64-765: The Korean Liberation Army ( KLA ; Korean : 한국 광복군 ; Hanja : 韓國 光復軍 ), also known as the Korean Restoration Army , was the armed forces of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea . It was established on September 17, 1940, in Chongqing , Republic of China , with significant financial and personnel support from the Kuomintang . It participated in various battles and intelligence activities against
128-484: A Korean influence on Khitan. The hypothesis that Korean could be related to Japanese has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin and Roy Andrew Miller . Sergei Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list . Some linguists concerned with
192-480: A core vowel. The IPA symbol ⟨ ◌͈ ⟩ ( U+0348 ◌͈ COMBINING DOUBLE VERTICAL LINE BELOW ) is used to denote the tensed consonants /p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/ . Its official use in the extensions to the IPA is for "strong" articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice . The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice , but it is not yet known how typical this
256-553: A disagreement between the Kuomintang and Kim arose, as Chiang wanted the army to be subordinate to the Kuomintang army, and Kim wanted greater independence in order to establish the army's credibility and legitimacy. The Kuomintang pulled out of the deal, refusing to provide funding. Kim moved forward anyway with creating the army. On 17 September 1940, the formal establishment of the Korean Liberation Army (KLA)
320-545: A later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Since the establishment of two independent governments, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen. However, these minor differences can be found in any of the Korean dialects , which are still largely mutually intelligible . The Chinese language , written with Chinese characters and read with Sino-Xenic pronunciations ,
384-485: A limited extent, engaged in propaganda, intelligence, and guerrilla activities. However, the KLA announced their intent to switch from guerrilla warfare to conventional battle. They also moved their headquarters to Xi'an around this time. There, they began conducting covert operations, recruiting youths, and publishing Chinese and Korean language newsletters. By 1 January 1941, they created five divisions, with over 100 people in
448-586: A position that did not yet exist in the KLA. On 13 May, the KPG relented and approved the merger. Thus, the Korean Volunteers Army became absorbed into the KLA. This decision displeased both sides. Kim protested to the Kuomintang in multiple letters, insisting they avoid directly interfering in the KLA's affairs. Kim Won-bong reportedly cried and drank all night on 15 May, and delayed taking up his position until 5 December. Kim Won-bong's relationship to
512-574: A possible relationship.) Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre- Nivkh substratum in Korean. According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as Amuric ) were once distributed on the Korean Peninsula before the arrival of Koreanic speakers. Korean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide /j, w, ɰ/ and final coda /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l/ surrounding
576-619: Is also generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between South Korea–United States and China–North Korea since the end of World War II and the Korean War . Along with other languages such as Chinese and Arabic , Korean is ranked at the top difficulty level for English speakers by the United States Department of Defense . Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean , which in turn descends from Old Korean , which descends from
640-656: Is an agglutinative language . The Korean language is traditionally considered to have nine parts of speech . Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is subject–object–verb (SOV), but the verb is the only required and immovable element and word order is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages. Question 가게에 gage-e store- LOC 가셨어요? ga-syeo-sseo-yo go- HON . PAST - CONJ - POL 가게에 가셨어요? gage-e ga-syeo-sseo-yo store-LOC go-HON.PAST-CONJ-POL 'Did [you] go to
704-511: Is closer to a near-open central vowel ( [ɐ] ), though ⟨a⟩ is still used for tradition. Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include -eun/-neun ( -은/-는 ) and -i/-ga ( -이/-가 ). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include -eul/-reul ( -을/-를 ), -euro/-ro ( -으로/-로 ), -eseo/-seo ( -에서/-서 ), -ideunji/-deunji ( -이든지/-든지 ) and -iya/-ya ( -이야/-야 ). Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically. Korean
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#1732765335393768-399: Is mainly reserved for specific circumstances such as newspapers, scholarly papers and disambiguation. Today Hanja is largely unused in everyday life but is still important for historical and linguistic studies. The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in both South Korea and North Korea. The English word "Korean" is derived from Goryeo , which is thought to be
832-399: Is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx. /s/ is aspirated [sʰ] and becomes an alveolo-palatal [ɕʰ] before [j] or [i] for most speakers (but see North–South differences in the Korean language ). This occurs with
