Misplaced Pages

#508491

135-937: The first fuel cells were invented by Sir William Grove in 1838. The first commercial use of fuel cells came almost a century later following the invention of the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1932. The alkaline fuel cell , also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its inventor, has been used in NASA space programs since the mid-1960s to generate power for satellites and space capsules . Since then, fuel cells have been used in many other applications. Fuel cells are used for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible areas. They are also used to power fuel cell vehicles , including forklifts, automobiles, buses, trains, boats, motorcycles, and submarines. There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode ,

270-403: A cathode , and an electrolyte that allows ions, often positively charged hydrogen ions (protons), to move between the two sides of the fuel cell. At the anode, a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate ions (often positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons. The ions move from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte. At the same time, electrons flow from

405-497: A cogeneration power plant in hospitals, universities and large office buildings. In recognition of the fuel cell industry and America's role in fuel cell development, the United States Senate recognized October 8, 2015 as National Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Day , passing S. RES 217. The date was chosen in recognition of the atomic weight of hydrogen (1.008). Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in

540-429: A knighthood in 1872, he was given an honorary degree by Cambridge University in 1879 and became Privy Councillor in 1887. The lunar crater " Grove " is named in his honour. The Grove Fuel Cell Symposium and Exhibition is organised by Elsevier . Project Gemini Project Gemini ( IPA : / ˈ dʒ ɛ m ɪ n i / ) was the second United States human spaceflight program to fly. Conducted after

675-463: A solid-fuel rocket , but instead used aircraft-style ejection seats . The tower was heavy and complicated, and NASA engineers reasoned that they could do away with it as the Titan II's hypergolic propellants would burn immediately on contact. A Titan II booster explosion had a smaller blast effect and flame than on the cryogenically fueled Atlas and Saturn. Ejection seats were sufficient to separate

810-470: A steam engine with the mass of zinc consumed in a Grove battery in performing a common quantity of mechanical work. Grove was certainly familiar with William Thomson 's theoretical analysis of Joule's experimental results and Thomson's immature suggestions of conservation of energy. Thomson's public champion, Peter Guthrie Tait was initially a supporter of Grove's ideas but later dismissed them with some coolness. Though Groves's ideas were forerunners of

945-504: A " Big Gemini " that could have been used to shuttle up to 12 astronauts to the planned space stations in the Apollo Applications Project (AAP). The only AAP project funded was Skylab (The first American space station) – which used existing spacecraft and hardware – thereby eliminating the need for Big Gemini. The constellation for which the project was named is commonly pronounced / ˈ dʒ ɛ m ɪ n aɪ / ,

1080-602: A "pilot's spacecraft" due to its assortment of jet fighter-like features, in no small part due to Gus Grissom's influence over the design, and it was at this point where the US crewed space program clearly began showing its superiority over that of the Soviet Union with long duration flight, rendezvous, and extravehicular capability. The Soviet Union during this period was developing the Soyuz spacecraft intended to take cosmonauts to

1215-430: A 39-bit word composed of three 13-bit "syllables". All numeric data was 26-bit two's-complement integers (sometimes used as fixed-point numbers ), either stored in the first two syllables of a word or in the accumulator . Instructions (always with a 4-bit opcode and 9 bits of operand) could go in any syllable. Unlike Mercury, Gemini used in-flight radar and an artificial horizon , similar to those used in

1350-679: A Fellow of the Royal Society in 1840 Grove was a critic of the Society, deprecating its cronyism and the de facto rule of a few influential Council members. In 1843, he published an anonymous attack on the scientific establishment in Blackwood's Magazine and called for reform. In 1846 Grove was elected to the Council of the Royal Society , and was heavily involved in the campaign to modernise its charter, in addition to campaigning for

1485-487: A McDonnell building which held their Gemini 9 capsule in St. Louis. The backup crew of Stafford and Cernan was then moved up to the new prime crew of Gemini 9A. Lovell and Aldrin were moved from being the backup crew of Gemini 10 to be the backup crew of Gemini 9. This cleared the way through the crew rotation for Lovell and Aldrin to become the prime crew of Gemini 12. Along with the deaths of Grissom, White, and Roger Chaffee in

SECTION 10

#1732790430509

1620-469: A NASA report to the US Congress estimating the costs for Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo (through the first crewed Moon landing) included $ 1.2834 billion for Gemini: $ 797.4 million for spacecraft, $ 409.8 million for launch vehicles, and $ 76.2 million for support. A number of detailed Gemini models and mockups are on display: McDonnell Aircraft, the main contractor for Mercury and Gemini, was also one of

1755-452: A Retro module and an Equipment module. The Retro module contained four solid-fuel TE-M-385 Star-13 E retrorockets, each spherical in shape except for its rocket nozzle, which were structurally attached to two beams that reached across the diameter of the retro module, crossing at right angles in the center. Re-entry began with the retrorockets firing one at a time. Abort procedures at certain periods during lift-off would cause them to fire at

1890-722: A SOFC system are less than those from a fossil fuel combustion plant. The chemical reactions for the SOFC system can be expressed as follows: SOFC systems can run on fuels other than pure hydrogen gas. However, since hydrogen is necessary for the reactions listed above, the fuel selected must contain hydrogen atoms. For the fuel cell to operate, the fuel must be converted into pure hydrogen gas. SOFCs are capable of internally reforming light hydrocarbons such as methane (natural gas), propane, and butane. These fuel cells are at an early stage of development. Challenges exist in SOFC systems due to their high operating temperatures. One such challenge

2025-470: A battery, except as hydrogen, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power , they are combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system. As of 2019, 90% of hydrogen was used for oil refining, chemicals and fertilizer production (where hydrogen is required for the Haber–Bosch process ), and 98% of hydrogen

2160-417: A building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85%. This is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants, which are only about one third energy efficient. Assuming production at scale, fuel cells could save 20–40% on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems. Fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation; a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as

2295-661: A complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer, which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500-U.S.-gallon (1,900 L) tank at 200 pounds per square inch (1,400 kPa), and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence. Another closed system loop was unveiled in late 2011 in Hempstead, NY. Fuel cells can be used with low-quality gas from landfills or waste-water treatment plants to generate power and lower methane emissions . A 2.8 MW fuel cell plant in California

