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126-698: Francis founded the Third Order, originally called the Brothers and Sisters of Penance , in 1221, to accommodate men and women who, either from already being in consecrated life as hermits , or from being married, were ineligible to join the Franciscan First or Second Orders, respectively. In this way, they could live their lives affiliated to the Franciscan vision of the Gospel . The Order

252-600: A Jesuit , founded a new society of diocesan priests, the Institute of the Heart of Jesus. He also founded the Daughters of the Heart of Mary ( French : Société des Filles du Coeur de Marie ). While living a life of perfection, they did not take vows, remaining a secular institute to avoid being considered a religious society by the government. They would eventually receive Pontifical institute status in 1952. The Daughters of

378-639: A fourth vow . Members of the Consecrated life are not necessarily part of the hierarchy of the Catholic Church , unless they are also clerics . The Catechism of the Catholic Church comments: "From the very beginning of the Church there were men and women who set out to follow Christ with greater liberty, and to imitate him more closely, by practising the evangelical counsels. They led lives dedicated to God, each in his own way. Many of them, under

504-453: A Catholic viewpoint, the primacy of the bishop of Rome is largely derived from his role as the apostolic successor to Saint Peter , to whom primacy was conferred by Jesus, who gave Peter the Keys of Heaven and the powers of "binding and loosing", naming him as the "rock" upon which the Church would be built. While his office is called the papacy , the jurisdiction of the episcopal see

630-530: A common head develop. Pope Martin V submitted in 1428 all tertiaries, regular and secular, to the direction of the Minister-General of the Friars Minor, but this disposition was soon revoked by his successor Pope Eugene IV . Leo X, to introduce uniformity into the numerous congregations, gave a new form to the rule in 1521. It retained the rule as published by Nicholas IV all that could serve

756-683: A few other references of that time to recognition of the authoritative primacy of the Roman See outside of Rome. In the Ravenna Document of 13 October 2007, theologians chosen by the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches stated: Both sides agree that this canonical taxis was recognised by all in the era of the undivided Church. Further, they agree that Rome, as the Church that "presides in love" according to

882-690: A form of consecrated life. They differ from religious institutes in that their members live their lives in the ordinary conditions of the world, either alone, in their families or in fraternal groups. In 1997, Pope John Paul II instituted the World Day of Prayer for Consecrated Life , fixed annually on 2 February, the feast of the Presentation of the Lord . Papal The pope ( Latin : papa , from Ancient Greek : πάππας , romanized :  páppas , lit.   'father')

1008-739: A fully recognized order within the Catholic Church. The order's name was changed from the Third Order Secular to the Secular Franciscan Order. The origin of the Regular Third Order can be traced back to the second half of the thirteenth century. It was organized, in different forms, in the Netherlands, the south of France, Germany, and Italy. Probably some secular tertiaries, who in many cases had their house of meeting, gradually withdrew entirely from

1134-530: A great number of teaching and nursing congregations of women belonged to one or other of the Third Orders. The Franciscan Third Order was always the principal one. In 1883, it received a great impetus and a renewed vogue from Pope Leo XIII in his approval of a new Rule for the seculars. In 1901, Paul Sabatier published a " Rule of Life of the Brothers and Sisters of Penance" , which probably contained

1260-579: A house in Reute on the outskirts of Waldsee. This community was a proto-monastery of the Order, as tertiaries of the mendicant orders had not yet been allowed to profess vows. Angelina of Marsciano is generally credited with the founding of the Third Order Regular for women around 1403, as her religious congregation marked the establishment of the first Franciscan community of women living under

1386-470: A large number of Christian hermits, particularly in the desert of Egypt and in parts of Syria. Though the eremitic life would eventually be overshadowed by the far more numerous vocations to the cenobitic life, it did survive. The Middle Ages saw the emergence of a variant of the hermit, the anchorite ; and life in Carthusian and Camaldolese monasteries has an eremitic emphasis. The Greek Orthodox and

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1512-636: A layman as Pope Leo VIII . John mutilated the Imperial representatives in Rome and had himself reinstated as pope. Conflict between the Emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly. In 1049, Leo IX travelled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably simony and clerical marriage and concubinage . With his long journey, he restored

1638-466: A more exacting way. It includes those in institutes of consecrated life ( religious and secular ), societies of apostolic life , as well as those living as hermits or consecrated virgins . According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church , it "is characterized by the public profession of the evangelical counsels of poverty, chastity , and obedience , in a stable state of life recognized by

1764-479: A passion like his Lord's! Where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's where the Apostle John was first plunged, unhurt, into boiling oil, and thence remitted to his island-exile! According to the same book, Clement of Rome was ordained by Saint Peter as the bishop of Rome. For this is the manner in which the apostolic churches transmit their registers: as the church of Smyrna, which records that Polycarp

1890-523: A regular basis. They can be married, single or clergy. These were reorganized and renamed in 1978, with the approval of Pope Paul VI . The Lutheran and Anglican traditions also have Franciscan Third Orders. Tertiaries (from the Latin tertiarius , relative to "third"), or what are known as "Third Orders", are those who live according to the Third Rule of religious orders, either inside or outside of

2016-440: A religious community. The idea which forms the basis of this institute is to allow those who cannot enter a religious order to enjoy the advantages and privileges of religious orders. When the immediate disciples of the saint had become an order bound by the religious vows, it became necessary to provide for the great body of laity—married men and women who could not leave the world or abandon their avocations, but still were part of