896-544: Is the native language for about 81 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the national language of both North Korea and South Korea . Beyond Korea, the language is recognized as a minority language in parts of China , namely Jilin , and specifically Yanbian Prefecture , and Changbai County . It is also spoken by Sakhalin Koreans in parts of Sakhalin , the Russian island just north of Japan, and by
960-747: Is well attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryukyuan languages , in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the Southern Ryukyuan language group . Also, the doublet wo meaning "hemp" is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. (See Classification of the Japonic languages or Comparison of Japanese and Korean for further details on
1024-521: The Koryo-saram in parts of Central Asia . The language has a few extinct relatives which—along with the Jeju language (Jejuan) of Jeju Island and Korean itself—form the compact Koreanic language family . Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not mutually intelligible . The linguistic homeland of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary Manchuria . The hierarchy of the society from which
1088-527: The yangban aristocracy, who looked down upon it too easy to learn. However, it gained widespread use among the common class and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class. Since few people could understand official documents written in classical Chinese, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as the 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves. By
1152-642: The British Indian Army in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II by the request of the British Army , as they needed Japanese speakers. On 29 August 1943, nine KLA personnel were sent to Calcutta . The Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia Command Louis Mountbatten requested more troops, so the Kuomintang reluctantly arranged for 16 more KLA personnel to go, but this was delayed. The soldiers were deployed on
1216-756: The Government of the Republic of Korea and some Generals and Commissioned officers participated to form the ROK Armed Forces . There has been a movement in South Korea for years to change the National Armed Forces Day from October 1 to September 17 in honour of the foundation of the Korean Liberation Army in 1941. Books Journal and newspaper articles Online Korean language Korean ( South Korean : 한국어 , Hanguk-eo ; North Korean : 조선어 , Chosŏnŏ )
1280-753: The Japan-Korea Treaty of 1910 , the Korean Peninsula had been formally annexed by the Empire of Japan . After the brutal suppression by Japanese authorities of the pro-independence March 1st Movement of 1919, thousands of Koreans fled the peninsula. A number of prominent Koreans congregated in Shanghai , Republic of China , where they founded a government-in-exile: the Korean Provisional Government (KPG). However, it
1344-777: The Korean Independence Party established the Korean Restoration Army, which Kim Ku wanted to keep as an independent unit, without obtaining approval from the Chinese government. On 11 November 1939, the KPG announced a plan, created by Jo So-ang , to create an army. Like their failed proposal in 1938, it was wildly ambitious, calling for 110,000 party members, 1,200 officers, 100,000 soldiers, and 350,000 guerrillas raised after four years, totaling 541,200 personnel across six countries. It had an astronomical price-tag of 70.18 million yuan. By contrast,
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#17327653353931408-589: The Proto-Koreanic language , which is generally suggested to have its linguistic homeland somewhere in Manchuria . Whitman (2012) suggests that the proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and
1472-568: The Three Kingdoms of Korea (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula), while " -eo " and " -mal " mean "language" and "speech", respectively. Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo , literally "national language". This name is based on the same Han characters ( 國語 "nation" + "language") that are also used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China ,
1536-527: The 17th Army Officer Training Class of the 4th Battalion ( 제2총대 제4대대 육군군관훈련반 제17대 ), around 30 km north of Luoyang. Kim's class was named and presented as if it were yet another all-Chinese class (the previous 16 classes had graduated only Chinese students), in order to avoid detection from the Japanese. Training covered topics such as tactics, weapons, politics, communication, physical education, riding, and shooting. They trained with great urgency, as there
1600-829: The 17th century, the yangban had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era. In the context of growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reform of 1894 abolished the Confucian examinations and decreed that government documents would be issued in Hangul instead of literary Chinese. Some newspapers were published entirely in Hangul, but other publications used Korean mixed script , with Hanja for Sino-Korean vocabulary and Hangul for other elements. North Korea abolished Hanja in writing in 1949, but continues to teach them in schools. Their usage in South Korea
1664-408: The 20th century. The script uses 24 basic letters ( jamo ) and 27 complex letters formed from the basic ones. When first recorded in historical texts, Korean was only a spoken language . Since the turn of the 21st century, aspects of Korean culture have spread to other countries through globalization and cultural exports . As such, interest in Korean language acquisition (as a foreign language )