2430-449: A concentrated solution of KOH or NaOH which serves as an electrolyte. H 2 gas and O 2 gas are bubbled into the electrolyte through the porous carbon electrodes. Thus the overall reaction involves the combination of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water. The cell runs continuously until the reactant's supply is exhausted. This type of cell operates efficiently in the temperature range 343–413   K (70 -140 °C) and provides

2565-485: A crew of two. He was previously the chief aerodynamicist on Avro Canada 's CF-105 Arrow fighter interceptor program. Chamberlin joined NASA along with 25 senior Avro engineers after cancellation of the Canadian Arrow program, and became head of the U.S. Space Task Group's engineering division in charge of Gemini. The prime contractor was McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, which was also the prime contractor for

2700-725: A detachable Adapter Module behind the Reentry Module which would burn up on reentry. A major design improvement in Gemini was to locate all internal spacecraft systems in modular components, which could be independently tested and replaced when necessary, without removing or disturbing other already tested components. Many components in the capsule itself were reachable through their own small access doors. Unlike Mercury, Gemini used completely solid-state electronics, and its modular design made it easy to repair. Gemini's emergency launch escape system did not use an escape tower powered by

2835-459: A duality of conception, the mind cannot form an idea of them: thus motion cannot be perceived or probably imagined without parallax or relative change of position ... in all physical phenomena, the effects produced by motion are all in proportion to the relative motion. ... The question of whether there can be absolute motion, or indeed any absolute isolated force, is purely the metaphysical question of idealism or realism . As soon as he became

SECTION 20

#1732790430509

2970-571: A durability of over 120,000 km (75,000 miles) with less than 10% degradation. In a 2017 Well-to-Wheels simulation analysis that "did not address the economics and market constraints", General Motors and its partners estimated that, for an equivalent journey, a fuel cell electric vehicle running on compressed gaseous hydrogen produced from natural gas could use about 40% less energy and emit 45% less greenhouse gasses than an internal combustion vehicle. William Robert Grove Sir William Robert Grove , FRS FRSE (11 July 1811 – 1 August 1896)

3105-596: A fuel-to-electricity efficiency of 50%, considerably higher than the 37–42% efficiency of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. Efficiencies can be as high as 65% when the fuel cell is paired with a turbine, and 85% if heat is captured and used in a combined heat and power (CHP) system. FuelCell Energy, a Connecticut-based fuel cell manufacturer, develops and sells MCFC fuel cells. The company says that their MCFC products range from 300 kW to 2.8 MW systems that achieve 47% electrical efficiency and can utilize CHP technology to obtain higher overall efficiencies. One product,

3240-469: A half. You remember the tragic fire we had at the Cape. (...) Jesus, with that fire going off and that, it would have burned the suits. Everything was soaked in oxygen. So thank God. That was another thing: NASA never tested it under the conditions that they would have had if they would have had to eject. They did have some tests at China Lake where they had a simulated mock-up of Gemini capsule, but what they did

3375-460: A high operating temperature provides an advantage by removing the need for a precious metal catalyst like platinum, thereby reducing cost. Additionally, waste heat from SOFC systems may be captured and reused, increasing the theoretical overall efficiency to as high as 80–85%. The high operating temperature is largely due to the physical properties of the YSZ electrolyte. As temperature decreases, so does

3510-401: A higher current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack . The cell surface area can also be increased, to allow higher current from each cell. In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) design, a proton-conducting polymer membrane (typically nafion ) contains the electrolyte solution that separates the anode and cathode sides. This

3645-549: A horizontal landing. Big Gemini (or "Big G") was another proposal by McDonnell Douglas made in August 1969. It was intended to provide large-capacity, all-purpose access to space, including missions that ultimately used Apollo or the Space Shuttle. The study was performed to generate a preliminary definition of a logistic spacecraft derived from Gemini that would be used to resupply an orbiting space station. Land-landing at

3780-430: A hot water storage tank to smooth out the thermal heat production was a serious disadvantage in the domestic market place where space in domestic properties is at a great premium. Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the fuel cell micro-combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012. The Japanese ENE FARM project stated that 34.213 PEMFC and 2.224 SOFC were installed in

3915-587: A hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution (other than CO 2 ) for every 1,000 kW·h produced, compared to 25 pounds of pollutants generated by conventional combustion systems. Fuel Cells also produce 97% less nitrogen oxide emissions than conventional coal-fired power plants. One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative has built

4050-455: A hydrogen-rich gas in the anode, eliminating the need to produce hydrogen externally. The reforming process creates CO 2 emissions. MCFC-compatible fuels include natural gas, biogas and gas produced from coal. The hydrogen in the gas reacts with carbonate ions from the electrolyte to produce water, carbon dioxide, electrons and small amounts of other chemicals. The electrons travel through an external circuit, creating electricity, and return to

4185-458: A potential of about 0.9   V. Alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cell (AAEMFC) is a type of AFC which employs a solid polymer electrolyte instead of aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH) and it is superior to aqueous AFC. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a solid material, most commonly a ceramic material called yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), as the electrolyte . Because SOFCs are made entirely of solid materials, they are not limited to

Fuel cell - Misplaced Pages Continue

4320-768: A power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen . Stationary fuel cells are used for commercial, industrial and residential primary and backup power generation. Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, communications centers, rural locations including research stations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability. This equates to less than one minute of downtime in

4455-432: A preselected site and refurbishment and reuse were design requirements. Two baseline spacecraft were defined: a nine-man minimum modification version of the Gemini B called Min-Mod Big G and a 12-man advanced concept, having the same exterior geometry but with new, state-of-the-art subsystems, called Advanced Big G. Three launch vehicles- Saturn IB , Titan IIIM , and Saturn INT-20 (S-IC/S-IVB) were investigated for use with

4590-423: A requirement, as in enclosed spaces such as warehouses, and where hydrogen is considered an acceptable reactant, a [PEM fuel cell] is becoming an increasingly attractive choice [if exchanging batteries is inconvenient]". In 2013 military organizations were evaluating fuel cells to determine if they could significantly reduce the battery weight carried by soldiers. In a fuel cell vehicle the tank-to-wheel efficiency

4725-414: A six-year period. Since fuel cell electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example. There are many different types of stationary fuel cells so efficiencies vary, but most are between 40% and 60% energy efficient. However, when the fuel cell's waste heat is used to heat

