69-709: Francesco I Sforza KG ( Italian: [franˈtʃesko ˈpriːmo ˈsfɔrtsa] ; 23 July 1401 – 8 March 1466) was an Italian condottiero who founded the Sforza dynasty in the duchy of Milan , ruling as its (fourth) duke from 1450 until his death. In the 1420s, he participated in the War of L'Aquila and in the 1430s fought for the Papal States and Milan against Venice . Once the war between Milan and Venice ended in 1441 under mediation by Sforza, he successfully invaded southern Italy alongside René of Anjou , pretender to
138-674: A Royal Peculiar , was not under diocesan jurisdiction. The office of Chancellor was removed from the Bishop of Oxford (the outgoing bishop, Thomas Strong , had been outspoken in the Edward VIII abdication crisis ), and so it was withheld from his successor, Kenneth Kirk , and has since been held by one of the Knights and Ladies Companion. The office of Register has been held by the Dean of Windsor since 1558. The Garter Principal King of Arms
207-476: A cocked hat with a plume , and a sword on a white baldric. For the Order's ceremonial occasions, such as the annual Garter Day, the members wear elaborate vestments and accoutrements , which include: Up until the middle part of the 20th century, it was customary to wear Tudor style under-dress, consisting of white silk embroidered doublet , breeches , full hose , white doeskin pumps with satin bows and
276-867: A state visit to the United Kingdom. The Emperor was particularly pleased by the restoration to the Garter. The Order has six officers: the Prelate , the Chancellor , the Register, the Garter Principal King of Arms , the Usher , and the Secretary. The offices of Prelate, Register, and Usher were created on the order's establishment; those of Garter Principal King of Arms and Chancellor, in
345-553: A Calabrese noblewoman. From 1419, he fought alongside his father, soon gaining fame for being able to bend metal bars with his bare hands. He later proved himself to be an expert tactician and a very skilled field commander. After the death of his father during the War of L'Aquila , he participated in Braccio da Montone 's final defeat in that campaign; he fought subsequently for the Neapolitan army and then for Pope Martin V and
414-457: A mistress, Isotta degli Atti . His interest in Isotta began in 1445, when she was twelve. Their relationship began in 1446, and she gave birth to their first child in 1447. He married Isotta in 1453 or 1454. Pope Pius II excommunicated and tried Sigismondo in 1460 and 1461, accusing him, along with many other charges, of having both Ginevra and Polissena killed. When this failed to have
483-553: A monument to Francesco I Sforza. A clay model of a horse which was to be used as part of the design was completed by Leonardo in 1492—but the statue was never built. In 1999 the horse alone was cast from Leonardo's original designs in bronze and placed in Milan outside the racetrack of Ippodromo del Galoppo. Francesco Sforza with his second wife Bianca Maria Visconti had: Francesco Sforza also had an unspecified number (possibly 35) of illegitimate children. Giovanna d'Acquapendente , who
552-426: A statute of Queen Elizabeth II, the installation of "Ladies Companion of the Garter" became possible. In 2022, Valerie Amos, Baroness Amos , became the first Black Lady Companion of the Order since its foundation. Eliza Manningham-Buller , Baroness Manningham-Buller, became the first Lady Companion to be appointed chancellor of the Order , on 18 June 2024. Membership in the Order is strictly limited and includes
621-472: A sword belt with sword, under the robes. Nowadays, morning dress or a lounge suit is worn, except for coronations when Tudor under-dress is worn by the canopy-bearers. On other occasions when decorations are worn, the members wear simpler insignia: On the death of a member, the Lesser George and breast star are returned personally to the sovereign by the former member's nearest male relative, and
690-783: A worship service, before which the formal installation of the new knights takes place. While (then just) knights continued to be invested with their ensigns, the formal installation of knights at St George's Chapel ceased in 1805. Installation, along with the annual Garter service, returned in 1948; on the occasion of the order's 600th anniversary. Members are assigned positions in the order of precedence , coming before all others of knightly rank, and above baronets . The wives, sons, daughters and daughters-in-law of Knights Companion are also assigned precedence. Relatives of Ladies Companion are not, however, assigned any special positions. (Generally, individuals can derive precedence from their fathers or husbands, but not from their wives.) The Chancellor
759-546: Is ex officio the senior officer of the College of Arms (the heraldic authority of England), and is usually appointed from among the other officers of arms at the College. As the title suggests, Garter Principal King of Arms has specific duties as the Order's officer of arms, attending to the companions' coats of arms and banners of arms , which are exhibited in the chapel. The Secretary, who acts as deputy to Garter in
