The Kalbids ( Arabic : بنو كلب , romanized : Banū Kalb ) were a Muslim Arab dynasty which ruled the Emirate of Sicily from 948 to 1053. They were formally appointed by the Fatimids , but gained, progressively, de facto autonomous rule.
160-788: The Kalbids descended from the Arab tribe of Banu Kalb , members of which frequently served as governors, administrators and high-ranking officials in Ifriqiya (central North Africa) during the Umayyad period ( c. 670s –750). During the rule of the Aghlabids in Ifriqiya (800–909), the fortunes of the Kalb declined as the rulers there favored the tribe's rivals from the Qays – Mudar group. When
320-546: A messianic figure , the hidden and last Imam known as "the Mahdi ", that one day shall return on Earth and fill the world with justice. According to the doctrine of Twelver Shīʿīsm , the main goal of Imam Mahdi will be to establish an Islamic state and to apply Islamic laws that were revealed to Muhammad. The Quran does not contain verses on the Imamate, which is the basic doctrine of Shīʿa Islam. Some Shīʿa subsects , such as
480-514: A retaliatory expedition to Syria, which did not launch until soon after Muhammad's death in 632. Usama may have been chosen for the campaign because of his Kalbite descent. The majority of the Kalb remained outside the emerging Muslim state's authority at the time of Muhammad's death. While al-Asbagh remained loyal to the Medina -based Muslim state during the subsequent Ridda wars , when most Arab tribes broke off their allegiance, another faction of
640-614: A battle in which the Salihid phylarch , Dawud, was killed by Tha'laba ibn Amir of the Kalb and his ally Mu'awiya ibn Hujayr of the Namir, the Kalb's brother tribe, in the Golan. It is not clear if the conflict between Tha'laba ibn Amir and Dawud was a personal feud or part of a tribal conflict between the Kalb and the Salihids. Although the Kalb's role in 5th-century Arab tribal politics in
800-687: A bomb destroyed the shrine of Al-Askari Mosque. ( See : Anti-Shi'ism ). Shia orthodoxy, particularly in Twelver Shi'ism , has considered non-Muslims as agents of impurity ( Najāsat) . This categorization sometimes extends to kitābῑ , individuals belonging to the People of the Book , with Jews explicitly labeled as impure by certain Shia religious scholars. Armenians in Iran , who have historically played
960-528: A branch of the Ghatafan. Because of its inclination toward sedentarism , through the 10th century, the Kalb gradually lost its dominant position in the Dumat al-Jandal and Wadi Sirhan regions to its Tayy allies, while those who remained nomadic either migrated to join their kinsmen in central Syria or kept a low profile in their traditional dwelling places. Military pressures also forced the Kalb to retreat from
1120-546: A crucial role in the Iranian economy , received relatively more lenient treatment. Shi'ite theologians and mujtahids (jurists), such as Muḥammad Bāqir al-Majlisῑ , held that Jews' impurity extended to the point where they were advised to stay at home on rainy or snowy days to prevent contaminating their Shia neighbors. Ayatollah Khomeini , Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 to 1989, asserted that every part of an unbeliever's body, including hair, nails, and bodily secretions,
1280-477: A family of non-Kalbite priests for the pre-monotheistic Kalb's idol , Wadd , which was incorporated into the Kalb after the cult of Wadd spread to Dumat al-Jandal. The four prominent, 8th-century Kalbite scholars of Kufa, Muhammad ibn Sa'ib al-Kalbi , his son Hisham ibn al-Kalbi , al-Sharqi al-Qutami, and Awana ibn al-Hakam , all descended from the Banu Abd Wadd, and their works are the main sources for
1440-462: A fleet of 10,000 men under the command of Asad ibn al-Furat . Palermo was conquered in 831 and became the new capital. Syracuse fell in 878 and in 902 the last Byzantine outpost, Taormina , was taken. At the same time various Muslim incursions into southern Italy occurred, with new Emirates being founded in Tropea , Taranto and Bari . During this period there were constant power struggles amongst
1600-580: A leading Kalbite family. According to the historian Andrew Marsham, the marriages between different families of the Umayyads and the Kalb "[reflected] competition both within Kalb and within the Umayyad kin-group". Amid the Umayyad succession crisis, a rival claimant to the caliphate, Ibn al-Zubayr of Mecca, had challenged Umayyad leadership and was gaining support in Syria. Ibn Bahdal, determined to preserve
1760-527: A massive invasion of Byzantine-held Syria , Phoenicia , Palestine and Egypt in 410, according to Shahîd. He posits that the invasion was related to the fall of the Kalb's Tanukhid allies and the latter's replacement as the Byzantine's main foederati by the Salihids , who also descended from Quda'a. In the closing years of the 5th century, tensions between the Kalb and the Salihids culminated in
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#17327655976761920-593: A number of changes in the Muslim world : With the fall of the Safavids, the state in Iran—including the state system of courts with government-appointed judges ( qāḍī )—became much weaker. This gave the sharīʿa courts of mujtahid an opportunity to fill the legal vacuum and enabled the ulama to assert their judicial authority. The Usuli school of thought also increased in strength at this time. Shia Islam
2080-548: A place called 'Buss'; the Ghatafan's haram emulated the Ka'aba of Mecca , at the time a widely honored edifice containing pagan Arabian idols, which offended the powerful tribes of the area, including the Kalb. Zuhayr decisively defeated the Ghatafan and had their haram destroyed. Although the Ghassanids were the preeminent Arab tribal group of Byzantine Syria and presided over the Arab confederate tribes of Byzantium in
2240-492: A policy of Incastellamento in 967, a movement which profoundly transformed the social structure of the region. It forced a regrouping of all inhabitants in a small number of cities (one per district), each guarded by a castle and equipped with a Friday mosque , essential to ensure political fidelity and religious indoctrination . It was not just a question of bringing Islam into the Sicilian way of life, but also of conveying