4860-457: A strip of metal which ran between the twin hatches. This design was ultimately dropped, and parachutes were used to make a sea landing as in Mercury. The capsule was suspended at an angle closer to horizontal, so that a side of the heat shield contacted the water first. This eliminated the need for the landing bag cushion used in the Mercury capsule. The adapter module in turn was separated into

4995-411: A system or device that converts energy is measured by the ratio of the amount of useful energy put out by the system ("output energy") to the total amount of energy that is put in ("input energy") or by useful output energy as a percentage of the total input energy. In the case of fuel cells, useful output energy is measured in electrical energy produced by the system. Input energy is the energy stored in

5130-719: A two-man spacecraft, then designated Mercury Mark II, at a NASA retreat at Wallops Island in March 1961. Scale models were shown in July 1961 at the McDonnell Aircraft Corporation 's offices in St. Louis. After Apollo was chartered to land men on the Moon by President John F. Kennedy on May 25, 1961, it became evident to NASA officials that a follow-on to the Mercury program was required to develop certain spaceflight capabilities in support of Apollo. NASA approved

5265-434: A welding machine. In the 1960s, Pratt & Whitney licensed Bacon's U.S. patents for use in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks). In 1991, the first hydrogen fuel cell automobile was developed by Roger E. Billings. UTC Power was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as

5400-571: Is flow batteries , in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging. Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked", or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements. In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water vapor, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions. PEMFC cells generally produce fewer nitrogen oxides than SOFC cells: they operate at lower temperatures, use hydrogen as fuel, and limit

5535-804: Is fill it full of nitrogen. They didn't have it filled full of oxygen in the sled test they had. Gemini was the first astronaut-carrying spacecraft to include an onboard computer, the Gemini Guidance Computer , to facilitate management and control of mission maneuvers. This computer, sometimes called the Gemini Spacecraft On-Board Computer (OBC), was very similar to the Saturn Launch Vehicle Digital Computer . The Gemini Guidance Computer weighed 58.98 pounds (26.75 kg). Its core memory had 4096 addresses , each containing

Fuel cell - Misplaced Pages Continue

5670-648: Is greater than 45% at low loads and shows average values of about 36% when a driving cycle like the NEDC ( New European Driving Cycle ) is used as test procedure. The comparable NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22%. In 2008 Honda released a demonstration fuel cell electric vehicle (the Honda FCX Clarity ) with fuel stack claiming a 60% tank-to-wheel efficiency. It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account. Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have

5805-640: Is heard on flight recordings pronouncing the spacecraft's call sign "Jeh-mih-nee 4", and the NASA pronunciation is used in the 2018 film First Man . The Apollo program was conceived in early 1960 as a three-man spacecraft to follow Project Mercury . Jim Chamberlin , the head of engineering at the Space Task Group (STG), was assigned in February 1961 to start working on a bridge program between Mercury and Apollo. He presented two initial versions of

5940-415: Is lost in its progress through space – not lost absolutely, for that would be an annihilation of force – but converted into some other mode of motion. Grove also speculated that other forms of energy were yet to be discovered "as far certain as certain can be of any future event." The probability is that, if not all, the greater number of physical phenomena are, in one sense correlative, and that, without

6075-480: Is produced by steam methane reforming , which emits carbon dioxide. The overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known as round-trip efficiency ), using pure hydrogen and pure oxygen can be "from 35 up to 50 percent", depending on gas density and other conditions. The electrolyzer/fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore suited for long-term storage. Solid-oxide fuel cells produce heat from

6210-588: Is referred to as the heart of the PEMFC and is usually made of a proton-exchange membrane sandwiched between two catalyst -coated carbon papers . Platinum and/or similar types of noble metals are usually used as the catalyst for PEMFC, and these can be contaminated by carbon monoxide , necessitating a relatively pure hydrogen fuel. The electrolyte could be a polymer membrane . Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) were first designed and introduced in 1961 by G. V. Elmore and H. A. Tanner . In these cells, phosphoric acid

6345-436: Is said to be the largest of the type. Small-scale (sub-5kWhr) fuel cells are being developed for use in residential off-grid deployment. Combined heat and power (CHP) fuel cell systems, including micro combined heat and power (MicroCHP) systems are used to generate both electricity and heat for homes (see home fuel cell ), office building and factories. The system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to

6480-593: Is the cells' short life span. The high-temperature and carbonate electrolyte lead to corrosion of the anode and cathode. These factors accelerate the degradation of MCFC components, decreasing the durability and cell life. Researchers are addressing this problem by exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that may increase cell life without decreasing performance. MCFCs hold several advantages over other fuel cell technologies, including their resistance to impurities. They are not prone to "carbon coking", which refers to carbon build-up on

6615-533: Is the potential for carbon dust to build up on the anode, which slows down the internal reforming process. Research to address this "carbon coking" issue at the University of Pennsylvania has shown that the use of copper-based cermet (heat-resistant materials made of ceramic and metal) can reduce coking and the loss of performance. Another disadvantage of SOFC systems is the long start-up, making SOFCs less useful for mobile applications. Despite these disadvantages,

6750-505: Is used as a non-conductive electrolyte to pass protons from the anode to the cathode and to force electrons to travel from anode to cathode through an external electrical circuit. These cells commonly work in temperatures of 150 to 200 °C. This high temperature will cause heat and energy loss if the heat is not removed and used properly. This heat can be used to produce steam for air conditioning systems or any other thermal energy-consuming system. Using this heat in cogeneration can enhance

6885-692: Is used, the CO 2 is released when methane from natural gas is combined with steam, in a process called steam methane reforming , to produce the hydrogen. This can take place in a different location to the fuel cell, potentially allowing the hydrogen fuel cell to be used indoors—for example, in forklifts. The different components of a PEMFC are The materials used for different parts of the fuel cells differ by type. The bipolar plates may be made of different types of materials, such as, metal, coated metal, graphite , flexible graphite, C–C composite , carbon – polymer composites etc. The membrane electrode assembly (MEA)

SECTION 50

#1732790430509

7020-472: The Agena Target Vehicle (ATV), with its own rocket engine which could be used to perform greater orbit changes. Early short-duration missions had their electrical power supplied by batteries; later endurance missions used the first fuel cells in crewed spacecraft. Gemini was in some regards more advanced than Apollo because the latter program began almost a year earlier. It became known as