2142-619: A religious order with solemn vows, although the members were divided into the professed with solemn vows (a minority) and the "coadjutors" with simple vows. It was founded in the wake of the Protestant Reformation , introducing several innovations designed to meet the demands of the 16th century crisis. Its members were freed from the commitments of common life, especially the common prayer, which allowed them to minister individually in distant places. Their unusually long formation, typically thirteen years, prepared them to represent

2268-550: A rule for tertiaries with simple vows. Under this rule, enclosure was optional, enabling non-enclosed followers of the rule to engage in various works of charity not allowed to enclosed religious. In 1566 and 1568, Pope Pius V rejected this classification, but their presence was tolerated and they continued to increase in number. Their lives were oriented toward social service and to evangelization in Europe and mission areas. The number of these congregations increased further in

2394-540: A similar nature, and so there came into being Dominican Tertiaries, and Carmelite , Augustinian , Servite , Premonstratensian , and many others. These followed the same lines of development as the Franciscan Tertiaries. By the fifteenth century, numerous individuals living under the Rule of the Third Order were living in small communities and leading eremitical lives. A papal decree of 1447 organized

2520-590: A structure before Rome. In Rome, there were over time at various junctures rival claimants to be the rightful bishop, though again Irenaeus stressed the validity of one line of bishops from the time of St. Peter up to his contemporary Pope Victor I and listed them. Some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, but not necessarily monarchical bishops. Documents of

2646-469: Is addressed to Pope Cornelius , and affirmed his unique authority in the early Christian Church. Cornelius [the Bishop of Rome] was made bishop by the choice of God and of His Christ, by the favorable witness of almost all the clergy, by the votes of the people who were present, and by the assembly of ancient priests and good men. And he was made bishop when no one else had been made bishop before him when

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2772-574: Is called the Holy See . It is the Holy See that is the sovereign entity under international law headquartered in the distinctively independent Vatican City, a city-state which forms a geographical enclave within the conurbation of Rome , established by the Lateran Treaty in 1929 between Fascist Italy and the Holy See to ensure its temporal and spiritual independence. The Holy See

2898-655: Is divided into two different branches, each with its own Rule of Life : 1) the friars and nuns of the Third Order Regular of Saint Francis of Penance as well as the men and women who live in hundreds of religious congregations worldwide; 2) the Third Order Secular, now called the Secular Franciscan Order , who belong to local fraternities . These members do not wear a religious habit , take promises, not religious vows , and do not live in community, but gather together in fellowship on

3024-438: Is recognized by its adherence at various levels to international organizations and by means of its diplomatic relations and political accords with many independent states. According to Catholic tradition , the apostolic see of Rome was founded by Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the first century. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in human history . In ancient times,

3150-622: Is seen as an exercise of Roman authority over other churches, excommunicated the Quartodecimans for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan , the date of the Jewish Passover , a tradition handed down by John the Evangelist (see Easter controversy ). Celebration of Easter on a Sunday, as insisted on by the pope, is the system that has prevailed (see computus ). The Edict of Milan in 313 granted freedom to all religions in

3276-469: Is the bishop of Rome and the visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church . He is also known as the supreme pontiff , Roman pontiff , or sovereign pontiff . From the eighth century until 1870, the pope was the sovereign or head of state of the Papal States , and since 1929 of the much smaller Vatican City state. The reigning pope is Francis , who was elected on 13 March 2013 . From

3402-551: The Augustinian Rule ( regula in Latin), and sharing their property in common. Distinct from monks, who live a cloistered, contemplative life and sometimes engage in ministry to those from outside the monastery, canons devote themselves to public ministry of liturgy and sacraments for those who visit their churches. Historically, monastic life was by its nature lay, but canonical life was essentially clerical. Around

3528-723: The Eastern Catholic Churches and in the Eastern Orthodox Church today follow the Rule of St Basil . The Rule of St Benedict is followed by a variety of orders of monastics in the West, including the Order of Saint Benedict , Cistercians , Trappists , and Camaldolese , and is an important influence in Carthusian life. Canons regular are members of certain bodies of priests living in community under

3654-597: The Edict of Thessalonica declared Nicene Christianity to be the state religion of the empire, with the name "Catholic Christians" reserved for those who accepted that faith. While the civil power in the Eastern Roman Empire controlled the church, and the patriarch of Constantinople , the capital, wielded much power, in the Western Roman Empire , the bishops of Rome were able to consolidate

3780-484: The Gospel , or, in the case of consecrated virgins a holy resolution (sanctum propositum) of leading a life of perpetual virginity, prayer and dedication to the service of the Church, which the Church publicly accepts. The Benedictine and Carthusian vows of stability, conversion of manners/life and obedience are evivalent to the more common vows of other religious institutes . Depending on their specific vocation, members of some religious institutes may also take on

3906-647: The Middle Ages , popes struggled with monarchs over power. From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in Avignon . The Avignon Papacy was notorious for greed and corruption. During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of the Kingdom of France , alienating France's enemies, such as the Kingdom of England . The pope was understood to have the power to draw on the Treasury of Merit built up by

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4032-641: The Order of Friars Preachers (the Dominicans), Order of Friars Minor (the Franciscans), Order of the Servants of Mary (Servite Order), Order of St. Augustine (Augustinians) and the Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel (the Carmelites). Until the 16th century recognition was granted only to institutes with solemn vows. By the constitution Inter cetera of 20 January 1521, Pope Leo X appointed