2400-470: A political movement, infallibility and sinlessness of the Imams later evolved as a distinct belief of (non-Zaydī) Shīʿīsm. According to Shīʿa Muslim theologians , infallibility is considered a rational, necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance. They argue that since God has commanded absolute obedience from these figures, they must only order that which is right. The state of infallibility
2560-630: A revolt against Marwan II in Homs, but the Kalb and its Yamanite allies were defeated. The Kalb afterward reconciled with the caliph by 746. However, with the advent of the Abbasid Revolution in 749–750, the Kalb probably realized Umayyad rule was close to collapse. Thus, when Marwan II dispatched 2,000 Kalbite soldiers to reinforce the Umayyad governor of Basra , they instead defected to the Abbasids . The Kalb's role in Syria declined under
2720-457: A speech at Ghadir Khumm . The point of contention between different Muslim sects arises when Muhammad, whilst giving his speech, gave the proclamation "Anyone who has me as his mawla , has ʿAlī as his mawla ". Some versions add the additional sentence "O God, befriend the friend of ʿAlī and be the enemy of his enemy". Sunnis maintain that Muhammad emphasized the deserving friendship and respect for ʿAlī. In contrast, Shia Muslims assert that
2880-437: Is a similarity between humans as the little world and the universe as the large world. God does not accept the faith of those who follow him without thinking and only with imitation, but also God blames them for such actions. In other words, humans have to think about the universe with reason and intellect, a faculty bestowed on us by God. Since there is more insistence on the faculty of intellect among Shia Muslims, even evaluating
3040-461: Is already on Earth in Occultation, and will return at the end of time . Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs and Fatimid/Bohra/ Dawoodi Bohra believe the same but for their 21st Ṭayyib, At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim , and also believe that a Da'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary") maintains contact with him. Sunnī Muslims believe that the future Mahdi has not yet arrived on Earth. Shīʿa Muslims believe that
3200-572: Is based on the Shīʿīte interpretation of the verse of purification . Thus, they are the most pure ones, the only immaculate ones preserved from, and immune to, all uncleanness. It does not mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing a sin , but due to the fact that they have absolute belief in God, they refrain from doing anything that is a sin. They also have a complete knowledge of God's will. They are in possession of all knowledge brought by
3360-597: Is commemorated on the Day of Ashura , occurring on the tenth day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. Later, most denominations of Shia Islam, including Twelvers and Ismāʿīlīs , became Imamis . Imami Shīʿītes believe that Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad . Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community with justice, but also are able to keep and interpret
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#17327655976763520-694: Is credited by an inscription. After the mid-11th century, the resurgent power of the Bedouin tribes of Syria and Iraq dissipated, precipitated by the invasion of the Turkish Seljuk Empire and its affiliates. With the exception of the Tayy under the Jarrahids' descendant branches and the Mazyadids of al-Hilla , the Bedouin tribes disappear from the political map of the region by the end of
3680-625: Is followed by 10–15% of all Muslims. Although there are many Shia subsects in the Muslim world, Twelver Shi'ism is by far the largest and most influential, comprising about 85% of all Shia Muslims. Others include the Isma'ili , Zaydi , Alevi and Alawi . Shia Muslims form a majority of the population in four countries across the Muslim world : Iran , Iraq , Azerbaijan , and Bahrain . Significant Shia communities are also found in Lebanon , Kuwait , Turkey , Yemen , Saudi Arabia , Afghanistan and
3840-427: Is impure. However, the current leader of Iran, ʿAlī Khameneʾī , stated in a fatwa that Jews and other Peoples of the Book are not inherently impure, and touching the moisture on their hands does not convey impurity. The original Shia identity referred to the followers of Imam ʿAlī, and Shia theology was formulated after the hijra (8th century CE). The first Shia governments and societies were established by
4000-517: Is no god except God, Muhammad is the messenger of God'), but in addition to this declaration of faith Shīʿa Muslims add the phrase Ali-un-Waliullah ( Arabic : علي ولي الله , lit. 'Ali is the guardian of God'). The basis for the Shīʿīte belief in ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the Wali of God is derived from the Qur'anic verse 5:55 . This additional phrase to the declaration of faith embodies
4160-588: Is reported to have said: "Because you narrate hadith in large numbers from the Holy Prophet, you are fit only for attributing lies to him. (That is, one expects a wicked man like you to utter only lies about the Holy Prophet.) So you must stop narrating hadith from the Prophet; otherwise, I will send you to the land of Dus." (An Arab clan in Yemen , to which Abu Hurairah belonged). According to Sunnī Muslims, ʿAlī
4320-469: Is the second largest branch of Islam . It is estimated that either 10–20% or 10–13% of the global Muslim population are Shias. They may number up to 200 million as of 2009. As of 1985, Shia Muslims are estimated to be 21% of the Muslim population in South Asia , although the total number is difficult to estimate. Shia Muslims form a distinct majority of the population in three countries of
4480-531: Is the concept of infallibility or "divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin" in Islam. Muslims believe that Muhammad, along with the other prophets and messengers , possessed ismah . Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa Muslims also attribute the quality to Imams as well as to Fāṭimah , daughter of Muhammad, in contrast to the Zaydī Shīʿas , who do not attribute ismah to the Imams. Though initially beginning as
4640-715: Is the name that whenever the Messenger of God would place it between the Muslims and pagans no arrow from the pagans would reach the Muslims. With him is the similar object that angels brought. Al-Ṣādiq also narrated that the passing down of armaments is synonymous to receiving the Imamat (leadership), similar to how the Ark of Covenant in the house of the Israelites signaled prophethood. Imam Ali al-Ridha narrates that wherever