7155-457: The Apollo spacecraft . The original intention for Gemini was to land on solid ground instead of at sea, using a Rogallo wing rather than a parachute, with the crew seated upright controlling the forward motion of the craft. To facilitate this, the airfoil did not attach just to the nose of the craft, but to an additional attachment point for balance near the heat shield. This cord was covered by

7290-623: The Electrochemical Society journal Interface in 2008, wrote, "While fuel cells are efficient relative to combustion engines, they are not as efficient as batteries, primarily due to the inefficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction (and ... the oxygen evolution reaction, should the hydrogen be formed by electrolysis of water). ... [T]hey make the most sense for operation disconnected from the grid, or when fuel can be provided continuously. For applications that require frequent and relatively rapid start-ups ... where zero emissions are

7425-498: The London Institution in 1841. Grove's inaugural lecture in 1842 was the first announcement of what Grove called the correlation of physical forces , in modern terms, the conservation of energy . In 1842, Grove developed the first fuel cell (which he called the gas voltaic battery ), which produced electrical energy by combining hydrogen and oxygen , and described it using his correlation theory. In developing

7560-530: The Project Mercury capsule. Astronaut Gus Grissom was heavily involved in the development and design of the Gemini spacecraft . What other Mercury astronauts dubbed "Gusmobile" was so designed around Grissom's 5'6" body that, when NASA discovered in 1963 that 14 of 16 astronauts would not fit in the spacecraft, the interior had to be redesigned. Grissom wrote in his posthumous 1968 book Gemini! that

7695-511: The ionic conductivity of YSZ. Therefore, to obtain the optimum performance of the fuel cell, a high operating temperature is required. According to their website, Ceres Power , a UK SOFC fuel cell manufacturer, has developed a method of reducing the operating temperature of their SOFC system to 500–600 degrees Celsius. They replaced the commonly used YSZ electrolyte with a CGO (cerium gadolinium oxide) electrolyte. The lower operating temperature allows them to use stainless steel instead of ceramic as

7830-534: The orbital maneuvers necessary to achieve rendezvous and docking with another spacecraft. This left Apollo free to pursue its prime mission without spending time developing these techniques. All Gemini flights were launched from Launch Complex 19 (LC-19) at Cape Kennedy Air Force Station in Florida. Their launch vehicle was the Titan II GLV , a modified intercontinental ballistic missile . Gemini

7965-427: The waste heat produced by the primary power cycle - whether fuel cell, nuclear fission or combustion - is captured and put to use, increasing the efficiency of the system to up to 85–90%. The theoretical maximum efficiency of any type of power generation system is never reached in practice, and it does not consider other steps in power generation, such as production, transportation and storage of fuel and conversion of

8100-721: The Apollo mission to land astronauts on the Moon . In doing so, it allowed the United States to catch up and overcome the lead in human spaceflight capability the Soviet Union had obtained in the early years of the Space Race , by demonstrating mission endurance up to just under 14 days, longer than the eight days required for a round trip to the Moon ; methods of performing extravehicular activity (EVA) without tiring; and

8235-487: The Apollo program. Some of the Advanced Gemini proposals used "off-the-shelf" Gemini spacecraft, unmodified from the original program, while others featured modifications to allow the spacecraft to carry more crew, dock with space stations, visit the Moon, and perform other mission objectives. Other modifications considered included the addition of wings or a parasail to the spacecraft, in order to enable it to make

SECTION 60

#1732790430509

8370-519: The Atlas' liquid oxygen/RP-1. However, the Titan had considerable difficulty being man-rated due to early problems with pogo oscillation . The launch vehicle used a radio guidance system that was unique to launches from Cape Kennedy. Deke Slayton , as director of flight crew operations, had primary responsibility for assigning crews for the Gemini program. Each flight had a primary crew and backup crew, and

8505-492: The DFC-ERG, is combined with a gas turbine and, according to the company, it achieves an electrical efficiency of 65%. The electric storage fuel cell is a conventional battery chargeable by electric power input, using the conventional electro-chemical effect. However, the battery further includes hydrogen (and oxygen) inputs for alternatively charging the battery chemically. Glossary of terms in table: The energy efficiency of

8640-534: The Gemini capsule, the first of which was delivered in 1963. The spacecraft was 18 feet 5 inches (5.61 m) long and 10 feet (3.0 m) wide, with a launch weight varying from 7,100 to 8,350 pounds (3,220 to 3,790 kg). The Gemini crew capsule (referred to as the Reentry Module) was essentially an enlarged version of the Mercury capsule. Unlike Mercury, the retrorockets , electrical power, propulsion systems, oxygen, and water were located in

8775-411: The Gemini program. William C. Schneider, Deputy Director of Manned Space Flight for Mission Operations served as mission director on all Gemini flights beginning with Gemini 6A. Guenter Wendt was a McDonnell engineer who supervised launch preparations for both the Mercury and Gemini programs and would go on to do the same when the Apollo program launched crews. His team was responsible for completion of

8910-500: The Gemini program: Rendezvous in orbit is not a straightforward maneuver. Should a spacecraft increase its speed to catch up with another, the result is that it goes into a higher and slower orbit and the distance thereby increases. The right procedure is to go to a lower orbit first and which increases relative speed, and then approach the target spacecraft from below and decrease orbital speed to meet it. To practice these maneuvers, special rendezvous and docking simulators were built for

9045-491: The Gemini spacecraft for military applications, such as crude observation of the ground (no specialized reconnaissance camera could be carried) and practicing making rendezvous with suspicious satellites. This project was called Blue Gemini . The USAF did not like the fact that Gemini would have to be recovered by the US Navy, so they intended for Blue Gemini eventually to use the airfoil and land on three skids, carried over from

9180-865: The Gemini-Titan II launch vehicles. Data and experience operating the Titans was of value to both the U.S. Air Force and NASA. The USAF serial numbers assigned to the Gemini-Titan launch vehicles are given in the tables above. Fifteen Titan IIs were ordered in 1962 so the serial is "62-12XXX", but only "12XXX" is painted on the Titan II. The order for the last three of the 15 launch vehicles was canceled on July 30, 1964, and they were never built. Serial numbers were, however, assigned to them prospectively: 12568 - GLV-13; 12569 - GLV-14; and 12570 - GLV-15. From 1962 to 1967, Gemini cost $ 1.3 billion in 1967 dollars ($ 9.07 billion in 2023 ). In January 1969,