4158-592: The Rule of the Third Order Regular authorized by Pope Nicholas V . Unlike the Second Order of the Franciscan movement, the Poor Clare nuns (who were not an enclosed religious order ) lived under the authority of the local bishop of the diocese . Whilst Leo X in the reform of the rule had left it free to the congregations to adopt papal enclosures or not, Pius V (1568) prescribed it to all convents of tertiary sisters with solemn vows. Still, this order

4284-705: The Society of the Priests of Saint Sulpice , the Society of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart and the Missionary Society of St. Columban . Besides institutes of consecrated life, the Catholic Church recognizes: Each major development in religious life, particularly in the Latin West, can be seen as a response of the very devout to a particular crisis in the Church of their day. When Constantine

4410-554: The Tusculan Papacy . The papacy came under the control of vying political factions. Popes were variously imprisoned, starved, killed, and deposed by force. The family of a certain papal official made and unmade popes for fifty years. The official's great-grandson, Pope John XII , held orgies of debauchery in the Lateran Palace . Emperor Otto I had John accused in an ecclesiastical court, which deposed him and elected

4536-733: The approaching end of the world . Gregory's successors were largely dominated by the exarch of Ravenna , the Byzantine emperor 's representative in the Italian Peninsula . These humiliations, the weakening of the Byzantine Empire in the face of the Muslim conquests , and the inability of the emperor to protect the papal estates against the Lombards , made Pope Stephen II turn from Emperor Constantine V . He appealed to

4662-420: The cardinals , who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of Catholic Ecumenical Councils over the pope's. Conciliarism holds that the supreme authority of the church lies with a General Council, not with the pope. Its foundations were laid early in the 13th century, and it culminated in the 15th century with Jean Gerson as its leading spokesman. The failure of Conciliarism to gain broad acceptance after

4788-473: The unification of Italy . In 1929, the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See established Vatican City as an independent city-state , guaranteeing papal independence from secular rule. In 1950, Pope Pius XII defined the Assumption of Mary as dogma, the only time a pope has spoken ex cathedra since papal infallibility was explicitly declared. The Primacy of St. Peter ,

4914-585: The "Old St. Peter's Basilica" on the location of St. Peter's tomb, as held and given to him by Rome's Christian community, many scholars agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero , although some scholars argue that he may have been martyred in Palestine. Although open to historical debate, first-century Christian communities may have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as guides of their local churches. Gradually, episcopal sees were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such

5040-404: The "Third Order of St. Francis", whence the name Tertiaries. According to the traditions of the Order, the original Rule was given by St. Francis in 1221 to a married couple, Luchesius Modestini and his wife, Buonadonna, who wished to follow him but did not feel called to separate as a married couple. Francis was assisted by his friend Cardinal Ugolino (later Pope Gregory IX) in the creation of

5166-402: The "constitutions" of the society to which they belong. Some societies of apostolic life, but not all of them, define in their constitutions "bonds" of a certain permanence whereby their members embrace the evangelical counsels . The Code of Canon Law gives for societies of apostolic life regulations much less detailed than for institutes of consecrated life, in many instances simply referring to

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5292-412: The 13th century during the rise of the medieval towns and cities the mendicant orders developed. While the monastic foundations were rural institutions marked by a retreat from secular society, the mendicants were urban foundations organized to engage secular city life and to meet some of its needs such as education and service to the poor. The five primary mendicant religious Order of the 13th century are

5418-658: The 15th century is taken as a factor in the Protestant Reformation . Various Antipopes challenged papal authority, especially during the Western Schism (1378–1417). It came to a close when the Council of Constance , at the high point of Concilliarism, decided among the papal claimants. The Eastern Church continued to decline with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, undercutting Constantinople's claim to equality with Rome. Twice an Eastern emperor tried to force

5544-420: The 1st century and early second century indicate that the bishop of Rome had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, as even a letter from the bishop, or patriarch, of Antioch acknowledged the bishop of Rome as "a first among equals", though the detail of what this meant is unclear. Sources suggest that at first, the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, with

5670-465: The Catholic faith, and because he heads the world's largest non-government provider of education and health care , with a vast network of charities. The word pope derives from Ancient Greek πάππας (páppas)  'father'. In the early centuries of Christianity, this title was applied, especially in the East, to all bishops and other senior clergy, and later became reserved in

5796-465: The Christian community, the bishops as a body have succeeded to the body of the apostles ( apostolic succession ) and the bishop of Rome has succeeded to Saint Peter. Scriptural texts proposed in support of Peter's special position in relation to the church include: I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. I will give you

5922-684: The Church between the years 900 and 1050, centres emerged promoting ecclesiastical reform, the most important being the Abbey of Cluny , which spread its ideals throughout Europe. This reform movement gained strength with the election of Pope Gregory VII in 1073, who adopted a series of measures in the movement known as the Gregorian Reform , in order to fight strongly against simony and the abuse of civil power and try to restore ecclesiastical discipline, including clerical celibacy . This conflict between popes and secular autocratic rulers such as

6048-470: The Church". The Code of Canon Law defines it as "a stable form of living by which the faithful, following Christ more closely under the action of the Holy Spirit, are totally dedicated to God who is loved most of all, so that, having been dedicated by a new and special title to his honour, to the building up of the Church, and to the salvation of the world, they strive for the perfection of charity in

6174-458: The Church's ordination. Irenaeus of Lyons ( c.  130 – c. 202 AD), a prominent Christian theologian of the second century, provided a list of early popes in his work Against Heresies III . The list covers the period from Saint Peter to Pope Eleutherius who served from 174 to 189 AD. The blessed apostles [Peter and Paul], then, having founded and built up the Church [in Rome], committed into