4800-654: The Bahra' , was known as Umm al-Asbu ( lit. ' mother of wild animals ' ) because all of her children were named after wild animals. The Kalb was part of the Quda'a tribal confederation, whose presence spanned the northern Hejaz through the northern Syrian steppe. The Kalb was the largest component in the northern half of the Quda'a's roaming areas. The origins of the Quda'a are obscure, with claims of Arab genealogists being contradictory. Some sources claimed that Quda'a
4960-680: The Battle of Hama in November 903. Attempts by the Qarmatian leaders to rouse the defeated chiefs of the Ullays were rejected and they submitted to the Abbasids at al-Rahba in 904. Nevertheless, within a short period, the Ullays reverted to the Qarmatian cause and suffered a damaging campaign by the Abbasids. Another deputy of Zakarawayh, Abu Ghanim, appealed to the Kalb of Palmyra. While most of
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5120-543: The Battle of Siffin in 657 turned the tide against ʿAlī, who lost due to arbitration issues with Muawiyah , the governor of Damascus. ʿAlī withdrew to Kufa, overcoming the Kharijis , a faction that had transformed from supporters to bitter rivals, at Nahrawan in 658. In 661, ʿAlī was assassinated by a Khariji assassin in Kufa while in the act of prostration during prayer ( sujud ). Subsequently, Muawiyah asserted his claim to
5280-821: The Fatimids conquered Ifriqiya in 909, the Kalb, having been an important military and religious support for the Fatimids, were quick to attain high influence in the new regime. By this time, the Kalbids were allied with the Kutama Berbers , a mainstay of the Fatimid army . In 827, in the midst of internal Byzantine conflict, the Muslim conquest of Sicily began: the Aghlabids arrived at Mazara in Sicily , with
5440-698: The Ghouta gardens surrounding Damascus, as well as living a semi-nomadic existence in the Marj pasture grounds on the outskirts of the Ghouta. They also established themselves in and around Homs and Palmyra . A minor proportion of the tribe settled down in the garrison town and administrative center of Kufa in Iraq during the same period, while many Kalbite tribesmen established themselves in Muslim Spain as part of
5600-658: The Indian subcontinent . Iran stands as the world's only country where Shia Islam forms the foundation of both its laws and governance system . The word Shia (or Shīʿa) ( / ˈ ʃ iː ə / ) ( Arabic : شيعيّ , romanized : shīʿī, pl. shīʿiyyūn ) is derived from شيعة علي , shīʿat ʿAlī , 'followers of Ali'. Shia Islam is also referred to in English as Shiism (or Shīʿism) ( / ˈ ʃ iː ɪ z ( ə ) m / ), and Shia Muslims as Shiites (or Shīʿites) ( / ˈ ʃ iː aɪ t / ). The term Shia
5760-1203: The Kadhimiya Mosque in Kadhimiya , Al-Askari Mosque in Samarra , the Sahla Mosque , the Great Mosque of Kufa , the Jamkaran Mosque in Qom, and the Tomb of Daniel in Susa . Most of the Shīʿa sacred places and heritage sites in Saudi Arabia have been destroyed by the Al Saud - Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan , the most notable being the tombs of the Imams located in the Al-Baqi' cemetery in 1925. In 2006,
5920-408: The Muslim world : Iran , Iraq , and Azerbaijan . Shia Muslims constitute 36.3% of the entire population (and 38.6% of the Muslim population) of the Middle East . Estimates have placed the proportion of Shia Muslims in Lebanon between 27% and 45% of the population, 30–35% of the citizen population in Kuwait (no figures exist for the non-citizen population), over 20% in Turkey , 5–20% of
6080-409: The Shiite message on which the dynasty is based. Under the Kalbid dynasty, Sicily, and especially Palermo, was an important economic centre of the Mediterranean . The Muslims introduced lemons, Seville oranges and sugar cane, as well as cotton and mulberries for sericulture, and built irrigation systems for agriculture. Sicily was also an important hub for trade between the Near East, North Africa and
6240-426: The Yaman coalition in opposition to the Qays. The Qays under Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi and the disaffected Umayyad commander Umayr ibn al-Hubab al-Sulami , who were based in the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia), engaged the Kalb under Ibn Bahdal's brother, Humayd ibn Hurayth , in a series of raids and counter-raids ( ayyam ) during 686–689. The Kalb was frequently attacked by the Qays at its dwelling places in
6400-418: The Zaydī Shīʿas and Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs , do not believe in the idea of the Occultation. The groups which do believe in it differ as to which lineage of the Imamate is valid, and therefore which individual has gone into Occultation. They believe there are many signs that will indicate the time of his return. Twelver Shīʿa Muslims believe that the prophesied Mahdi and 12th Shīʿīte Imam , Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi ,
6560-435: The angels ( Arabic : ملائِكة , romanized : malāʾikah ) to the prophets ( Arabic : أنبياء , romanized : anbiyāʼ ) and the messengers ( Arabic : رُسل , romanized : rusul ). Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times. Thus, they are believed to act without fault in religious matters. Shi'a Muslims regard ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the successor of Muhammad not only ruling over
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6720-478: The 11th century. From then on, various tribes receive occasional mention in the record as allies of the Turkish atabegs or as raiders of caravans. In 1084, the Kalb, including its Banu Ulaym branch, joined the Bedouin coalition assembled by the Uqaylid ruler of Aleppo, Muslim ibn Quraysh , to strengthen his position against his Seljuk overlords; he was slain two years later and Aleppo came under direct Turkish rule. The Kalb continued its shift to sedentarism into
6880-421: The 12th century, especially in the Hauran. The Kalb there are recorded in 1131 as having captured the Mazyadid emir Dubays ibn Sadaqa on his way to Salkhad. The Kalb then transferred Dubays to the custody of the Turkish atabeg of Damascus, Taj al-Mulk Buri . A Kalbite family from the Kinana branch, the Banu Munqidh , which had established an emirate in the Orontes Valley in the 1020s, continued to operate under