9315-542: The Moon, but political and technical problems began to get in the way, leading to the ultimate end of their crewed lunar program. The Titan II debuted in 1962 as the Air Force's second-generation ICBM to replace the Atlas. By using hypergolic fuels, it could be stored longer and be easily readied for launch in addition to being a simpler design with fewer components. The only caveat was the propellant mix ( nitrogen tetroxide and hydrazine ) were extremely toxic compared to

9450-492: The anode that results in reduced performance by slowing down the internal fuel reforming process. Therefore, carbon-rich fuels like gases made from coal are compatible with the system. The United States Department of Energy claims that coal, itself, might even be a fuel option in the future, assuming the system can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal into hydrogen. MCFCs also have relatively high efficiencies. They can reach

9585-478: The anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity. At the cathode, another catalyst causes ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water and possibly other products. Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in start-up time ranging from 1 second for proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). A related technology

9720-423: The anode to the cathode), as is the case in all other types of fuel cells. Oxygen gas is fed through the cathode, where it absorbs electrons to create oxygen ions. The oxygen ions then travel through the electrolyte to react with hydrogen gas at the anode. The reaction at the anode produces electricity and water as by-products. Carbon dioxide may also be a by-product depending on the fuel, but the carbon emissions from

9855-552: The approximate size of a fireball produced by an exploding launch vehicle and from this he gauged that the Titan II would produce a much smaller explosion, thus the spacecraft could get away with ejection seats. Maxime Faget , the designer of the Mercury LES, was on the other hand less-than-enthusiastic about this setup. Aside from the possibility of the ejection seats seriously injuring the astronauts, they would also only be usable for about 40 seconds after liftoff, by which point

9990-490: The astronauts from a malfunctioning launch vehicle. At higher altitudes, where the ejection seats could not be used, the astronauts would return to Earth inside the spacecraft, which would separate from the launch vehicle. The main proponent of using ejection seats was Chamberlin, who had never liked the Mercury escape tower and wished to use a simpler alternative that would also reduce weight. He reviewed several films of Atlas and Titan II ICBM failures, which he used to estimate

10125-585: The astronauts. The Gemini-Titan II launch vehicle was adapted by NASA from the U.S. Air Force Titan II ICBM . (Similarly, the Mercury-Atlas launch vehicle had been adapted from the USAF Atlas missile .) The Gemini-Titan II rockets were assigned Air Force serial numbers, which were painted in four places on each Titan II (on opposite sides on each of the first and second stages). USAF crews maintained Launch Complex 19 and prepared and launched all of

10260-421: The aviation industry. Like Mercury, Gemini used a joystick to give the astronauts manual control of yaw, pitch, and roll . Gemini added control of the spacecraft's translation (forward, backward, up, down, and sideways) with a pair of T-shaped handles (one for each crew member). Translation control enabled rendezvous and docking , and crew control of the flight path. The same controller types were also used in

10395-465: The backup crew for Gemini 5. The third rearrangement of crew assignment occurred when Slayton felt that See wasn't up to the physical demands of EVA on Gemini 8. He reassigned See to be the prime commander of Gemini 9 and put Scott as pilot of Gemini 8 and Charles Bassett as the pilot of Gemini 9. The fourth and final rearrangement of the Gemini crew assignment occurred after the deaths of See and Bassett when their trainer jet crashed, coincidentally into

10530-527: The backup crew would rotate to primary crew status three flights later. Slayton intended for first choice of mission commands to be given to the four remaining active astronauts of the Mercury Seven : Alan Shepard , Grissom, Cooper, and Schirra. ( John Glenn had retired from NASA in January 1964 and Scott Carpenter , who was blamed by some in NASA management for the problematic reentry of Aurora 7 ,

10665-441: The bar, his young family providing the financial motivation; and in 1853 became a QC . The bar provided him with the opportunity to combine his legal and scientific knowledge, in particular in patent law and in the unsuccessful defence of poisoner William Palmer in 1856. He was especially involved in the photography patent cases of Beard v. Egerton (1845–1849), on behalf of Egerton, and of Talbot v. Laroche (1854). In

10800-436: The booster would be attaining Mach 1 speed and ejection would no longer be possible. He was also concerned about the astronauts being launched through the Titan's exhaust plume if they ejected in-flight and later added, "The best thing about Gemini was that they never had to make an escape." The Gemini ejection system was never tested with the Gemini cabin pressurized with pure oxygen, as it was prior to launch. In January 1967,

10935-546: The cathode. There, oxygen from the air and carbon dioxide recycled from the anode react with the electrons to form carbonate ions that replenish the electrolyte, completing the circuit. The chemical reactions for an MCFC system can be expressed as follows: As with SOFCs, MCFC disadvantages include slow start-up times because of their high operating temperature. This makes MCFC systems not suitable for mobile applications, and this technology will most likely be used for stationary fuel cell purposes. The main challenge of MCFC technology

11070-401: The cell and showing that steam could be disassociated into oxygen and hydrogen, and the process reversed , he was the first person to demonstrate the thermal dissociation of molecules into their constituent atoms . The first demonstration of this effect, he gave privately to Faraday, Gassiot and Edward William Brayley , his scientific editor. His work also led him to early insights into

11205-460: The cell substrate, which reduces cost and start-up time of the system. Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) require a high operating temperature, 650 °C (1,200 °F), similar to SOFCs . MCFCs use lithium potassium carbonate salt as an electrolyte, and this salt liquefies at high temperatures, allowing for the movement of charge within the cell – in this case, negative carbonate ions. Like SOFCs, MCFCs are capable of converting fossil fuel to

11340-442: The complex pad close-out procedures just prior to spacecraft launch, and he was the last person the astronauts would see prior to closing the hatch. The astronauts appreciated his taking absolute authority over, and responsibility for, the condition of the spacecraft and developed a good-humored rapport with him. NASA selected McDonnell Aircraft , which had been the prime contractor for the Project Mercury capsule, in 1961 to build

11475-474: The continent for their honeymoon. This sabbatical offered Grove an opportunity to pursue his scientific interests and resulted in his first scientific paper suggesting some novel constructions for electric cells . During 1839, Grove developed a novel form of electric cell, the Grove cell , which used zinc and platinum electrodes exposed to two acids and separated by a porous ceramic pot. Grove announced