6300-516: The Donatists (367 A.D) . In the book, Optatus wrote about the position of the bishop of Rome in maintaining the unity of the Church. You cannot deny that you are aware that in the city of Rome the episcopal chair was given first to Peter; the chair in which Peter sat, the same who was head—that is why he is also called Cephas [‘Rock’]—of all the apostles; the one chair in which unity is maintained by all. The Catholic Church teaches that, within

6426-426: The East in the 4th century, and Benedict of Nursia in the West in the 6th century, authored the most influential "rules" for religious living in their areas of the Christian world ("rule" in this sense refers to a collection of precepts, compiled as guidelines for how to follow the spiritual life). They organized a common life with a daily schedule of prayer, work, spiritual reading and rest. Almost all monasteries in

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6552-678: The Eastern Church to reunify with the West. First in the Second Council of Lyon (1272–1274) and secondly in the Council of Florence (1431–1449). Papal claims of superiority were a sticking point in reunification, which failed in any event. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople and ended the Byzantine Empire. Protestant Reformers criticized the papacy as corrupt and characterized

6678-483: The First Order. In 1978, Pope Paul VI caused the Rules for regulars and seculars to be recast and made more suitable for the requirements of devout men and women at the present day. The secular wing of the Order was renamed as the Secular Franciscan Order . After the Reformation , Franciscan Third Orders aligned with the Lutheran Churches and Anglican Communion were organized, such as the Evangelical Franciscans Tertiaries (Evangelischen Franziskaner-Tertiaren), which

6804-414: The Franciscan movement and desired to carry out its spirit and teaching. And so, around 1221, Francis drew up a Rule for those of his followers who were debarred from being members of the order of Friars Minor . At first they were called "Brothers and Sisters of the Order of Penance ", but later on, when the Friars were called the "First Order" and the nuns the "Second Order" , the Order of Penance became

6930-405: The Franks to protect his lands. Pepin the Short subdued the Lombards and donated Italian land to the papacy. When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne (800) as emperor, he established the precedent that, in Western Europe, no man would be emperor without being crowned by a pope. The low point of the papacy was 867–1049. This period includes the Saeculum obscurum , the Crescentii era, and

7056-399: The Great was legalizing Christianity in the Roman Empire in the early 4th century, and the Christian faith became the favoured religion, it lost the self-sacrificing character that had profoundly marked it in the age of Roman persecution. In response to the loss of martyrdom for the sake of the Kingdom of God, some of the very devout men and women left the cities for the testings of the life in

7182-405: The Heart of Mary, though resembling a secular institute in some ways, were recognized as an institute of religious life. On 2 February 1947 Pope Pius XII issued the apostolic constitution Provida Mater Ecclesia recognizing secular institutes as "a new category of the state of perfection" ( Latin : nova categoria status perfectionis ). The 1983 Code of Canon Law recognizes secular institutes as

7308-401: The Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and King Henry I of England , known as the Investiture controversy , was only resolved in 1122, by the Concordat of Worms , in which Pope Callixtus II decreed that clerics were to be invested by clerical leaders, and temporal rulers by lay investiture. Soon after, Pope Alexander III began reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law . Since

7434-416: The Lutheran Franciscan Tertiaries, officially known as the Evangelische Franziskanerbruderschaft der Nachfolge Christi, were founded in 1927; the emphasize the Rule of Saint Francis and pray daily from their breviary . Consecrated life Consecrated life (also known as religious life ) is a state of life in the Catholic Church lived by those faithful who are called to follow Jesus Christ in

7560-463: The Netherlands. The Obregonians , or the "Minim Congregation of Poor Brothers Infirmarians", were a small Spanish Roman Catholic congregation of men dedicated to the nursing care of the sick. The congregation ceased to exist around the time of the Peninsular War . The Congregation of the Brothers of the Poor of St. Francis was founded on December 25, 1857, at Aachen by John Hoever for the protection and education of poor, homeless boys. In 1866, it

7686-455: The Roman Empire, beginning the Peace of the Church . In 325, the First Council of Nicaea condemned Arianism , declaring trinitarianism dogmatic, and in its sixth canon recognized the special role of the Sees of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. Great defenders of Trinitarian faith included the popes, especially Liberius , who was exiled to Berea by Constantius II for his Trinitarian faith, Damasus I , and several other bishops. In 380,

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7812-399: The Romans , and according to tradition Paul was martyred there. During the 1st century of the Church ( c.  30–130 ), the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance. The church there, at the end of the century, wrote an epistle to the Church in Corinth intervening in a major dispute, and apologizing for not having taken action earlier. There are

7938-427: The Russian Orthodox Churches have their own eremitic traditions, of which Mount Athos is perhaps the most widely heard of today. The Code of Canon Law 1983 recognises as diocesan hermits persons who - without being members of a religious institute - publicly profess the three evangelical counsels , confirmed by vow or other sacred bond in the hands of their respective diocesan bishop, as Christian faithful that live

8064-434: The Sacred Heart of Jesus focuses on medical care. They established a long-term medical care facility near St. Louis, Missouri in 1927 to extend their service. As of 2002, the brothers numbered 22. The Capuchin Tertiary Friars of Our Lady of Sorrows, more commonly as the Amigonian Friars , were founded in Spain in 1889 by Capuchin Friar (later bishop) Luis Amigó y Ferrer. They were established through Amigó's desire to help