7040-430: The 6th century, the Kalb had largely adopted Christianity and came under the authority of the Ghassanids , leaders of the Byzantines' Arab allies. During the lifetime of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , a few of his close companions were Kalbites, most prominently Zayd ibn Haritha and Dihya , but the bulk of the tribe remained Christian at the time of Muhammad's death in 632. They began converting in large numbers when
7200-427: The 860s, Abbasid central control waned in the provinces, including Syria. In 864, the Kalb under Utayf ibn Ni'ma took leadership of an anti-Abbasid revolt in Homs in which the city's governor, al-Fadl ibn Qarin, was killed. The Kalb was afterward defeated by the Abbasid general Musa ibn Bugha , but soon linked up with a rebel Tanukhid chief in northern Syria, Yusuf ibn Ibrahim al-Fusays. In 866, Utayf refused to recognize
7360-460: The Anti-Lebanon and the Palmyrene steppe, high grain prices, and low caravan traffic had pushed the Kalb to rupture its relations with the Fatimids. However, while the Tayy and Kilab took control of Palestine and northern Syria, respectively, the Kalb failed to capture Damascus. Sinan's death in 1028 and the defection of his successor, Rafi ibn Abi'l-Layl , to the Fatimids scuttled the alliance, which unraveled with Salih's slaying by Rafi's warriors in
7520-499: The Arab strongman of Palestine in c. 866 –871. In the 10th century, the Kalb was one of the three largest Arab confederations of Syria, largely concentrated in the central parts of the region; the other two confederations were the Tayy in southern Syria and the Kilab in northern Syria. Unlike the Tayy and Kilab, who were relative newcomers, most of the long-established Kalb tribesmen were settled peasants who lost their traditional nomadic mobility by this time. At this point,
7680-421: The Bedouin tribes around Kufa but the Banu Ullays and some of the Banu al-Asbagh branches of the Kalb embraced Zakarawayh's son, al-Husayn , in 902. Later that year, the Kalbite converts under al-Husayn's brother, Yahya , defeated and killed the Abbasid garrison commander of Rusafa , Sabuk al-Daylami, then stormed the city, looting it and burning its mosque. The Kalb under Yahya proceeded toward Damascus, sacking
7840-413: The Byzantine Empire is clear, contemporary sources do not indicate how early the Kalb made contact with the Byzantines. By the early 6th century, the Salihids were supplanted by the Ghassanids as the supreme phylarchs of the Arab tribes in Byzantine territory. Like the Ghassanids, the Kalb embraced Monophysite Christianity . The Kalb was put under the Ghassanids' authority and, like other allied tribes,
8000-534: The Byzantine Empire's boundaries during the years of the Ghassanids' waning influence. From the days of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , in the 620s, the Muslims had attempted to ally with the Ghassanids, but without success. According to the historian Khalil Athamina, "the Muslims were therefore compelled to seek another ally in the area", the Kalb, "whose importance was rising". A few individual Kalbite tribesmen in Mecca converted to Islam, including Zayd ibn Haritha and Dihya al-Kalbi , Muhammad's purported emissary to
8160-483: The Byzantine emperor, Heraclius . According to the historian Fred Donner , while there were notable converts among the Kalb, there are scarce details about contacts between Muhammad and the Kalb in general. As Byzantine foederati , the Kalb fought against Muslim advances in northern Arabia and Syria. The first confrontation was the 627/628 expedition against Dumat al-Jandal , in which the prominent companion of Muhammad, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf , succeeded in converting
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#17327655976768320-449: The Christian chief of the Kalb there, al-Asbagh ibn Amr , to Islam. The pact between at least part of the Kalb, under al-Asbagh, and Muhammad was the first major step in the future alliance between the tribe and the Muslim state. The pact was sealed by the marriage of Abd al-Rahman to al-Asbagh's daughter, Tumadir, which represented the first marital link between the Kalb and the Quraysh , the tribe of Muhammad and Abd al-Rahman. Most of
8480-450: The Day of Nuhada, fought between the Abdallah ibn Kinana and Kinana ibn Awf divisions of the tribe around 570, the Day of Kahatin, and the Day of Siya'if between the Kalb and the Sasanian-allied Taghlib around the time of the Battle of Dhi Qar between the Sasanians and a coalition of Arab tribes. The two minor clashes were the Day of Ulaha against the Taghlib and the Day of Rahba against the Asad tribe. The best-known pre-Islamic chief of
8640-399: The Fatimid army at the Battle of al-Uqhuwana in 1029. By 1031, Rafi, having grown dissatisfied at the failure of the Fatimids to transfer Sinan's iqtas to him, resumed the Kalb's alliance with Hassan and the Tayy, who had been driven into the Palmyrene steppe by the Fatimids. Both the Kalb and the Tayy then relocated to Byzantine territory near Antioch after allying with Byzantium in
8800-416: The Fatimids over the next century. This was occasionally interrupted, most notably when the Kalb joined the Tayy and Kilab in a rebellion to split Syria among themselves in 1024–1025, during which the Kalb failed to capture Damascus . The Kalb continued transitioning to a settled existence into the 12th century, after which the tribe no longer appears in the historical record. Before Islam, the Kalb dominated
8960-413: The Homs area in the mid-10th century, its territory thereafter becoming restricted to the environs of Palmyra and Damascus. Nomadic sections of the Kalb continued to inhabit the desert east of Palmyra into the late 11th century. After that point, even these nomadic groups shifted to sedentarism and the Kalb's main area of concentration shifted from the stretch between Damascus and Palmyra southwestward to
9120-475: The House'), are rightful rulers or Imams through the bloodline of Ali and his two sons Hasan and Husayn , whom Shia Muslims believe possess special spiritual and political authority over the Muslim community . Later events such as Husayn's martyrdom in the Battle of Karbala (680 CE) further influenced the development of Shia Islam, contributing to the formation of a distinct religious sect with its own rituals and shared collective memory. Shia Islam