11610-603: The development of his first crude fuel cells. He used a combination of sheet iron, copper, and porcelain plates, and a solution of sulphate of copper and dilute acid. In a letter to the same publication written in December 1838 but published in June 1839, German physicist Christian Friedrich Schönbein discussed the first crude fuel cell that he had invented. His letter discussed the current generated from hydrogen and oxygen dissolved in water. Grove later sketched his design, in 1842, in

11745-548: The diffusion of nitrogen into the anode via the proton exchange membrane, which forms NOx. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40 and 60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme, efficiencies of up to 85% can be obtained. The first references to hydrogen fuel cells appeared in 1838. In a letter dated October 1838 but published in the December 1838 edition of The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science , Welsh physicist and barrister Sir William Grove wrote about

11880-538: The docking systems developed for the Agena Target Vehicle on more powerful upper stages such as the Centaur, which could propel the spacecraft to the Moon, to complete modifications of the Gemini to enable it to land on the lunar surface. Its applications would have ranged from crewed lunar flybys before Apollo was ready, to providing emergency shelters or rescue for stranded Apollo crews, or even replacing

12015-402: The efficiency of phosphoric acid fuel cells from 40 to 50% to about 80%. Since the proton production rate on the anode is small, platinum is used as a catalyst to increase this ionization rate. A key disadvantage of these cells is the use of an acidic electrolyte. This increases the corrosion or oxidation of components exposed to phosphoric acid. Solid acid fuel cells (SAFCs) are characterized by

12150-444: The electricity into mechanical power. However, this calculation allows the comparison of different types of power generation. The theoretical maximum efficiency of a fuel cell approaches 100%, while the theoretical maximum efficiency of internal combustion engines is approximately 58%. Values are given from 40% for acidic, 50% for molten carbonate, to 60% for alkaline, solid oxide and PEM fuel cells. Fuel cells cannot store energy like

12285-656: The establishment of Grove and his associates with domination of the Council. To celebrate, the reformers founded the Philosophical Club . Though the Philosophical Club succeeded in ensuring that William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse was appointed next President, they failed to get Grove appointed as Secretary. Grove continued to campaign for a single home for all the scientific institutions at Burlington House . From 1846 Grove started to reduce his scientific work in favour of his professional practice at

12420-509: The fatal Apollo 1 fire demonstrated that pressurizing a spacecraft with pure oxygen created an extremely dangerous fire hazard. In a 1997 oral history, astronaut Thomas P. Stafford commented on the Gemini 6 launch abort in December 1965, when he and command pilot Wally Schirra nearly ejected from the spacecraft: So it turns out what we would have seen, had we had to do that, would have been two Roman candles going out, because we were 15 or 16 psi, pure oxygen, soaking in that for an hour and

12555-433: The fire of Apollo 1 , this final arrangement helped determine the makeup of the first seven Apollo crews, and who would be in position for a chance to be the first to walk on the Moon. In April 1964 and January 1965, two Gemini missions were flown without crews to test systems and the heat shield. These were followed by 10 flights with crews in 1965 and 1966. All were launched by Titan II launch vehicles. Some highlights from

12690-407: The first American crewed space program, Project Mercury , while the Apollo program was still in early development, Gemini was conceived in 1961 and concluded in 1966. The Gemini spacecraft carried a two-astronaut crew. Ten Gemini crews and 16 individual astronauts flew low Earth orbit (LEO) missions during 1965 and 1966. Gemini's objective was the development of space travel techniques to support

12825-441: The flat plane configuration of other types of fuel cells and are often designed as rolled tubes. They require high operating temperatures (800–1000 °C) and can be run on a variety of fuels including natural gas. SOFCs are unique because negatively charged oxygen ions travel from the cathode (positive side of the fuel cell) to the anode (negative side of the fuel cell) instead of protons travelling vice versa (i.e., from

12960-457: The fuel. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, fuel cells are generally between 40 and 60% energy efficient. This is higher than some other systems for energy generation. For example, the internal combustion engine of a car can be about 43% energy efficient. Steam power plants usually achieve efficiencies of 30-40% while combined cycle gas turbine and steam plants can achieve efficiencies above 60%. In combined heat and power (CHP) systems,

13095-534: The general theory of the conservation of energy that was more famously put forward in Hermann von Helmholtz ' Über die Erhaltung der Kraft ( On the Conservation of Force ) published the following year. His 1846 Bakerian lecture relied heavily on his theory. James Prescott Joule had been energized by his investigations into the mechanical equivalent of heat by comparing the mass of coal consumed in

13230-502: The grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat . As the result CHP systems have the potential to save primary energy as they can make use of waste heat which is generally rejected by thermal energy conversion systems. A typical capacity range of home fuel cell is 1–3 kW el , 4–8 kW th . CHP systems linked to absorption chillers use their waste heat for refrigeration . The waste heat from fuel cells can be diverted during

13365-462: The ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third chemical, usually oxygen, to create water or carbon dioxide. Design features in a fuel cell include: A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 to 0.7 V at a full-rated load. Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors: To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series to yield higher voltage , and in parallel to allow

13500-498: The last syllable rhyming with eye . However, staff of the Manned Spacecraft Center, including the astronauts, tended to pronounce the name / ˈ dʒ ɛ m ɪ n i / , rhyming with knee . NASA's public affairs office then issued a statement in 1965 declaring "Jeh'-mih-nee" the "official" pronunciation. Gus Grissom , acting as Houston capsule communicator when Ed White performed his spacewalk on Gemini 4 ,

13635-681: The latter case Grove appeared for William Fox Talbot in his unsuccessful attempt to assert his calotype patent. Grove served on a Royal Commission on patent law and on the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers . In 1871 he was made judge of the Court of Common Pleas , and was appointed to the Queen's Bench in 1880. He was to have presided at the Cornwall and Devon winter assizes of 1884, which would have entailed him trying

13770-743: The latter development to the Académie des Sciences in Paris in 1839. In 1840 Grove invented one of the first incandescent electric lights, which was later perfected by Thomas Edison . Later that year, he gave another account of his development at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting in Birmingham , where it aroused the interest of Michael Faraday . On Faraday's invitation Grove presented his discoveries at