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#1732765834747828-646: Is also assigned precedence, but since 1837 the office has been held by a diocesan bishop of the Church of England or a peer , who have a higher precedence than that bestowed by the Chancellorship. Knights Companion prefix " Sir " and Ladies Companion prefix " Lady " to their forenames. Wives of Knights Companion may prefix "Lady" to their surnames, but no corresponding privilege exists for husbands of Ladies Companion. Such forms are not used by royalty, peers, peeresses, or Anglican clergymen, who instead use only
897-749: Is likely to have been inspired by the Castilian Order of the Band , established in about 1330. At the time of its foundation, the Order consisted of King Edward III, together with 25 Founder Knights, listed in ascending order of stall number in St George's Chapel : They are all depicted by individual portraits in the Bruges Garter Book compiled c. 1431 , and now in the British Library . Various legends account for
966-632: The Black Rod . St George's Chapel in Windsor is the mother church of the Order of the Garter and the location of special services in relation to the Order. During their lifetime, all members of the Order of the Garter are entitled to display their heraldic crests and banners in St George's Chapel. While the Garter stall plates ( see below ) stay in the chapel permanently, the crests and banners of deceased knights are, following presentation at
1035-515: The Duke of Milan , Filippo Maria Visconti . After some successes, he fell in disgrace and was sent to the castle of Mortara as a prisoner. He regained his status after leading an expedition against Lucca . In 1431, after fighting again for the Papal States , he led the Milanese army against Venice ; the following year the duke's daughter, Bianca Maria , was betrothed to him. Despite these moves,
1104-618: The Holy Roman Empire by Maximilian I in 1494. Francesco Sforza was born in Cigoli , near San Miniato , Tuscany, one of the seven illegitimate sons of the condottiero Muzio Sforza and Lucia de Martini . He was the brother of Alessandro Sforza . He spent his childhood in Tricarico (in the modern Basilicata ), the marquisate of which he was granted in 1412 by King Ladislaus of Naples . In 1418, he married Polissena Ruffo ,
1173-553: The Kingdom of Naples were occupied by King Alfonso I , and, to recover the situation, Sforza reconciled himself with Filippo Visconti. On 25 October 1441, in Cremona , he could finally marry Bianca Maria as part of the agreements that ended the war between Milan and Venice. The following year, he allied with René of Anjou , pretender to the throne of Naples, and marched against southern Italy. After some initial setbacks, he defeated
1242-575: The River Adda , built. During Sforza's reign, Florence was under the command of Cosimo de' Medici and the two rulers became close friends. This friendship eventually manifested in first the Peace of Lodi and then the Italian League , a multi-polar defensive alliance of Italian states that succeeded in stabilising almost all of Italy for its duration. After the peace, Sforza renounced part of
1311-417: The patron saint of Milan. Agnese del Maino , his wife's mother, convinced the condottiero who held Pavia to restore it to him. He also received the seigniory of other cities of the duchy, including Lodi , and started to carefully plan the conquest of the ephemeral republic, allying with William VIII of Montferrat and (again) Venice. In 1450, after years of famine, riots raged in the streets of Milan and
1380-470: The 15th century; and that of Secretary, in the 20th century. William of Edington , Bishop of Winchester , was the first Prelate of the Order, and that office has since been held by his successors at Winchester, traditionally a senior bishopric of the Church of England . The office of Chancellor is now held by one of the companions of the order. For most of its existence, the Bishop of Salisbury has held
1449-498: The 17th century, there were only thirteen such knights. King Charles II increased the number to 18 (in large part because of funds allocated from Sir Francis Crane's will) after his coronation in 1660. After the knights objected to being termed "poor", King William IV redesignated them in the 19th century as the Military Knights of Windsor. The poor knights were impoverished military veterans, required to pray daily for
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#17327658347471518-422: The 19 yere [ sic ] of this kinge, he made a solempne feest at Wyndesore, and a greate justes and turnament, where he devysed, and perfyted substanegally, the order of the knyghtes of the garter; howe be it some afferme that this order began fyrst by kynge Rycharde, Cure de Lyon, at the sege of the citye of Acres; where, in his great necessyte, there were but 26 knyghtes that fyrmely and surely abode by
1587-558: The Companions of the Order and their spouses, and by the Officers of the Order. After the banquet all the knights and ladies of the order, together with the prelate, chancellor and other officers of the order, in their mantles and ceremonial robes, led by the Military Knights of Windsor, move in procession, watched by a great crowd of spectators, through the castle, down the hill, which is lined with soldiers, to Saint George's Chapel for