9280-413: The Iraq-based Abbasids. The Yaman, including the Kalb, quickly became frustrated with Abbasid rule in Syria and joined the revolt of the Umayyad prince Abu Muhammad al-Sufyani and the Qaysite general Abu al-Ward in 750–751. Abu Muhammad was a descendant of the Kalb's former patron, Mu'awiya I, and he presented himself as a messianic figure known as the 'Sufyani', who many from Homs believed would restore
9440-408: The Italian maritime republics such as Amalfi , Pisa and Genoa . Banu Kalb The Banu Kalb ( Arabic : بنو كلب , romanized : Banū Kalb ) was an Arab tribe which mainly dwelt in the desert and steppe of northwestern Arabia and central Syria . It was involved in the tribal politics of the Byzantine Empire 's eastern frontiers , possibly as early as the 4th century. By
9600-401: The Kalb and its tribal neighbors deemed a threat to their socio-economic interests and power in Syria. In 639, Umar appointed Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan , a member of the powerful Umayyad clan of the Quraysh, to the governorships of the Damascus and Jordan districts, which collectively corresponded with central Syria. From the beginning of his administration, Mu'awiya forged close ties with
9760-448: The Kalb and other Bedouin tribes, but was defeated. The Kalb also participated in at least one of Sayf al-Dawla's campaigns against the Byzantines. At times, Sayf al-Dawla campaigned to protect the Kalb of Homs and at other times confronted them to reassert his authority in his domains, a situation which played out with the other Arab tribes. These tribes launched a massive uprising against him in 955, which he decisively suppressed, forcing
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#17327655976769920-417: The Kalb and the Asad defeated Ibn Hamdan, forcing him to flee to Aleppo. Later that year, Ibn Hamdan defeated the Kalb and its Tayy allies. The Kalb then raided places in the Samawa and attacked Hit . Al-Muktafi countered with an army led by Muhammad ibn Ishaq ibn Kundaj , which compelled the Kalb to betray the Qarmatians and kill Nasr, thereby avoiding punitive action by the authorities. "The final retreat of
10080-426: The Kalb and the Fatimids. Its numbers and power reduced from its historical highs in previous centuries and possessing a respect for order, the Kalb became among the first tribes to ally with the Fatimids and the tribe most often employed by the Fatimids in Syria. Ibn Ulayyan's brother, Sinan ibn Ulayyan , was emir of the Kalb by 992, when he participated in the struggle between the rival Fatimid military factions of
10240-449: The Kalb became a leading component of the Yaman faction against the Qays. The Kalb lost its political influence under the pro-Qaysite caliph Marwan II ( r. 744–750 ), a situation which continued under the Iraq-based Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258). From its footholds in the Ghouta and Palmyra oases, the tribe revolted against the Abbasids on several occasions in the 8th–10th centuries, at first in support of Umayyad claimants to
10400-486: The Kalb economically depended on tolls exacted from the caravans travelling between al-Rahba and Homs and Damascus, as well as taxes on the agricultural output from the Palmyra oasis and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Nomadic clans of the Kalb which controlled Palmyra and the Samawa found a strong patron in the Qarmatian movement, and became propagandists of this millenarian Isma'ili Shi'a sect. The Qarmatians under their leader Zakarawayh had failed to gain traction among
10560-428: The Kalb in Dumat al-Jandal, under the chief Wadi'a, rebelled, but was suppressed. The Ridda wars were largely concluded by 633 and the caliph (successor of Muhammad as leader of the Muslims) Abu Bakr launched the Muslim conquest of Byzantine Syria in late 633 or early 634. Despite their historical ties with Byzantium, Kalbite tribesmen remained largely neutral during the conquest. At least some Kalbites fought in
10720-441: The Kalb participated in the abortive Fatimid campaigns against the Mirdasid emir Mu'izz al-Dawla Thimal in 1048 and 1050. The Kalb again were dispatched by the Fatimids against the Mirdasids in 1060, this time at al-Rahba. In 1065, the Kalb entered a conflict against the Fatimid governor of Damascus, Badr al-Jamali , and bested the Fatimid troops dispatched against it, killing and capturing several soldiers and commanders. Among
10880-423: The Kalb probably remained Christian, despite the pact with al-Asbagh. Part of the tribe came under a Muslim agent, al-Asbagh's son Imru al-Qays, during the campaign against pro-Byzantine Arab tribes at Dhat al-Salasil in northwestern Arabia. After Zayd ibn Haritha was slain during a campaign against the Byzantines and their Arab allies at the Battle of Mu'ta in 629, Muhammad appointed Zayd's son, Usama , to head
11040-473: The Kalb provided crucial support to Mu'awiya. Bahdal's sons and grandsons served as commanders against Ali's partisans during the 657 Battle of Siffin , which ended in a stalemate. Ali was killed in 661 and months later, Mu'awiya became caliph. He continued his reliance on the Kalb to maintain his foothold in Syria. Bahdal secured for the Kalb and its allies in the Quda'a significant privileges from Mu'awiya, including consultation in all major caliphal decisions,
11200-412: The Kalb to abandon Homs. In 958, the Kalb and the Tayy launched an assault against the Hamdanid governor of Homs, Abu Wa'il Taghlib ibn Dawud. The Kalb had been considerably weakened during the 10th century as a result of the tribe's increasing sedentarism, its lack of control over urban settlements from which Bedouin tribes typically exacted tribute, its highly decentralized structure, and the defeat of
11360-408: The Kalb was Zuhayr ibn Janab , who wielded significant influence among the Bedouins of northern Arabia. On behalf of Abraha , the mid-6th-century Aksumite ruler of South Arabia , Zuhayr led an expedition against the north Arabian tribes of Taghlib and Bakr . In the mid-6th century, the Kalb under Zuhayr fought the Ghatafan tribe over the latter's construction of a haram (sacred place) at
11520-821: The Kalb with its chiefs. From the Janab descended the Kalb's aristocratic family of the 6th and 7th centuries, the Banu Haritha ibn Janab, as well as other prominent lines, namely the Banu Ulaym and the Banu Ullays. Among the other main branches of the Kalb was the Kinana ibn Awf. From its subbranch, the Banu Awf ibn Kinana, descended the Banu Abd Wadd and the Banu Amir al-Aghdar. The latter may have originally been
