree with this hypothesis", as more recent finds in Egypt indicate that this iconography originated in Egypt instead of Nubia, and that

4180-447: The kings of Kerma were powerful enough to organize the labor for monumental town walls and large mud brick structures, such as the Eastern and Western Deffufas (50 by 25 by 18 meters). They also had rich tombs with possessions for the afterlife and large human sacrifices . George Andrew Reisner excavated sites at the royal city of Kerma and found distinctive Nubian architecture , such as large pebble covered tombs (90 meters in diameter),

4256-431: The most venerated woman in Egyptian history", was thought by some scholars such as Flinders Petrie to be of Nubian origin because she is most often depicted with black skin. The mummy of Ahmose-Nefertari 's father, Seqenenre Tao , has been described as presenting "tightly curled, woolly hair", with "a slight build and strongly Nubian features". Some modern scholars also believe that in some depictions, her skin color

4332-434: The next 600 years. Old Kingdom Egyptian dynasties (4th to 6th) controlled uninhabited Lower Nubia and raided Upper Nubia. The pre-Kerma developed into the Middle phase Kerma group. Some A-group people (transitioning to C-group) settled the area and co-existed with the pre-Kerma group. Like other Nubian groups, the two groups made an abundance of red pottery with black tops, though each group made different shapes. Traces of

4408-537: The oldest open-air hut in the world) and diverse hunting and gathering loci some 50,000 years old". In southern Nubia (near modern Khartoum) from the ninth to the sixth millennia cal BC, Khartoum Mesolithic fisher-hunter-gatherers produced sophisticated pottery. By 5000 BC, the people who inhabited what is now called Nubia participated in the Neolithic Revolution . The Sahara became drier and people began to domesticate sheep, goats, and cattle. Saharan rock reliefs depict scenes that have been thought to suggest

4484-629: The origins of the Kushite kings of the 25th Dynasty: some scholars believe they were Nubian officials that learned "state level organization" by administering Egyptian-held Nubia from 1500 to 1070 BC, such as the rebel Viceroy of Kush, Panehesy, who ruled Upper Nubia and some of Lower Nubia after Egyptian forces withdrew. Other scholars believe they are descended from families of the Egyptianized Nubian elite supported by Egyptian priests or settlers. Children of elite Nubian families were sent to be educated in Egypt then returned to Kush to be appointed in bureaucratic positions to ensure their loyalty. During

4560-513: The presence of a cattle cult , typical of those seen throughout parts of Eastern Africa and the Nile Valley even to this day. Nubian rock art depicts hunters using bows and arrows in the neolithic period, which is a precursor to Nubian archer culture in later times. Megaliths discovered at Nabta Playa are early examples of what seems to be one of the world's first astronomical devices, predating Stonehenge by almost 2,000 years. This complexity as expressed by different levels of authority within

4636-619: The river as Nehasyu. From Aswan , the southern limit of Egyptian control at the time, Egyptians imported gold, incense, ebony, copper, ivory, and exotic animals from tropical Africa through Nubia. Relations between the Egyptians and Nubians showed peaceful cultural interchange, cooperation, and mixed marriages. Nubian bowmen that settled at Gebelein during the First Intermediate Period married Egyptian women, were buried in Egyptian style, and eventually could not be distinguished from Egyptians. Older scholarship noted that some Egyptian pharaohs may have had Nubian ancestry. Richard Loban expressed

SECTION 60

#1732781063032

4712-416: The royal palaces and tombs in Thebes and the surrounding areas, the Medjay were deployed throughout Upper and Lower Egypt; they were even used during Kamose 's campaign against the Hyksos and became instrumental in turning the Egyptian state into a military power. After the First Intermediate Period of Egypt , the Medjay district was no longer mentioned in written records. From the Middle Kerma phase,

4788-422: The society there likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt . American anthropologist, Joseph Vogel wrote that: "The period when sub-Saharan Africa was most influential in Egypt was a time when neither Egypt, as we understand it culturally, nor the Sahara, as we understand it geographically, existed. Populations and cultures now found south of

4864-429: The throne of England. The conflicts ended with the defeat of Richard III by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth Field , establishing the Tudor dynasty in the later part of the century. Constantinople , known as the capital of the world and the capital of the Byzantine Empire , fell to the emerging Muslim Ottoman Turks , marking the end of the tremendously influential Byzantine Empire and, for some historians,

4940-703: The view that Mentuhotep II of the 11th Dynasty "was quite possibly of Nubian origin" and cited historical evidence which mentioned that Amenemhet I , founder of the 12th Dynasty, "had a Ta Seti or Nubian mother". Dietrich Wildung has argued that Nubian features were common in Egyptian iconography since the pre-dynastic era and that several pharaohs such as Khufu and Mentuhotep II were represented with these Nubian features. Frank Yurco wrote that "Egyptian rulers of Nubian ancestry had become Egyptians culturally; as pharaohs, they exhibited typical Egyptian attitudes and adopted typical Egyptian policies". Yurco noted that some Middle Kingdom rulers, particularly some pharaohs of