1728-605: The Japanese, including alongside the British Army in India and with the United States in the Eagle Project . Its commandant was General Ji Cheong-cheon and chief of staff General Lee Beom-seok , the future first prime minister of South Korea . The group reached several hundred personnel at its peak. It experienced frequent funding issues, infighting, and difficulty achieving recognition from global powers. Since
1792-579: The Joseon Revolutionary Military and Political Officers School ( 조선혁명군사정치간부학교 ; 朝鮮革命軍事政治幹部學校 ) in Nanjing. On 9 April 1935, the school stopped after only operating for about a year. Of the original 92 students, 62 graduated. The school was closed for a variety of reasons, including internal conflicts between left and right leaning members and 21 January 1935 negotiations between the Kuomintang and Japanese governments. Most of
1856-502: The KIP began operating in the country. Kim was initially supportive of Syngman Rhee , but a dispute over holding separate elections in South Korea (Kim was opposed, Rhee was for) led to a split and the party did not participate in the 1948 parliamentary elections in South Korea. However, Kim was a candidate in the indirect presidential elections in July 1948, losing heavily to Rhee. When Kim
1920-689: The KLA sought to offer its services to the OSS in exchange for improved status of the KPG after the war. In September 1944, Lee Beom-seok , then Chief of Staff of the KLA, met with Colonel Joseph Dickey of the US Military Intelligence Service in Chongqing. Lee then met with OSS Agent Captain Clyde Bailey Sargent, who was fluent in Chinese and a former professor at Chengdu University . Sargent then suggested to
1984-514: The KLA to more freely collaborate with other Allied countries. Beginning in late 1944, KLA officials began discussing cooperation with agents from the US Office of Strategic Services (OSS). While there was a prevailing sentiment that the Allies would win the war, they expected the war with Japan to last at least another full year and possibly involve an invasion of Korea and mainland Japan. Thus,
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2048-565: The KLA, but also the KPG. Kim sent multiple letters to President Franklin D. Roosevelt asking for the establishment of formal KPG-US ties, including one sent via President Roosevelt's son, James Roosevelt , who visited Chongqing in July. But these were all ignored. Especially after the December 1941 Attack on Pearl Harbor , many in the US government were actually open to supporting Korean independence, but were cautious because of how it could impact
2112-534: The KPG was pursued across China by the Japanese government. Most of them eventually ended up in Nanjing, where the Kuomintang offered them financial support and protection from the Japanese. The KPG had actually wanted to create an army since 1919. They made various efforts to coordinate with the various Korean guerrilla warfare groups in Manchuria, but lacked the funds and manpower to do so. In July 1932, Kim Gu requested to meet with Chiang Kai-shek , leader of
2176-544: The KPG would continue to be strained, even as he was elected as head of the Armed Forces on 11 April 1944. This position was notably weakened, and he would continue to be excluded in other ways. In an effort to gain greater control over the KLA, the Kuomintang quickly began reducing funding and placing numerous Chinese officers in vacant KLA administration positions. This effectively made any significant military activities impossible. The KLA sent troops to fight alongside
2240-466: The Korean-American community, and donations came in greater volume. The San Francisco-based Sinhan Minbo newspaper regularly and prominently reported on the KLA's activities. Many in the KLA were adamantly convinced that around 30 million Koreans on the peninsula would eventually rise up against the Japanese and support the KLA's cause. On 12 November, the army was held in rear areas but, to
2304-568: The Kuomintang also abandoned this. In early 1942, Kim became aware that the Kuomintang had been privately negotiating with his left-leaning rival Kim Won-bong to absorb the two dozen officers of the Korean Volunteer Army ( Korean : 조선의용대 ; Hanja : 朝鮮義勇隊 ) in Chongqing into the KLA. Kim Won-bong relented to this, on the condition that he become the Deputy Commander ( Korean : 부사령 ),
2368-561: The Kuomintang even ordered its armed forces to block or restrict KLA activities. However, they began easing up around March, and by 28 May 1941, formally recognized the KLA. The Regulation Regarding the Activities of the Korean Liberation Army, imposed by the Kuomintang upon the KPG in 1941, placed the KLA under the supreme authority of the commander-in-chief of the Chinese Army. But aid was still slow to come. One reason for this delay
2432-608: The Kuomintang. One of Kim's main asks at the meeting was assistance and funding in establishing a cavalry training school for the numerous Koreans in Manchuria. Chiang agreed to meet Kim, but was skeptical of the viability of the cavalry school. They eventually met in May 1933, and Chiang granted permission for Kim to train resistance fighters in the Luoyang branch of the Republic of China Military Academy . Thus, Kim trained 92 students in