11680-441: The Kalb's genealogy. Another major branch was the Banu Amir ibn Awf ibn Bakr, better known as the 'Banu Amir al-Akbar' to distinguish it from similarly named clans of the Kalb. Kalbite tribesmen may have arrived in Syria by the 4th century, though precise information about the tribe at that time is unavailable. The historian Irfan Shahîd speculates Mawiyya , a warrior queen of Arab tribesmen in southern Syria, likely belonged to
11840-425: The Kalb, one of the principal sources of military power in Syria. During the reign of his Umayyad kinsman, Caliph Uthman ( r. 644–656 ), Mu'awiya's governorship was gradually expanded to include the rest of Syria. The Kalb formed marital links with the Umayyads from this time. Uthman married a Kalbite noblewoman, Na'ila bint al-Furafisa , a paternal cousin of Tumadir bint al-Asbagh. Na'ila's sister, Hind,
12000-450: The Kalb, his wives being either Qurayshites or the daughters of Qaysite tribal chiefs. With the death, in 704, of Egypt 's powerful governor Abd al-Aziz, who was slated to succeed his brother Abd al-Malik, Marsham notes that "the Kalb's close kinship connection with the caliphate was severed". Nevertheless, several members of the tribe served key roles under Abd al-Malik and his successors. The most notable were Sufyan ibn al-Abrad , who led
12160-586: The Kalb. This would indicate that the Kalb was an ally of Mawiyya's principal force, the Tanukhids . The latter, like the Kalb, also traced their descent to the Quda'a tribal confederation. The Kalb's territory on the Byzantine Empire 's Limes Arabicus frontier straddled the Oriens , a collective term for the empire's eastern provinces. The Kalb may have been the unnamed tribe that launched
12320-589: The Kalbids into the 11th century, and in 982 a German army under Otto II was defeated by Abu'l-Qasim in the Battle of Stilo near Crotone in Calabria . The dynasty began a steady period of decline under the reign of Yusuf al-Kalbi (990–998) who entrusted the island to his sons and created space for interference from the Zirids of Ifriqiya. Under al-Akhal (1017–1037) the dynastic conflict intensified, with factions allying themselves variously with Byzantium and
12480-573: The Kalbites were opposed to the Qarmatian mission, Abu Ghanim won over remnants of the Ullays, many among the al-Asbagh, and brigands from other Kalb clans, such as the Banu Ziyad. In 906, they plundered Bosra , Adhri'at and Tiberias , and killed the deputy governor of the Jordan district. In response, al-Muktafi dispatched a punitive expedition led by Husayn ibn Hamdan against the Kalb, but
12640-657: The Mahdi in his war against the Dajjal, where it is believed the Mahdi will slay the Dajjal and unite humankind. In the century following the Battle of Karbala (680 CE), as various Shia-affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world, several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population. A major turning point in the history of Shia Islam was the dominion of the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) in Persia . This caused
12800-456: The Messenger of Allah. It is not disputable." Further, he claims that with him is the sword of the Messenger of God, his coat of arms, his Lamam (pennon) and his helmet. In addition, he mentions that with him is the flag of the Messenger of God, the victorious. With him is the Staff of Moses , the ring of Solomon , son of David , and the tray on which Moses used to offer his offerings. With him
12960-514: The Muslim community. ʿAlī was the first Imam of this line, the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah. This difference between following either the Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family and descendants) or pledging allegiance to Abū Bakr has shaped the Shia–Sunnī divide on the interpretation of some Quranic verses, hadith literature (accounts of
13120-425: The Muslims against Muawiyah and reclaim the caliphate. In 680 CE, Muawiyah died and passed the caliphate to his son Yazid , and breaking the treaty with Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī. Yazid asked Husayn to swear allegiance ( bay'ah ) to him. ʿAlī's faction, having expected the caliphate to return to ʿAlī's line upon Muawiyah's death, saw this as a betrayal of the peace treaty and so Ḥusayn rejected this request for allegiance. There
13280-459: The Muslims made significant progress in the conquest of Byzantine Syria , in which the Kalb stayed neutral. As a massive nomadic tribe with considerable military experience, the Kalb was sought as a key ally by the Muslim state. The leading clans of the Kalb forged marital ties with the Umayyad family , and the tribe became the military foundation of the Syria -based Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) from
13440-534: The Muslims. Nominally the island was under rule of the Aghlabids and afterward their Fatimid successors. After successfully suppressing a revolt the Fatimid caliph appointed al-Hasan al-Kalbi (948–953) as Emir of Sicily, the first of the Kalbid dynasty. The Fatimids appointed the Kalbids as rulers via proxy before they shifted their capital from Ifriqiya to Cairo in 969. Raids into southern Italy continued under
13600-597: The Qarmatians. When the Isma'ili Fatimid Caliphate under the general Ja'far ibn Falah invaded Syria in 970, the emir of the Kalb's Palmyra-based Banu Adi clan, Ibn Ulayyan, captured the pro-Abbasid chief of the Damascus ahdath (urban militia) during his attempted escape to Palmyra. The Kalbite emir sent him to Ja'far for a large bounty, thereby inaugurating a century-long, mostly collaborative relationship between
13760-704: The Qays at the Battle of Marj Rahit in August 684. In the battle's aftermath, the Qays–Kalb feud intensified , while Marwan became completely dependent on the Kalb and its allies to maintain his rule. Syrian tribes envious of the Quda'a's privileges either opposed or sought to join it. The Judham of Palestine and the South Arabian tribes which dwelt in the Homs district defected to the Quda'a's side after Marj Rahit, forming
13920-409: The Qays tribes opposed Abu al-Umaytir. The Qaysite leader, Ibn Bayhas al-Kilabi , backed another Umayyad counter-caliph, Maslama ibn Ya'qub, and together defeated Abu al-Umaytir. By 813, Ibn Bayhas reverted to Abbasid allegiance, prompting the two Umayyad claimants to the caliphate to take refuge with the Kalb in its Ghouta villages of Mezzeh , Darayya and Beit Lihya until their natural deaths. In