5016-403: The years 1900 to 1999 constitute the 20th century, and the years 2000 to 2099 constitute the 21st century. (This is similar to the grouping of "0-to-9 decades" which share the 'tens' digit.) To facilitate calendrical calculations by computer, the astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 systems both contain a year zero , with the astronomical year 0 corresponding to the year 1 BC,

5092-455: The years 1501–1600 or 1500–1599. While the century has been commonly used in the West, other cultures and calendars have utilized differently sized groups of years in a similar manner. The Hindu calendar , in particular, summarizes its years into groups of 60, while the Aztec calendar considers groups of 52. Nubia Nubia ( / ˈ nj uː b i ə / , Nobiin : Nobīn , Arabic : النُوبَة , romanized :  an-Nūba )

5168-468: The years 1900–1999. In Swedish, however, a century is in more rare cases referred to as det n-te seklet/århundradet ("the n-th century") rather than n-hundratalet , i.e. the 17th century is (in rare cases) referred to as 17:(d)e/sjuttonde århundradet/seklet rather than 1600-talet and mainly also referring to the years 1601–1700 rather than 1600–1699; according to Svenska Akademiens ordbok , 16:(d)e/sextonde århundradet may refer to either

5244-449: Was "sometimes portrayed by later generations as having been black, although her coffin portrait gives her the typical light yellow skin of women." In 2009, Egyptologist Elena Vassilika, noting that in a wooden statuette of the queen (now at the Museo Egizio ) the face is painted black but the arms and feet are light in color, argued that the reason for the black coloring in that case was religious and not genetic. In 1098–1088 BC, Thebes

5320-433: Was "the scene of a civil war-like conflict between the High Priest of Amun of Thebes Amenhotep and the Viceroy of Kush Panehesy (= the Nubian)". It was chaotic and many tombs were plundered. Instead of sending soldiers to restore order, Ramesses XI put Panehesy in control of that area's military and appointed him Director of Granaries. Panehesy stationed his troops in Thebes to protect the city from thieves, but it resembled

5396-401: Was centered at Kerma and Shaat was centered on Sai island. Bonnet posits that Kush actually ruled all of Upper Nubia, since "royal" graves were much larger in Kush than Shaat and Egyptian texts other than the Execration lists only refer to Kush (and not Shaat). C-group Nubians resettled Lower Nubia by 2400 BC. As trade between Egypt and Nubia increased, so did wealth and stability. Nubia

5472-505: Was divided into a series of small kingdoms. There is debate over whether the C-group people, who flourished from 2500 BC to 1500 BC, were another internal evolution or invaders. O'Connor states "a transition from A group into a later culture, the C-group, can be traced" and the C-group culture was typical of Lower Nubia from 2400 to 1650 BC. Although they lived in close proximity to each other, Nubians did not acculturate much to Egyptian culture. Notable exceptions include C-group Nubians during

5548-417: Was independent and increasingly powerful during this time. These Egyptian garrisons seemed to peacefully coexist with the local Nubian people, though they did not interact much with them. Medjay was the name given by ancient Egypt to nomadic desert dwellers from east of the Nile river. The term was used variously to describe a location, the Medjay people, or their role/job in the kingdom. They became part of

5624-412: Was named the new High Priest of Thebes (and effectively King of Southern Egypt) and Paiankh was named the new Viceroy of Kush. Paiankh recaptured former Egyptian holdings in Lower Nubia as far as the second Nile cataract, but could not defeat Panehesy in Lower Nubia, who ruled the area until his death. Herihor's descendants became rulers of Egypt's 21st and 22nd Dynasties. There are competing theories on

5700-806: Was spoken north of Nyala in Darfur , but became extinct as late as 1970. However, the linguistic identity of the ancient Kerma culture of southern and central Nubia (also known as Upper Nubia ), is uncertain; some research suggests that it belonged to the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic languages , while more recent studies indicate that the Kerma culture belonged to the Eastern Sudanic branch of Nilo-Saharan languages instead, and that other peoples of northern or Lower Nubia north of Kerma (such as

5776-561: Was the burial place of the ancestors of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty." The early el-Kurru burials resemble Nubian Kerma/C-group traditions (contracted body, circular stone structures, burial on a bed). However, by 880–815 BC, Nubian burials at el-Kurru became more Egyptian in style with "mastabas, or pyramid on mastabas, chapels, and rectangular enclosures". Alara, the first el-Kurru prince, and his successor, Kashta , were buried at el-Kurru. Later documents mention Alara as

#31968