2496-460: The Pacific War, how it could cause other independence movements to demand US support, and because of the internal political division amongst Koreans. Also, around December 1941, the KPG declared war on Japan. On 10 April 1942, the Kuomintang informed the US that it wished to solely recognize the KPG, and asked if the US would too. However, the US rejected this request in early May. As a result,
2560-455: The beginnings of words. /l/ becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between vowels, and [l] or [ɭ] at the end of a syllable or next to another /l/ . A written syllable-final ' ㄹ ', when followed by a vowel or a glide ( i.e. , when the next character starts with ' ㅇ '), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes [ɾ] . Traditionally, /l/ was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before [j] , and otherwise became /n/ . However,
2624-463: The fifth division alone. By 1943, their numbers grew to 3,600 troops. The KLA had a strained relationship with the Kuomintang for much of its history, due to disagreements over authority and funding. The Kuomintang put off formally recognizing the KLA for months and providing support for even longer. The KLA was growing rapidly, as hundreds of Koreans from all over China flocked to join, but the soldiers were sitting idle and underfunded. In February 1941,
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2688-409: The fighters trained here eventually joined the KLA. In early July 1937, the anticipated conflict between the Chinese and Japanese finally began. The KPG made a plan to quickly raise an army to join the Chinese in fighting the Japanese, but they abandoned this within months as they escaped across the country alongside the Kuomintang. They eventually ended up in Chongqing around 1939. In September 1939,
2752-399: The first Korean dynasty known to Western nations. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram or Koryo-in (literally, " Koryo/Goryeo persons"), and call the language Koryo-mal' . Some older English sources also use the spelling "Corea" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, "Korea" becoming more popular in
2816-598: The head of the OSS General William J. Donovan that the OSS collaborate with the KLA. An agreement to collaborate was reached in October 1944. On 24 February, the OSS finished planning the Eagle Project ( 독수리작전 ), and it was approved by US military headquarters on 13 March. The KLA prepared for the Eagle Project, and expected to depart to Korea on August 20, with General Lee in command. However,
2880-479: The inflow of western loanwords changed the trend, and now word-initial /l/ (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either [ɾ] or [l] . All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with no audible release , [p̚, t̚, k̚] . Plosive sounds /p, t, k/ become nasals [m, n, ŋ] before nasal sounds. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains
2944-408: The issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any genetic relationship , but rather to a sprachbund effect and heavy borrowing, especially from Ancient Korean into Western Old Japanese . A good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asá , meaning " hemp ". This word seems to be a cognate, but although it
3008-587: The language is most often called Joseon-mal , or more formally, Joseon-o . This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the Joseon dynasty until the proclamation of the Korean Empire , which in turn was annexed by the Empire of Japan . In mainland China , following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ or
3072-472: The language originates deeply influences the language, leading to a system of speech levels and honorifics indicative of the formality of any given situation. Modern Korean is written in the Korean script ( 한글 ; Hangeul in South Korea, 조선글 ; Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea), a system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until
3136-455: The late 1800s. In South Korea the Korean language is referred to by many names including hanguk-eo ("Korean language"), hanguk-mal ("Korean speech") and uri-mal ("our language"); " hanguk " is taken from the name of the Korean Empire ( 대한제국 ; 大韓帝國 ; Daehan Jeguk ). The " han " ( 韓 ) in Hanguk and Daehan Jeguk is derived from Samhan , in reference to
3200-560: The outskirts of Burma and India (especially the Battle of Imphal during the Burma Campaign ). Finally, on 1 May 1945, after a few months of negotiations, the KPG gained full control over the KLA under an agreement with the Kuomintang entitled Measures to Aid the Korean Liberation Army ( 원조한국광복군판법 ; 援助韓國光復軍辦法 ). The agreement also specified that the Kuomintang would fund KLA operations by loaning funds. This effectively allowed
3264-515: The population was illiterate. In the 15th century King Sejong the Great personally developed an alphabetic featural writing system , known today as Hangul , to promote literacy among the common people. Introduced in the document Hunminjeongeum , it was called eonmun ('colloquial script') and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea. The Korean alphabet was denounced by