14080-480: The Quda'a tribal confederation. In Athamina's opinion, the Muslim state's need to establish a defense network out of the militarily experienced, formerly Byzantine-allied Arab tribes of Syria drove it to strengthen ties with the Kalb, as well as with the old-established Judham and Lakhm tribes in the southern Syrian steppe. This need was pressing for the Muslims as they lacked a standing army and their tribal forces from Arabia had to be deployed to different fronts. In
14240-458: The Quranic verses 3:33 and 3:34 show: "Indeed, Allah chose Adam , Noah , the family of Abraham , and the family of ’Imrân above all people. They are descendants of one another. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing." Shīʿa Islam encompasses various denominations and subgroups , all bound by the belief that the leader of the Muslim community ( Ummah ) should hail from Ahl al-Bayt ,
14400-598: The Samawa and despite making retaliatory raids, the Kalbites were forced to leave the Samawa for the Jordan Valley . Humayd attacked the Qays in the Jazira around 690, but the Kalbites were dealt a heavy blow by the Qays at a place called Banat Qayn between 692 and 694, for which the caliph, Marwan's son Abd al-Malik ( r. 685–705 ), had the culpable Qaysite chiefs executed by the Kalb in revenge. This event marked
14560-606: The Shīʿīte emphasis on the inheritance of authority through Muhammad's family and lineage . The three clauses of the Shīʿīte version of the Shahada thus address the fundamental Islamic beliefs of Tawḥīd ( Arabic : تَوْحِيد , lit. 'oneness of God'), Nubuwwah ( Arabic : نبوة , lit. 'prophethood'), and Imamah ( Arabic : إمامة , lit. 'Imamate or leadership'). Ismah ( Arabic : عِصْمَة , romanized : 'Iṣmah or 'Isma , lit. 'protection')
14720-576: The Syrian expeditionary forces sent there in the 8th century. At the time of the mid-10th-century geographer Ibn Hawqal , the diyar (tribal territories) of the Kalb extended from the area of Siffin near Raqqa , off the western bank of the Euphrates, to Tayma. This expanse excluded the area of al-Rahba and largely bordered the southern Syrian and northern Hejazi diyar of the Fazara tribe,
14880-524: The Syrian steppe throughout the 6th century, their influence began to wane in the 580s. They lost their powerful position and much of their prestige when the Sasanian Persians conquered Byzantine Syria in 613–614. The Byzantines recaptured the region in 628, but the Ghassanids remained weakened, divided into multiple subgroups, each headed by a different chief. The Kalb, though allied with the Ghassanids, had begun pushing into their territory within
15040-578: The Tayy under the Jarrahid emir Hassan ibn al-Mufarrij , and its traditional rivals, the Kilab under the Mirdasid emir Salih ibn Mirdas , formed an unprecedented Bedouin alliance to divide Syria among themselves. The three chiefs launched their war in 1025, taking over much of Syria. Bianquis speculates severe economic strain on the Kalb, probably emanating from years-long drought and reduced crop yields in
15200-587: The Turks under Manjutakin and the Berbers under al-Hasan ibn Ammar , the latter himself a scion of a ruling Kalbite family in Sicily . Throughout the 11th century, the Kalb was commissioned by the Fatimids on several occasions against the Mirdasid -led Kilab of northern Syria. As Fatimid control weakened in Syria after Caliph al-Hakim 's disappearance in 1021, Sinan and the chiefs of the Kalb's traditional ally,
15360-656: The Umayyad Caliphate. Abu al-Ward was killed by an Abbasid army while Abu Muhammad and the Kalb barricaded themselves in Palmyra, after which the revolt dissipated. The Kalb-led Yamanites were the chief backers of another Umayyad claimant to the caliphate, Abu al-Umaytir al-Sufyani , who took power in Damascus in 811, amid the Great Abbasid Civil War . Due to partisan acts in favor of the Yaman,
15520-566: The Zirids. Even though neither of these powers could establish themselves in Sicily permanently, under Hasan as-Samsam (1040–1053) the island fragmented into small fiefdoms. The Kalbids died out in 1053, and in 1061 the Normans of southern Italy arrived under Roger I of Sicily and began their conquest, which was completed in 1091. The Muslims were allowed to remain and played an important role in
15680-584: The [Qarmatians]" from Syria after their defeat in 970, left the Kalb "politically isolated", according to the historian Kamal Salibi . In 944–945, the Hamdanid emir Sayf al-Dawla established an emirate in Aleppo spanning much of northern Syria, with the southern parts controlled by the Egypt-based Ikshidids . In his attempt to capture Damascus from its Ikhshidid governor in 947, he rallied
15840-752: The administration, army and economy of the Norman kingdom until the 12th century. The Kalbites focused their efforts on the Islamization of Sicilian society, notably in 962 with a large ceremony, where fourteen thousand children were circumcised simultaneously; after a Byzantine offensive, crushed in 965 at the Battle of the Ditch or Rametta, the Fatimid Caliph Mu'izz had the Kalbite emir enacted
16000-533: The advantage and Mismar negotiated a large bribe for his neutrality, though this was not paid and the Fatimids used the respite to defeat the Damascenes, prompting the Kalb to withdraw into the Ghouta. According to the historian Werner Caskel , this event represents the last known military engagement of the Kalb. Mismar's son, Husayn, founded or rebuilt the fortress of Salkhad in the Hauran in 1073, for which he
16160-553: The aftermath of the Mirdasids' victory over the Byzantines at the Battle of Azaz . Nevertheless, by 1038, Rafi and the Kalb renewed their allegiance to the Fatimids, playing a key role in the army of Anushtakin al-Dizbari , the Fatimid governor of Syria, during his successful campaign against the Mirdasid emir of Aleppo, Shibl al-Dawla Nasr , near Homs. After Anushtakin's death and the return of Mirdasid rule to Aleppo in 1042,
16320-430: The armaments among us would go, knowledge would also follow and the armaments would never depart from those with knowledge ( Imamat ). According to Muhammad Rida al-Muzaffar , God gives humans the faculty of reason and argument. Also, God orders humans to spend time thinking carefully on creation while he refers to all creations as his signs of power and glory. These signs encompass all of the universe. Furthermore, there