8190-410: The Third Order. The history of the Third Order of St. Francis had a range of organizational models. Some monasteries were established to pursue the purely contemplative life, usually in an urban setting; others communities of women did not embrace the enclosure , but considered active works of charity, tending to the poor and sick, as part of their Franciscan charism . In the nineteenth century many of

8316-431: The United States in 1912. In 1923 they were invited to Merrill, Wisconsin. The sisters work primarily in Wisconsin and Louisiana. The general motherhouse is in Ingenbohl , Switzerland. The Little Sisters of St. Francis was founded in 1923 by Mill Hill Sister Mary Kevin Kearney . They work in Uganda, Kenya, and Zambia. The motherhouse is in Nkokonjeru , where they manage St. Francis Hospital Nkokonjeru . In Germany,

8442-468: The United States in 1960 in order to aid Portuguese immigrants. They serve in the state of California in the dioceses of San Jose, Fresno, and Monterey. The majority of the California sisters now are involved in healthcare. The Motherhouse is in Lisbon. The Sisters of Mercy of the Holy Cross were founded in Switzerland in 1856 by Capuchin friar Theodosius Florentini and Maria Katherina Scherer . A congregation that specialized in healthcare, they came to

8568-517: The United States. In the U.S. they sponsor the Cardinal Hayes Home in Millbrook, New York , for developmentally challenged individuals. The Franciscan Missionary Sisters for Africa was founded in 1952 by Mary Kevin of the Sacred Passion (born Theresa Kearney, County Wicklow , Ireland). It was intended as an offshoot from the Mill Hill Sisters , with the purpose of focusing on the African missions. The sisters work in Uganda, Kenya, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Sudan, America, Ireland and Scotland. A convent

8694-560: The West to the bishop of Rome during the reign of Pope Leo I (440–461), a reservation made official only in the 11th century. The earliest record of the use of the title of 'pope' was in regard to the by-then-deceased patriarch of Alexandria , Heraclas (232–248). The earliest recorded use of the title "pope" in English dates to the mid-10th century, when it was used in reference to the 7th century Roman Pope Vitalian in an Old English translation of Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum . The Catholic Church teaches that

8820-458: The acknowledgement of the bishop of Rome as an influential figure within the Church, with some emphasizing the importance of adherence to Rome's teachings and decisions. Such references served to establish the concept of papal primacy and have continued to inform Catholic theology and practice. In his letters, Cyprian of Carthage ( c. 210 – 258 AD) recognized the bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter in his Letter 55 (c. 251 AD), which

8946-435: The authority of the church in Rome. In this work, Tertullian said that the Church in Rome has the authority of the Apostles because of its apostolic foundation. Since, moreover, you are close upon Italy, you have Rome, from which there comes even into our own hands the very authority (of apostles themselves). How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood! Where Peter endures

9072-526: The beginning of the 7th century, Islamic conquests had succeeded in controlling much of the southern Mediterranean , and represented a threat to Christianity. In 1095, the Byzantine emperor, Alexios I Komnenos , asked for military aid from Pope Urban II in the ongoing Byzantine–Seljuq wars . Urban, at the council of Clermont , called the First Crusade to assist the Byzantine Empire to regain

9198-692: The boys of the Diocese of Brooklyn . There were also congregations of religious sisters of the Third Order. For instance, the Grey Sisters of the Third Order, serving in hospitals, spread in France and the Netherlands. In 1403, Elizabeth of Reute and several other young women who were Franciscan tertiaries, under the guidance of Konrad Kügelin , provost of the Canonry of St. Peter in Waldsee, acquired

9324-541: The consecrated life (cf. canon 603, see also below). The eremitic life was apparently healthy for some, but led to imbalance in others. Pachomius the Great , a near-contemporary of Anthony the Great , recognised that some monks needed the guidance and rhythm of a community (cenobium) . He is generally credited with founding, in Egypt, the first community of monks, thus launching cenobitic monasticism . Basil of Caesarea in

9450-428: The consensus among scholars being that by the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters, whose duties of office overlapped or were indistinguishable from one another. Some say that there was probably "no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the 2nd century ... and likely later." In the early Christian era, Rome and a few other cities had claims on

9576-530: The constitutions of the individual societies. Although societies of apostolic life may in externals resemble religious life, a major distinction is that they are not themselves consecrated and their state of life does not change (i.e. they remain secular clerics or laypersons). Examples of societies of apostolic life are the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri , the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul , and

9702-418: The controversial doctrinal basis of the pope's authority, continues to divide the eastern and western churches and to separate Protestants from Rome. The writings of several Early Church fathers contain references to the authority and unique position held by the bishops of Rome, providing valuable insight into the recognition and significance of the papacy during the early Christian era. These sources attest to

9828-409: The defence of human rights. Over time, the papacy accrued broad secular and political influence , eventually rivalling those of territorial rulers. In recent centuries, the temporal authority of the papacy has declined and the office is now largely focused on religious matters. By contrast, papal claims of spiritual authority have been increasingly firmly expressed over time, culminating in 1870 with

9954-554: The desert that was meant to lead the individual back into a more intimate relationship with God, just like the wandering of the Israelites in the Wilderness of Sin . The Greek word for desert, eremos , gave this form of religious living the name eremitic (or eremitical) life , and the person leading it the name hermit . Anthony the Great and other early leaders provided guidance to less experienced hermits, and there were soon

10080-515: The episcopal see in Rome can be traced back no earlier than the 3rd century. The writings of Irenaeus , a Church Father who wrote around 180 AD, reflect a belief that Peter "founded and organized" the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peter's presence in the early Roman Church. The Church of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians (which is traditionally attributed to Clement of Rome c.  96 ) about