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#17327653353933328-669: The short form Cháoyǔ has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and Yanbian , whereas Hánguóyǔ or the short form Hányǔ is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea. Korean is a member of the Koreanic family along with the Jeju language . Some linguists have included it in the Altaic family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support. The Khitan language has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting
3392-637: The south, marking the division of the Korean Peninsula into de facto spheres of influence between the Americans and the Soviets. Korean independence was reaffirmed in the Treaty of San Francisco . With Japanese colonial rule over Korea having ended, the KLA disbanded in June 1946. The members of the KLA returned to Korea during late 1945 and 1946. Many of its members, including Generals Ji and Lee, became part of
3456-429: The store?' Response 예/네. ye/ne AFF Korean Independence Party Defunct The Korea Independence Party ( KIP ; Korean : 한국독립당 ) was a political party in South Korea. The party was established in Shanghai by Kim Ku in 1928, uniting a faction of conservative members of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea headed by Kim. When Kim was able to return to Korea in 1945,
3520-551: The surprise of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki interrupted the progress of the mission. The declaration of Japan's intent to surrender on August 15 threw the Korean Peninsula into chaos, and the Soviet Union continued its attacks. The Red Army quickly overwhelmed Japanese forces and gained the north of the Korean Peninsula , but the US landed in the South and accepted the formal surrender of Japanese forces in
3584-441: The tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (example: beoseot ( 버섯 ) 'mushroom'). /h/ may become a bilabial [ɸ] before [o] or [u] , a palatal [ç] before [j] or [i] , a velar [x] before [ɯ] , a voiced [ɦ] between voiced sounds, and a [h] elsewhere. /p, t, t͡ɕ, k/ become voiced [b, d, d͡ʑ, ɡ] between voiced sounds. /m, n/ frequently denasalize at
3648-542: The total budget of the KPG in 1939 was 29,123 yuan. Son Sae-il, a journalist, Korean historian, and former politician, described the plan as "wildly removed from reality", and called Jo and the State Council that approved the plan "hopeless utopians". Once Kim took the reins of creating the army, he took a more realist approach. On 11 April 1940, Chiang approved Kim's proposal for creating a KPG army, albeit with funding granted only depending on immediate needs. However,
3712-464: The underlying, partly historical morphology . Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. The traditional prohibition of word-initial /ɾ/ became a morphological rule called "initial law" ( 두음법칙 ) in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial /ɾ/ in the pronunciation standards of North Korea. For example, ^NOTE ㅏ
3776-529: Was Kim Won-bong's interference, as he naturally viewed the KLA as competition, especially because the Volunteers Army was subordinate to the Kuomintang and the KLA was more politically aligned with the Kuomintang. Another reason was concern about international pushback, particularly from the United States and the Soviet Union, by approving the KLA. The US government hesitated on approving not just
3840-446: Was a prevailing sense that a second Sino-Japanese conflict and/or World War would erupt within one to two years. He had made a special point of recruiting the armed forces ( 한국독립군 ; 韓國獨立軍 ; lit. Korean Independence Army (1929) ) of the 1930 Korea Independence Party (different from Kim's party). These fighters had sided with Chinese forces during the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Also in attendance were 20 students of
3904-414: Was announced. General Ji Cheong-cheon was to be its commander. They held a grand ceremony at then-luxurious Jialing Hotel ( Chinese : 嘉陵賓館 ), in order to establish the army's credibility and reputation. It was held early in the morning, at 6am, as to avoid Japanese air raids. Over 200 people were in attendance, including foreign ambassadors and Kuomintang officials. The KLA became a rallying point for
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#17327653353933968-481: Was assassinated in 1949, the party went into a sharp decline. It participated in the 1950 parliamentary elections , but received only 0.3% of the vote, failing to win a seat. It received the same vote share in the 1960 elections , again failing to win a seat. It nominated Chŏn Chin-han [ ko ] as its candidate for the May 1967 presidential elections ; he finished fifth in a field of six candidates with 2.1% of
4032-487: Was first introduced to Korea in the 1st century BC, and remained the medium of formal writing and government until the late 19th century. Korean scholars adapted Chinese characters (known in Korean as Hanja ) to write their own language, creating scripts known as idu , hyangchal , gugyeol , and gakpil. These systems were cumbersome, due to the fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages, and accessible only to those educated in classical Chinese. Most of
4096-423: Was not the only Korean independence organization; numerous others formed that often differed by ideology and location. The KPG went on to conduct various anti-Japanese activities, including a nearly successful assassination attempt on the Emperor of Japan Hirohito. After KPG member Yun Bong-gil detonated a bomb in Shanghai's Hongkou Park that killed several Japanese military and colonial government officials,
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