13905-420: The left-hand (command) and right-hand (pilot) seat crew positions were taken from the U.S. Air Force pilot ratings , Command Pilot and Pilot . Sixteen astronauts flew on 10 crewed Gemini missions: In late 1963, Slayton selected Shepard and Stafford for Gemini 3, McDivitt and White for Gemini 4, and Schirra and Young for Gemini 5 (which was to be the first Agena rendezvous mission). The backup crew for Gemini 3

14040-400: The load. At the anode a catalyst ionizes the fuel, turning the fuel into a positively charged ion and a negatively charged electron. The electrolyte is a substance specifically designed so ions can pass through it, but the electrons cannot. The freed electrons travel through a wire creating an electric current. The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. Once reaching the cathode,

14175-609: The membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water. In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel , methanol ( see: direct-methanol fuel cells and indirect methanol fuel cells ) and chemical hydrides. The waste products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water. When hydrogen

14310-514: The most transient actions are rendered permanent, by which facts write their own annals in a language that can never be obsolete, forming documents which prove themselves, – must interweave itself not only with science but with history and legislature. In 1852, he discovered striae , dark bands that occur in electrical breakdown , and investigated their character, presenting his work in an 1858 Bakerian lecture. In 1846, Grove published On The Correlation of Physical Forces in which he anticipated

14445-626: The nature of ionisation . For observations made in Ref., Grove is credited for the discovery of sputtering . In the 1840s, he collaborated with Gassiot at the London Institution on photography and the Daguerreotype and calotype processes. Inspired by his legal practice, he presciently observed: It would be vain to attempt specifically to predict what may be the effect of Photography on future generations. A Process by which

14580-568: The notorious survival cannibalism case of R v. Dudley and Stephens . However, at the last minute he was substituted by Baron Huddleston , possibly because Huddleston was seen as more reliable in ensuring the guilty verdict that the judiciary required. Grove did sit as one of five judges on the final determination of the case in a divisional court of the Queen's Bench . Grove was a careful, painstaking and accurate judge, courageous and not afraid to assert an independent judicial opinion. However, he

14715-546: The original bidders on the prime contract for Apollo, but lost out to North American Aviation . McDonnell later sought to extend the Gemini program by proposing a derivative which could be used to fly a cislunar mission and even achieve a crewed lunar landing earlier and at less cost than Apollo, but these proposals were rejected by NASA. A range of applications were considered for Advanced Gemini missions, including military flights, space station crew and logistics delivery, and lunar flights. The Lunar proposals ranged from reusing

14850-488: The original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as the electrolyte. Three years later another GE chemist, Leonard Niedrach, devised a way of depositing platinum onto the membrane, which served as a catalyst for the necessary hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction reactions. This became known as the "Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell". GE went on to develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft, leading to its use during Project Gemini . This

14985-763: The period 2012–2014, 30,000 units on LNG and 6,000 on LPG . Four fuel cell electric vehicles have been introduced for commercial lease and sale: the Honda Clarity , Toyota Mirai , Hyundai ix35 FCEV , and the Hyundai Nexo . By year-end 2019, about 18,000 FCEVs had been leased or sold worldwide. Fuel cell electric vehicles feature an average range of 505 km (314 mi) between refuelings and can be refueled in about 5 minutes. The U.S. Department of Energy's Fuel Cell Technology Program states that, as of 2011, fuel cells achieved 53–59% efficiency at one-quarter power and 42–53% vehicle efficiency at full power, and

15120-489: The prestigious Royal Institution Friday Discourse on 13 March 1840. Grove's presentation made his reputation, and he was soon proposed for Fellowship of the Royal Society by such distinguished men as William Thomas Brande , William Snow Harris and Charles Wheatstone . Grove also attracted the attention of John Peter Gassiot , a relationship that resulted in Grove's becoming the first professor of experimental philosophy at

15255-770: The program, three astronauts died in air crashes during training, including both members of the prime crew for Gemini 9. The backup crew flew this mission. Gemini was robust enough that the United States Air Force planned to use it for the Manned Orbital Laboratory (MOL) program, which was later canceled. Gemini's chief designer, Jim Chamberlin , also made detailed plans for cislunar and lunar landing missions in late 1961. He believed Gemini spacecraft could fly in lunar operations before Project Apollo, and cost less. NASA's administration did not approve those plans. In 1969, Lukas Bingham proposed

15390-429: The public funding of science. A charter committee had already been established, and Grove joined it. Groves's fellow campaigners included Gassiot, Leonard Horner and Edward Sabine . Their principal objectives were for the number of new Fellows to be subject to an annual limit, and limitation of the power of nomination to the Council. The reformers' success in 1847 led to the resignation of several key conservatives and

15525-662: The realization of Project Mercury 's end and the unlikelihood of his having another flight in that program prompted him to focus all his efforts on the upcoming Gemini program. The Gemini program was managed by the Manned Spacecraft Center , located in Houston, Texas , under direction of the Office of Manned Space Flight, NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. Dr. George E. Mueller , Associate Administrator of NASA for Manned Space Flight, served as acting director of

15660-498: The recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen. The ceramic can run as hot as 800 °C (1,470 °F). This heat can be captured and used to heat water in a micro combined heat and power (m-CHP) application. When the heat is captured, total efficiency can reach 80–90% at the unit, but does not consider production and distribution losses. CHP units are being developed today for the European home market. Professor Jeremy P. Meyers, in

15795-405: The same general manner. They are made up of three adjacent segments: the anode , the electrolyte , and the cathode . Two chemical reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different segments. The net result of the two reactions is that fuel is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is created, which can be used to power electrical devices, normally referred to as

15930-509: The same journal. The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today's phosphoric acid fuel cell . In 1932, English engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell. NASA used the alkaline fuel cell (AFC), also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its inventor, from the mid-1960s. In 1955, W. Thomas Grubb, a chemist working for the General Electric Company (GE), further modified

16065-572: The same time, thrusting the Descent module away from the Titan rocket. Gemini was equipped with an Orbit Attitude and Maneuvering System (OAMS), containing sixteen thrusters for translation control in all three perpendicular axes (forward/backward, left/right, up/down), in addition to attitude control (pitch, yaw, and roll angle orientation) as in Mercury. Translation control allowed changing orbital inclination and altitude, necessary to perform space rendezvous with other craft, and docking with