10206-592: The established church. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the pope served as a source of authority and continuity. Pope Gregory I ( c.  540–604 ) administered the church with strict reform. From an ancient senatorial family, Gregory worked with the stern judgement and discipline typical of ancient Roman rule. Theologically, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook; his popular writings are full of dramatic miracles , potent relics , demons , angels , ghosts, and

10332-425: The gates of hell shall not prevail against it! Matthew 16:18. The successor of Peter was Linus, and his successors in unbroken continuity were these:— Clement, Anacletus, Evaristus... Eusebius ( c. 260/265 – 339) mentions Linus as Saint Peter's successor and Clement as the third bishop of Rome in his book Church History . As recorded by Eusebius, Clement worked with Saint Paul as his "co-laborer". As to

10458-461: The hands of Linus the office of the episcopate. Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles to Timothy. To him succeeded Anacletus ; and after him, in the third place from the apostles, Clement was allotted the bishopric.   ... To this Clement there succeeded Eviristus . Alexander followed Evaristus; then, sixth from the apostles, Sixtus was appointed; after him, Telephorus , who

10584-483: The increasingly assertive European nation states , the popes focused on spiritual issues. In 1870, the First Vatican Council proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility for the most solemn occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra when issuing a definition of faith or morals. Later the same year, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy seized Rome from the pope's control and substantially completed

10710-525: The influence and power they already possessed. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , barbarian tribes were converted to Arian Christianity or Nicene Christianity; Clovis I , king of the Franks , was the first important barbarian ruler to convert to the mainstream church rather than Arianism, allying himself with the papacy. Other tribes, such as the Visigoths , later abandoned Arianism in favour of

10836-764: The inspiration of the Holy Spirit, became hermits or founded religious families. Thus the Church, by virtue of her authority, gladly accepted and approved them." Consecrated life may be lived either in institutes, societies, or individually. While those living it are either clergy or laypersons , the state of consecrated life is neither clerical nor lay by nature. Institutes of consecrated life are either religious institutes or secular institutes . Societies of apostolic life are dedicated to pursuit of an apostolic purpose, such as educational or missionary work. They "resemble institutes of consecrated life" but are distinct from them. The members do not take religious vows, but live in common, striving for perfection through observing

10962-503: The intellectual tradition of the Church even in isolation. Secular institutes have their modern beginnings in 18th century France. During the French Revolution, the government attempted to dechristianise France . The French government had required all priests and bishops to swear an oath of fidelity to the new order or face dismissal from the Church, and had forbidden any form of religious life. Fr Pierre-Joseph de Clorivière,

11088-623: The leadership of worldwide Church. James the Just , known as "the brother of the Lord", served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honoured as the "Mother Church" in Orthodox tradition. Alexandria had been a center of Jewish learning and became a center of Christian learning. Rome had a large congregation early in the apostolic period whom Paul the Apostle addressed in his Epistle to

11214-413: The letters OFS after their name. Presently there are about 350,000 members worldwide. The current rule was given by Pope Paul VI in 1978 with the ecclesiastical letter Seraphicus Patriarcha to adapt the Secular Franciscan Order to twentieth-century needs. Under the new Rule, the tertiaries of the Franciscan movement were set up as an autonomous Order, with their own Minister General as head and became

11340-909: The missionary Franciscan friars in their work of spreading the Gospel and caring for the poor and the sick. They established a community in the Diocese of Lincoln , Nebraska , in 1992, and later in Illinois and Rhode Island. The motherhouse is in Cagayan , the Philippines . The Congregation of the Sisters of Saint Elizabeth (CSSE) was founded by Bl. Maria Merkert in Prussian Silesia in 1850. The Congregation of Sisters of St. Felix of Cantalice Third Order Regular of St. Francis of Assisi (CSSF) with general motherhouse in Kraków , Poland. It

11466-433: The more isolated communities into a new and separate religious order with its own rule of life. The Third Order became defined between the Third Order Regular (TOR.; i.e. living under a Regula or "Rule") and the Third Order Secular, for those members of the Order who lived in the world. The Rules of the various Third Orders have proved very adaptable to the needs of modern congregations devoted to active works of charity, so

11592-591: The name of Jesus Christ, the Son of the Father: to those who are united, both according to the flesh and spirit, to every one of His commandments; Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 AD), in his Letter 53, wrote a list of 38 popes from Saint Peter to Siricius. The order of this list differs from the lists of Irenaeus and the Annuario Pontificio . Augustine's list claims that Linus was succeeded by Clement and Clement

11718-707: The new Province of Our Lady of Hope based in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania . This province has 700 professed sisters who serve from Canada's Northwest Territories to Haiti. The Congregation of the Franciscan Hospitaller Sisters of the Immaculate Conception was founded in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1871 by Libânia do Carmo Galvão Mexia de Moura Telles e Albuquerque (Sr. Maria Clara), and is represented in fifteen countries. They came to

11844-635: The new congregations adopted the Rule of the Third Order, but most of them have no connection with the First Order. As to their activities, almost all dedicate themselves to works of charity, either in hospitals, homes, or ateliers; others work in schools, not a few are in foreign missions. The Franciscan Missionaries of Mary was founded in 1877 in Ootacamund , India, by Hélène de Chappotin de Neuville . As of 2016, there are almost 8,300 sisters in 75 countries, including Canada, England, Scotland, and