1656-713: The Crown, or for distinguished personal service to the Monarch. Membership of the order is limited to the sovereign, the Prince of Wales , and no more than 24 living members, or Companions. The order also includes Supernumerary Knights and Ladies (e.g., members of the British royal family and foreign monarchs). The order's emblem is a garter circlet with the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense ( Anglo-Norman for 'Shame on him who thinks evil of it') in gold script. Members of
1725-581: The Crown. From the late 15th century, there was a formal ceremony of degradation, in which Garter King of Arms , accompanied by the rest of the Heralds , processed to St George's Chapel. While the Garter King read aloud the Instrument of Degradation, a Herald climbed up a ladder and removed the former Knight's banner , crest , helm , and sword , throwing them down into the quire . Then the rest of
1794-521: The French throne, and the Order of the Garter was created to help pursue this claim. The use of the garter as an emblem may have derived from straps used to fasten armour, and may have been chosen because it held overtones of a tight-knit "band" or "bond" of knightly "supporters" of Edward's cause. There is a connection between the Order of the Garter and the Middle English poem Sir Gawain and
1863-669: The Garter is an order of chivalry founded by Edward III of England in 1348. The most senior order of knighthood in the British honours system , it is outranked in precedence only by the decorations of the Victoria Cross and the George Cross . The Order of the Garter is dedicated to the image and arms of Saint George , England's patron saint . Appointments are at the Sovereign 's sole discretion, typically made in recognition of national contribution, service to
1932-453: The Garter named was Queen Alexandra, by her husband King Edward VII . King George V also made his consort, Queen Mary , a Lady of the Garter and King George VI subsequently did the same for his wife, Queen Elizabeth , and his daughter Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II). Throughout the 20th century, women continued to be associated with the Order, but save for foreign female monarchs, they were not made Companions. In 1987, by
2001-408: The Garter", belong to the royal family . These titles were introduced in 1786 by King George III so that his many sons would not curtail the number of non-royal companions. He created the statute of supernumerary members in 1805 so that any descendant of King George II could be installed as such a member. In 1831, this statute was extended again to include all descendants of King George I . With
2070-657: The Garter, the Order of the Thistle and the dormant Order of St Patrick ) became a personal gift of the Sovereign once again. Thus, the sovereign personally selects Knights and Ladies Companion of the Garter, without political influence. Appointments are typically announced on Saint George's Day (23 April). The Order includes supernumerary members, whose number do not count towards the limit of 24 companions. Several supernumerary members, known as "Royal Knights and Ladies of
2139-465: The Garter. Each June, on Garter Day, the members of the Order, wearing their habits and garter insignia, meet at Windsor Castle . When any new Knights and/or Ladies of the Garter are due for installation, an investiture ceremony is held in the Throne Room of Windsor Castle on the morning of Garter Day. This ceremony is attended by all available Knights and Ladies Companion of the Order, wearing
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2208-473: The Garter. Knights and Ladies Companion are also entitled to receive heraldic supporters , a privilege granted to few other private individuals. While some families claim supporters by ancient use, and others have been granted them as a special reward, only members of the Royal Family, peers, Knights and Ladies Companion of the Garter, Knights and Ladies of the Thistle, and Knights and Dames Grand Cross of
2277-449: The Garter. Queen Elizabeth I replaced the mantles in the 16th and 17th centuries with blue and purple gowns, but the red mantles returned in the 17th century under King Charles I . When the knights were renamed, the mantles were abandoned. The military knights now wear the old military uniform of an "army officer on the unattached list": black trousers with red stripe, a red double-breasted swallow-tailed coat, gold epaulets and brushes,
2346-605: The Green Knight (late 14th century). The motto is inscribed, as hony soyt qui mal pence , at the end of the text in the sole surviving manuscript in the British Library , albeit in a later hand. In the poem, a girdle , very similar in its erotic undertones to the garter, plays a prominent role. A rough equivalent of the Order's motto has been identified in Gawain's exclamation corsed worth cowarddyse and couetyse boþe ('cursed be both cowardice and coveting', v. 2374). While