16200-459: The spacecraft. The Air Force had an interest in the Gemini system, and decided to use its own modification of the spacecraft as the crew vehicle for the Manned Orbital Laboratory . To this end, the Gemini 2 spacecraft was refurbished and flown again atop a mockup of the MOL, sent into space by a Titan III C. This was the first time a spacecraft went into space twice. The USAF also thought of adapting

16335-756: The summer directly into the ground providing further cooling while the waste heat during winter can be pumped directly into the building. The University of Minnesota owns the patent rights to this type of system. Co-generation systems can reach 85% efficiency (40–60% electric and the remainder as thermal). Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90%. Molten carbonate (MCFC) and solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are also used for combined heat and power generation and have electrical energy efficiencies around 60%. Disadvantages of co-generation systems include slow ramping up and down rates, high cost and short lifetime. Also their need to have

16470-447: The theory of the conservation of energy, they were qualitative, unlike the quantitative investigations of Joule or Julius Robert von Mayer . His ideas also shaded into broader speculation, such as the nature of Olbers's paradox , which he may have discovered for himself rather than through a direct knowledge. ... it is difficult to understand why we get so little light at night from the stellar universe, without assuming that some light

16605-408: The thousands of hours. The alkaline fuel cell (AFC) or hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell was designed and first demonstrated publicly by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1959. It was used as a primary source of electrical energy in the Apollo space program. The cell consists of two porous carbon electrodes impregnated with a suitable catalyst such as Pt, Ag, CoO, etc. The space between the two electrodes is filled with

16740-466: The two-man / two-vehicle program rechristened Project Gemini (Latin for "twins"), in reference to the third constellation of the Zodiac with its twin stars Castor and Pollux , on December 7, 1961. McDonnell Aircraft was contracted to build it on December 22, 1961. The program was publicly announced on January 3, 1962, with these major objectives: Chamberlin designed the Gemini capsule, which carried

16875-578: The use of a solid acid material as the electrolyte. At low temperatures, solid acids have an ordered molecular structure like most salts. At warmer temperatures (between 140 and 150   °C for CsHSO 4 ), some solid acids undergo a phase transition to become highly disordered "superprotonic" structures, which increases conductivity by several orders of magnitude. The first proof-of-concept SAFCs were developed in 2000 using cesium hydrogen sulfate (CsHSO 4 ). Current SAFC systems use cesium dihydrogen phosphate (CsH 2 PO 4 ) and have demonstrated lifetimes in

17010-581: Was Grissom and Borman, who were also slated for Gemini 6 , to be the first long-duration mission. Finally Conrad and Lovell were assigned as the backup crew for Gemini 4 . Delays in the production of the Agena Target Vehicle caused the first rearrangement of the crew rotation. The Schirra and Young mission was bumped to Gemini 6 and they became the backup crew for Shepard and Stafford. Grissom and Borman then had their long-duration mission assigned to Gemini 5. The second rearrangement occurred when Shepard developed Ménière's disease , an inner ear problem. Grissom

17145-752: Was a Welsh judge and physical scientist . He anticipated the general theory of the conservation of energy , and was a pioneer of fuel cell technology. He invented the Grove voltaic cell. Born in Swansea , Wales, Grove was the only child of John, a magistrate and deputy lieutenant of Glamorgan , and his wife, Anne (née Bevan). His early education was in the hands of private tutors, before he attended Brasenose College, Oxford to study classics , though his scientific interests may have been cultivated by mathematician Baden Powell . Otherwise, his taste for science has no clear origin though his circle in Swansea

17280-609: Was broadly educated. He graduated in 1832. In 1835, he was called to the bar by Lincoln's Inn . In the same year, Grove joined the Royal Institution and was a founder of the Swansea Literary and Philosophical Society , an organisation with which he maintained close links. In 1829, at the Royal Institution, Grove met Emma Maria Powles. . They married in 1837. The couple embarked on a tour of

17415-540: Was called a solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell ( SPEFC ) in the early 1970s, before the proton-exchange mechanism was well understood. (Notice that the synonyms polymer electrolyte membrane and proton-exchange mechanism result in the same acronym .) On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and electrons. These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become what are commonly referred to as multi-facilitated proton membranes. The protons are conducted through

17550-656: Was fallible in patent cases, where he was prone to become overinterested in the technology in question and to be distracted by questioning the litigants as to potential improvements in their devices, even going so far as to suggest his own innovations. He retired from the bench in 1887. His portrait was painted by Helen Donald-Smith in the 1890s. Grove married Emma Maria Powles, daughter of John Diston Powles , in 1837, and had several children, including Major-General Sir Coleridge Grove . Groves's daughter, Imogen Emily (died 1886), married William Edward Hall in 1866. His daughter Anna married Herbert Augustus Hills (1837–1907) and

17685-600: Was mother to Edmond Herbert Grove-Hills ("Colonel Rivers") and John Waller Hills . His health perpetually troubled, Grove died at home, 115 Harley Street in London, after a long illness. He is buried in Kensal Green Cemetery , London. Grove became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1840, and received its Royal Medal in 1847. He was Vice-President of the Royal Institution in 1844. Receiving

17820-669: Was on leave to participate in the Navy's SEALAB project and was grounded from flight in July 1964 due to an arm injury sustained in a motorbike accident. Slayton himself continued to be grounded due to a heart problem.) As for Shepard, during training on the Gemini Project, his inner ear deficiency due to Menière's Disease would effectively ground him as well and keep him removed from the flight roster until he underwent corrective surgery and would not fly on Gemini at all, but return to flight with Apollo 14 as Commander. Titles used for

17955-408: Was the first commercial use of a fuel cell. In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers , which was demonstrated across the U.S. at state fairs. This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants. Later in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering

18090-565: Was the first program to use the newly built Mission Control Center at the Houston Manned Spacecraft Center for flight control . The project also used the Agena target vehicle , a modified Atlas-Agena upper stage, used to develop and practice orbital rendezvous and docking techniques. The astronaut corps that supported Project Gemini included the " Mercury Seven ", " The New Nine ", and " The Fourteen ". During

18225-409: Was then moved to command Gemini 3. Slayton felt that Young was a better personality match with Grissom and switched Stafford and Young. Finally, Slayton tapped Cooper to command the long-duration Gemini 5. Again for reasons of compatibility, he moved Conrad from backup commander of Gemini 4 to pilot of Gemini 5, and Borman to backup command of Gemini 4. Finally he assigned Armstrong and Elliot See to be

#508491