11970-611: The old Christian territories, especially Jerusalem. With the East–West Schism , the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church split definitively in 1054. This fracture was caused more by political events than by slight divergences of creed . Popes had galled the Byzantine emperors by siding with the king of the Franks, crowning a rival Roman emperor, appropriating the Exarchate of Ravenna , and driving into Greek Italy. In

12096-494: The order. Immediately on its establishment in 1221, the Third Order spread rapidly all over Italy and throughout western Europe. It embraced multitudes of men and women from all ranks of society. Everywhere it was connected closely with the First Order. Because of the prohibition of bearing arms, the followers of this order came into conflict with local authorities and the feudal system of Italy, which customarily required men to carry arms for service in militias or for their lords. By

12222-400: The pastoral office, the office of shepherding the Church, that was held by the apostles, as a group or "college" with Saint Peter as their head, is now held by their successors, the bishops, with the bishop of Rome (the pope) as their head. Thus is derived another title by which the pope is known, that of "supreme pontiff". The Catholic Church teaches that Jesus personally appointed Peter as

12348-483: The persecution of Christians in Rome as the "struggles in our time" and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, "first, the greatest and most just columns", the "good apostles" Peter and Paul. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement; in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans, he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, such as Emperor Constantine's erection of

12474-440: The phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place in the taxis, and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium. In AD 195, Pope Victor I, in what

12600-713: The poor, the sick, and the suffering. In 1891, three Brothers settled in Bad Kreuznach , where they eventually took over a local hospital, now known as St. Marienwörth. The Brothers were invited to come to the Diocese of Springfield, Illinois in 1928 to establish a Monastery and a Trade School. St. Joseph's motherhouse is in Hausen. Founded in Poland in 1888, the Franciscan Missionary Brothers of

12726-545: The pope as the antichrist . Popes instituted a Catholic Reformation (1560–1648), which addressed the challenges of the Protestant Reformation and instituted internal reforms. Pope Paul III initiated the Council of Trent (1545–1563), whose definitions of doctrine and whose reforms sealed the triumph of the papacy over elements in the church that sought conciliation with Protestants and opposed papal claims. Gradually forced to give up secular power to

12852-463: The popes helped spread Christianity and intervened to find resolutions in various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages , they played a role of secular importance in Western Europe, often acting as arbitrators between Christian monarchs. In addition to the expansion of Christian faith and doctrine , modern popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue , charitable work , and

12978-412: The position of Fabian , that is to say, the position of Peter and the office of the bishop's chair, was vacant. But the position once has been filled by the will of God and that appointment has been ratified by the consent of us all, if anyone wants to be made bishop after that, it has to be done outside the church; if a man does not uphold the unity of the Church's unity, it is not possible for him to have

13104-538: The prestige of the papacy in Northern Europe. From the 7th century, it became common for European monarchies and nobility to found churches and perform investiture or deposition of clergy in their states and fiefdoms, their personal interests causing corruption among the clergy. This practice had become common because often the prelates and secular rulers were also participants in public life. To combat this and other practices that had been seen as corrupting

13230-414: The proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility for rare occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra —literally "from the chair (of Saint Peter) "—to issue a formal definition of faith or morals. The pope is considered one of the world's most powerful people due to the extensive diplomatic, cultural, and spiritual influence of his position on both 1.3   billion Catholics and those outside

13356-645: The purpose, but added new points, such as the three solemn vows and insisting on subjection to the First Order of St. Francis. For this last disposition the Rule of Leo X was met with resistance, and never was accepted by some congregations. More than 448 congregations profess the "Rule and Life of the Brothers and Sisters of the Third Order Regular of St. Francis." There are 18 male congregations of Tertiary Franciscans, 370 congregations of Franciscan Sisters and 60 monasteries of cloistered nuns. The Third Order congregations of men and women number over 200,000. A new Rule, written by friars and sisters of various congregations,

13482-717: The request of the German Jesuits of St. Michael's parish in Buffalo, New York , where there was a great need for German-speaking sisters to teach the young of the expanding German population on Buffalo's east side. In 1939, the North American province was divided into three separate provinces. Since 1992, the three U.S. provinces have sponsored a mission in Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico. The Franciscan Apostolic Sisters were founded in 1953 by Gerardo Filipetto to assist

13608-547: The rest of his followers, Paul testifies that Crescens was sent to Gaul; but Linus, whom he mentions in the Second Epistle to Timothy as his companion at Rome, was Peter’s successor in the episcopate of the church there, as has already been shown. Clement also, who was appointed third bishop of the church at Rome, was, as Paul testifies, his co-laborer and fellow-soldier. Tertullian ( c. 155 – c. 220 AD) wrote in his work " The Prescription Against Heretics " about

13734-456: The saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences , reducing one's time in purgatory . The concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common assumption that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution. The popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses, but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences. Popes also contended with

13860-407: The service of the kingdom of God and, having been made an outstanding sign in the Church, foretell the heavenly glory." What makes the consecrated life a more exacting way of Christian living is the public religious vows or other sacred bonds whereby the consecrated persons commit themselves, for the love of God, to observe as binding the evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience from

13986-405: The substance of the original Rule of 1221, albeit with additions. It prescribed severe simplicity of dress and of life, abstinence, prayers and other religious exercises. It also forbade theatre attendance, the bearing of arms, and the taking of oaths except when administered by magistrates. In the nineteenth century, many new congregations adopted the Rule of the Third Order without connection with