2415-529: The Heralds kicked them down the length of the chapel, out of the doors, and into the castle ditch. The last such formal degradation was that of James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde , in 1716. During the First World War, two Royal Knights and six Stranger Knights, all monarchs or princes of enemy nations and including Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, and Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria , were struck off
2484-631: The High Altar, removed from the chapel. Sometimes they are then given to institutions that were connected with the late knight, or kept privately depending on family wishes. Originally after a knight's death, the crests became the property of Garter King of Arms, and these crests have been the subject of occasional exhibitions in the Earl Marshal's Court at the College of Arms . Garter stall plates are small enamelled and engraved brass plates located in St George's Chapel as memorials to Knights of
2553-557: The Knights Companion. In return, they received a salary and lodging in Windsor Castle. The knights are no longer necessarily poor, but are still military pensioners. They participate in the Order's processions, escorting the members, and in the chapel services. However, they are not considered members of the Order. The poor knights originally wore red mantles , each of which bore St George's Cross, but did not depict
2622-459: The Monarch, the Prince of Wales , not more than 24 Companion members, and various supernumerary members. The monarch alone decides who is appointed. The monarch is known as the Sovereign of the Garter , and the Prince of Wales is known as a Royal Knight Companion of the Garter . Male members of the Order are titled "Knights Companion" and female members are called "Ladies Companion". Formerly,
2691-632: The Neapolitan commander Niccolò Piccinino, who had invaded his possessions in Romagna and Marche, through the help of Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta (who had married his daughter Polissena ) and the Venetians, and could return to Milan. Sforza later found himself warring against Francesco Piccinino (whom he defeated at the Battle of Montolmo in 1444) and, later, the alliance of Visconti, Eugene IV, and Malatesta, who had allegedly murdered Polissena. With
2760-401: The Order, women were appointed "Ladies of the Garter", but some historians argue that they were not appointed Companions, as they were not Knights. Queen Philippa was the first Lady to be appointed in 1358. King Henry VII discontinued the practice in 1488; his mother, Margaret Beaufort , was the last Lady of the Garter before Queen Alexandra . Except for female sovereigns, the next Lady of
2829-471: The age of thirteen, she married Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta , Lord of Rimini. She became Sigismondo's second wife, after Ginevra d'Este , who had died in 1440. During their marriage, Polissena participated in the social and ceremonial aspects of Rimini's court . She had two children with Sigismondo: Galeotto, born in January 1443 and Giovanna [ it ] , born in 1444 or 1445. Giovanna
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2898-399: The author of that poem remains disputed, there seems to be a connection between two of the top candidates and the Order of the Garter, John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster , and Enguerrand de Coucy , seventh Sire de Coucy . De Coucy was married to King Edward III's daughter, Isabella , and was given admittance to the Order of the Garter on their wedding day." Soon after the founding of
2967-592: The ceremonial aspects of the Order, has since 1952 typically also been selected from the other officers of the College of Arms. The office of Usher is held by the Usher of the Black Rod , who is also the Serjeant-at-Arms of the House of Lords . At the founding of the Order of the Garter, 26 "poor knights" were appointed and attached to the Order and its chapel. This number was not always maintained, and by
3036-461: The ceremonial habits and garter insignia, and also by their spouses. The wording of the oath sworn by the new knights at this ceremony and of the Admonitions addressed to them in turn by the prelate and chancellor of the order when the several items of insignia are placed upon them are extremely similar to the traditions of the past. At the investiture ceremony, two senior knights or ladies of
3105-648: The city's senate decided to entrust him with the duchy. Sforza entered the city as duke on 26 February. It was the first time that such a title was handed over by a lay institution. While the other Italian states gradually recognized Sforza as the legitimate Duke of Milan, he was never able to obtain official investiture from the Holy Roman Emperor . That did not come to the Sforza Dukes until 1494, when Emperor Maximilian formally invested Francesco's son, Ludovico , as duke of Milan. Under his rule (which
3174-574: The conquests in eastern Lombardy obtained by his condottieri Bartolomeo Colleoni , Ludovico Gonzaga , and Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona after 1451. As King Alfonso I of Naples was among the signatories of the treaty, Sforza also abandoned his long support of the Angevin pretenders to Naples. He also aimed to conquer Genoa , then an Angevin possession; when a revolt broke out there in 1461, he had Spinetta Campofregoso elected as Doge , as his puppet. Sforza occupied Genoa and Savona in 1464. Sforza
3243-415: The earliest written version of this story dates from the 1460s, and it seems to have been conceived as a retrospective explanation for the adoption of what was then seen as an item of female underclothing as the symbol of a band of knights. In fact, at the time of the Order's establishment in the mid-14th century, garters were predominantly an item of male attire. According to another legend, King Richard I
3312-451: The help of Venice, Sforza was again victorious and, in exchange for abandoning the Venetians, received the title of capitano generale (commander-in-chief) of the Duchy of Milan's armies. After Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, died without a male heir in 1447, fighting broke out to restore the so-called Ambrosian Republic . The name Ambrosian Republic takes its name from St. Ambrose ,
3381-448: The installation of Emperor Alexander I of Russia in 1813, supernumerary membership was extended to foreign monarchs, who are known as "Stranger Knights and Ladies of the Garter". Each such installation originally required the enactment of a statute; however, a 1954 statute authorises the regular admission of Stranger Knights or Ladies without further special enactments. The sovereign may " degrade " members who have taken up arms against
3450-573: The junior orders of chivalry are automatically entitled to them. Polissena Sforza Polissena Sforza (1428 – June 1, 1449) was an Italian noblewoman and wife of the Lord of Rimini. She was the daughter of the condottiero Francesco Sforza , the future Duke of Milan , and Giovanna d'Acquapendente , his mistress, with whom he had five children. She was named Polissena [ it ] after Francesco's first wife, Polissena Ruffo , who had died in 1420. Between 1441 and April 1442, at
3519-565: The kynge; where he caused all them to were thonges of blew leyther about theyr legges. And afterwarde they were called the knyghtes of the blew thonge." I am obliged for this passage to John Fenn, Esq; a curious and ingenious gentleman of East-Dereham, in Norfolk, who is in possession of the most rare book whence it is taken. Hence some affirm, that the origin of the garter is to be dated from Richard I* and that it owes its pomp and splendor to Edward III. The motto in fact refers to Edward's claim to
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#17327658347473588-430: The latest notice (according to the book) is 20 October 1345. Other dates from 1344 to 1351 have also been proposed. The King's wardrobe account shows Garter habits first issued in the autumn of 1348. Also, its original statutes required that each member of the Order already be a knight (what would now be referred to as a knight bachelor ) and some of the initial members listed were only knighted that year. Its foundation
3657-458: The office, although laymen held it from 1553 to 1671. In 1837, after boundary changes made Windsor Castle fall in the diocese of Oxford , the Chancellorship was transferred to the Bishop of Oxford . A century later, the Bishop of Salisbury challenged this transfer, on the grounds that the Chancellorship had been attached to his office regardless of the diocese in which the chapel of the order lay; and that, in any event, St George's Chapel , as
3726-483: The order assist the Sovereign by placing the garter around the left leg of the new knight, or left arm of the new lady, and in the fastening of the riband and Lesser George about the body of the new knight or lady, and in the adjustment of the mantle and the collar. After the investiture ceremony at Windsor is concluded, a state luncheon is held in the Banqueting Room. This is attended by the royal family, by all
3795-489: The order wear it on ceremonial occasions. King Edward III founded the Order of the Garter around the time of his claim to the French throne . The traditional year of foundation is usually given as 1348 (when it was formally proclaimed). However, The Complete Peerage , under "The Founders of the Order of the Garter", states the order was first instituted on 23 April 1344, listing each founding member as knighted in 1344. The list includes Sir Sanchet D'Abrichecourt , of whom
3864-465: The origin of the Order. The most popular involves the "Countess of Salisbury", whose garter is said to have slipped from her leg while she was dancing at a court ball at Calais . When the surrounding courtiers snickered, the King picked it up and returned it to her, exclaiming, " Honi soit qui mal y pense! " ('Shame on him who thinks ill of it!'), which phrase has become the Order's motto . However,
3933-633: The other insignia to the Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood , save the riband, mantle and hat. For ceremonial occasions of the Order, the officers wear the following garments and accessories: The chancellor carries a purse, which is embroidered with the royal arms impaled by the Cross of St George. The purse contains the seal of the Order. Garter Principal King of Arms carries his baton of office . The usher carries their staff of office,