14112-417: The thirteenth century, local Third Order Confraternities with variations had been established. In 1289, Pope Nicholas IV confirmed the religious order in the bull Supra montem , and put the Third Order under the care of the Friars Minor. The Third Order was created by Francis of Assisi, and was the exemplar after which the others were fashioned. An early date the other Mendicant Orders formed Third Orders of

14238-510: The upheavals brought by the French Revolution and subsequent Napoleonic invasions of other Catholic countries, depriving thousands of monks and nuns of the income that their communities held because of inheritances and forcing them to find a new way of living their religious life. On 8 December 1900, they were approved and recognised as religious . The Society of Jesus is an example of an institute that obtained recognition as

14364-413: The visible head of the Church, and the Catholic Church's dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium makes a clear distinction between apostles and bishops, presenting the latter as the successors of the former, with the pope as successor of Peter, in that he is head of the bishops as Peter was head of the apostles. Some historians argue against the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, noting that

14490-456: The will of Him that wills all things which are according to the love of Jesus Christ our God, which also presides in the place of the region of the Romans, worthy of God, worthy of honour, worthy of the highest happiness, worthy of praise, worthy of obtaining her every desire, worthy of being deemed holy, and which presides over love, is named from Christ, and from the Father, which I also salute in

14616-571: The world and formed religious communities, but without the three substantial vows of religious orders. Other religious associations such as the Beguines (women) and Beghards (men) in the Low Countries sometimes became Third Orders. Throughout the fourteenth century, the regular tertiaries of both sexes had in the most cases no common organization; only in the following century did single well-ordered religious communities with solemn vows and

14742-591: The young boys he saw caught up in the Spanish penal system . They soon established reform schools and trade schools to help these boys. In 1986 they took over the administration of two youth facilities in San Juan, Puerto Rico . In 1835 a Franciscan Monastery was built in Roundstone, County Galway, Ireland. In 1858, Bishop John Loughlin issued an invitation to the Brothers of the monastery to operate schools for

14868-500: Was approved by Pope Paul VI in 1978. It is the current Rule followed by all congregations of the Third Order Regular. It was not until the fifteenth century that there developed single, well-ordered religious communities with solemn vows and a common head. In the fifteenth century there were numerous independent male congregations of regular tertiaries with the three vows in Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, and in

14994-705: Was established in Boston, Massachusetts , in 1952, with an American novitiate being opened in 1954. The Generalate is in Dublin, Ireland. The Sisters of St. Francis of Penance and Christian Charity is an international congregation founded in 1835 in Heythuysen , Netherlands, by Catherine Damen (Mother Magdalen) to care for neglected children. The Sisters from the German province arrived in New York City in 1874 at

15120-900: Was founded in 1855 by Sophia Truszkowska in Warsaw, then within the Russian Empire but now Poland. There are 1800 sisters, 700 of whom serve in the North American Province. Other Provinces are based in Kraków, Przemyśl , Warsaw, and Curitiba , Brazil. Introduced in the United States in 1874 in Livonia, Michigan (1874), Buffalo, New York (1900), Chicago, Illinois (1910), Lodi, New Jersey (1913), Coraopolis, Pennsylvania (1920), Enfield, Connecticut (1932), and Rio Rancho, New Mexico (1953). These locations amalgamated to form

15246-487: Was founded in 1927 by Friedrich Heiler, a Lutheran priest in Germany. The Secular Franciscan Order ( Ordo Franciscanus Saecularis in Latin), formerly the Third Order Secular, allows both laypeople and diocesan priests to join. A number of Popes have also been members of this Order. Members of the Secular Franciscan Order are not required to live in religious community , but meet in community regularly. Professed members use

15372-426: Was gloriously martyred; then Hyginus ; after him, Pius ; then after him, Anicetus . Soter having succeeded Anicetus, Eleutherius does now, in the twelfth place from the apostles, hold the inheritance of the episcopate. Ignatius of Antioch (died c. 108/140 AD) wrote in his " Epistle to the Romans" that the church in Rome is "the church that presides over love". ...the Church which is beloved and enlightened by

15498-762: Was introduced into the United States. Through the generosity of Sarah Worthington Peter , orphanages for boys were established in Teutopolis, Illinois ; Detroit , Michigan ; Cincinnati, Ohio (1868) and Cold Spring, Kentucky (1869). The orders motherhouse remains in Aachen and maintains houses in Brazil, Holland, and the United States. The Franciscan Brothers of the Holy Cross (FFSC) were founded by Brother James Wirth in 1862 in Hausen , Germany, to care for orphans,

15624-588: Was not carried out everywhere. In this regard the custom prevailed that the Friars Minor refused to take the direction of those convents which had only episcopal enclosure. Besides those already mentioned above, we may add the different offshoots of the Sisters of St. Elizabeth in Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, and France (there, under the name of Soeurs du Refuge, some of them still exist). The first Ursulines , also, founded by St. Angela Merici (1540), belonged to

15750-513: Was placed therein by John; as also the church of Rome, which makes Clement to have been ordained in like manner by Peter. Optatus the bishop of Milevis in Numidia (today's Algeria) and a contemporary of the Donatist schism , presents a detailed analysis of the origins, beliefs, and practices of the Donatists, as well as the events and debates surrounding the schism, in his book The Schism of

15876-411: Was succeeded by Anacletus as in the list of Eusebius , while the other two lists switch the positions of Clement and Anacletus. For if the lineal succession of bishops is to be taken into account, with how much more certainty and benefit to the Church do we reckon back till we reach Peter himself, to whom, as bearing in a figure the whole Church, the Lord said: Upon this rock will I build my Church, and

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