4002-440: The post-nominal letters. Knights and Ladies Companion use the post-nominal letters "KG" and "LG" respectively. When an individual is entitled to use multiple post-nominal letters, those of the Order of the Garter appear before all others, except "Bt" or "Bart" ( Baronet ), "VC" ( Victoria Cross ) and "GC" ( George Cross ). In their heraldic achievements , members of the Order of the Garter may encircle their escutcheon with
4071-504: The prestigious Order of the Garter . He accepted and became a knight of the Garter in 1463. Sforza suffered from hydropsy and gout . In 1462, rumours spread that he was dead and a riot exploded in Milan. He however survived for four more years, finally dying in March 1466. He was succeeded as duke by his son, Galeazzo Maria Sforza . Francesco's successor Ludovico commissioned Leonardo da Vinci to design an equestrian statue as part of
4140-429: The roll of the order, their appointments being annulled in 1915. The banner of King Victor Emmanuel III was removed from the chapel after Italy entered World War II against the United Kingdom and its allies in 1940. The banner of Emperor Hirohito was removed from St George's Chapel when Japan entered World War II in 1941, but that banner and his knighthood were restored by Elizabeth II in 1971, when Hirohito made
4209-422: The sovereign acting alone, with no prior nominations. The statutes prescribing the former procedure were not amended, however, until 1953. From the 18th century, the sovereign made their choices on the advice of the government . In 1946, with the agreement of Prime Minister Clement Attlee and Opposition Leader Winston Churchill , membership of Great Britain's highest ranking orders of chivalry (the Order of
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#17327658347474278-497: The sovereign filled vacancies upon the nomination of the members. Each member would nominate nine candidates, of whom three had to have the rank of earl or higher, three the rank of baron or higher, and three the rank of knight or higher. The sovereign would choose as many nominees as were necessary to fill any vacancies in the order. They were not obliged to choose those who received the most nominations. Candidates were last nominated in 1860, and appointments have since been made by
4347-506: The throne of Naples, and after that returned to Milan . He was instrumental in the Treaty of Lodi (1454) which ensured peace in the Italian realms for a time by ensuring a strategic balance of power. He died in 1466 and was succeeded as duke by his son, Galeazzo Maria Sforza . While Sforza was recognized as duke of Milan, his son Ludovico would be the first to have formal investiture under
4416-591: The wary Filippo Maria never ceased to be distrustful of Sforza. The allegiance of mercenary leaders was dependent, of course, on pay; in 1433–1435, Sforza led the Milanese attack on the Papal States, but when he conquered Ancona , in Marche , he changed sides, obtaining the title of vicar of the city directly from Pope Eugene IV . In 1436–39, he served variously both in Florence and Venice. In 1440, his fiefs in
4485-486: Was Francesco's official lover between the death of his first wife and his marriage to Bianca Maria Visconti, gave him 7 children including: with Brigida Caimi (daughter of Franchino Caimi) with Elisabetta de Prata with Perpetua di Varese with Elisabetta da Robecco( also known as Elisabetta delle Grazie) By unknown mothers Knight of the Order of the Garter The Most Noble Order of
4554-604: Was inspired in the 12th century by St George the Martyr while fighting in the Crusades to tie garters around the legs of his knights, who subsequently won the battle. King Edward supposedly recalled the event in the 14th century when he founded the Order. This story is recounted in a letter to the Annual Register in 1774: In Rastel's Chronicle, I. vi. under the life of Edward III is the following curious passage: "About
4623-534: Was married to Giulio Cesare da Varano [ it ] , with a betrothal in 1451. Galeotto died young, predeceasing Polissena. Pope Nicholas V issued a bull declaring Polissena of legitimate birth on November 1, 1448. On June 1, 1449, Polissena died in Rimini at the Abbey of Scolca. Her death was likely due to plague, although there were rumors she was suffocated on Sigismondo's orders. The rumors are not generally credited by modern historians. During his marriage to Polissena, Sigismondo also had
4692-401: Was moderate and skilful), Sforza modernised the city and duchy. He created an efficient system of taxation that generated enormous revenues for the government, his court became a centre of Renaissance learning and culture, and the people of Milan grew to love him. In Milan, he founded the Ospedale Maggiore , restored the Palazzo ducale , and had the Naviglio d'Adda , a channel connecting with
4761-485: Was the first European ruler to follow a foreign policy based on the concept of the balance of power , and the first native Italian ruler to conduct extensive diplomacy outside the peninsula to counter the power of threatening states such as France. Sforza's policies succeeded in keeping foreign powers from dominating Italian politics for the rest of the century. Edward IV of England sought to strengthen friendly relations with Sforza and accordingly offered him membership in
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