16480-482: The caliphate and later as key troops of the Qarmatians , whose suppression contributed to the Kalb's political isolation. The Kalb remained among the three largest tribes of Syria at the start of Fatimid rule in the late 10th century, but due to its increasing sedentarism , it was disadvantaged to the more numerous and nomadic Tayy and Kilab tribes. The Kalb's relative weakness encouraged its close alliance with
16640-616: The caliphate. Upon the death of ʿAlī, his elder son Ḥasan became leader of the Muslims of Kufa. After a series of skirmishes between the Kufa Muslims and the army of Muawiyah, Ḥasan ibn Ali agreed to cede the caliphate to Muawiyah and maintain peace among Muslims upon certain conditions : The enforced public cursing of ʿAlī , e.g. during prayers, should be abandoned; Muawiyah should not use tax money for his own private needs; There should be peace, and followers of Ḥasan should be given security and their rights; Muawiyah will never adopt
16800-456: The captives was the dignitary Ibn Manzu, who agreed to pay a substantial ransom and became a key client of the Kalb in Damascus. During the revolt of the Damascenes against the Fatimid garrison loyal to Badr in 1068, Ibn Manzu arranged for the Kalb, by that time led by Sinan's son Mismar and Hazim ibn Nabhan al-Qarmati, to back the Damascenes. The Kalb was unable to breach the city's defenses, but remained outside its walls. The Fatimid troops gained
16960-574: The central and southern parts of the region, at least not in large numbers. Mu'awiya's son and successor, Yazid I ( r. 680–683 ), who was born to Maysun, also married a Kalbite woman, and maintained the privileges granted to the Quda'a by his father. Mu'awiya chose Yazid instead of his elder son by a woman of the Quraysh, an indication of the Kalb's critical role as the foundation of Sufyanid power. The accession of Yazid's son Mu'awiya II ( r. 683–684 ), born to Yazid's Kalbite wife,
17120-542: The claims of someone who claims prophecy is on the basis of intellect. Shia religious practices, such as prayers, differ only slightly from the Sunnīs. While all Muslims pray five times daily, Shia Muslims have the option of combining Dhuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha' , as there are three distinct times mentioned in the Quran . The Sunnīs tend to combine only under certain circumstances. Shia Muslims celebrate
17280-535: The collections of pre-Islamic poems which serve as a source of history for the tribes of pre-Islamic Arabia , especially the battles and raids they were involved in. An exception is the Day of Ura'ir, where a Kalbite chief, Masad ibn Hisn ibn Masad, was slain by the Banu Abs . The Kalbite historical tradition formulated in 9th-century Kufa mentions five pre-Islamic confrontations involving the Kalb. The three major ones were
17440-908: The colonial period, such as the Khoja . Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the Pew Research Center report, Mapping the Global Muslim Population . The Shia community throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate. The largest branch are the Twelvers , followed by the Zaydīs and the Ismāʿīlīs . Each subsect of Shīʿīsm follows its own line of Imamate. All mainstream Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims follow
17600-425: The distance of its territory from the battle site, in the northern Jordan Valley region. The conversion of much of the tribe to Islam probably occurred after this battle, which shattered the Byzantine army in Syria and drove on the Muslim conquest of the region. The conquest was largely concluded by 638; by then, the Kalb dominated the steppes around Homs and Palmyra and was the leading and most powerful component of
17760-473: The divine guide, is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam, and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance. In Shia Islam, Imam Mahdi is regarded as the prophesied eschatological redeemer of Islam who will rule for seven, nine, or nineteen years (according to differing interpretations) before the Day of Judgment and will rid
17920-464: The divine law and its esoteric meaning . The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by divine decree ( nass ) through Muhammad. According to this view peculiar to Shia Islam, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in
18080-531: The end of the 9th century CE. The 10th century CE has been referred to by the scholar of Islamic studies Louis Massignon as "the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam". The Shia, originally known as the "partisans" of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib , Muhammad's cousin and Fatima 's husband, first emerged as a distinct movement during the First Fitna from 656 to 661 CE. Shia doctrine holds that ʿAlī
18240-401: The entire Muslim community in justice, but also in interpreting the Islamic faith, practices, and its esoteric meaning. ʿAlī is regarded as a " perfect man " ( Arabic : الإنسان الكامل , romanized : al-insan al-kamil ) similar to Muhammad, according to the Shīʿīte perspective. The Occultation is an eschatological belief held in various denominations of Shīʿa Islam concerning
18400-402: The event of Ghadir Khumm , but that after Muhammad's death, Ali was prevented from succeeding as leader of the Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of Muhammad's other companions ( صحابة , ṣaḥāba ) at Saqifah . This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunni Islam , whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abu Bakr , who
18560-696: The family of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . It embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the Muslim world . Shīʿa Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe God chose ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib to be Muhammad's successor and the first caliph ( Arabic : خليفة , romanized : khalifa ) of Islam. Shīʿa Muslims believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God's command on several instances, but most notably at Eid Al Ghadir . Additionally, ʿAlī
18720-649: The following annual holidays: After Mecca and Medina , the two holiest cities of Islam , the cities of Najaf , Karbala , Mashhad and Qom are the most revered by Shīʿa Muslims. The Sanctuary of Imām ʿAlī in Najaf, the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala, The Sanctuary of Imam Reza in Mashhad and the Shrine of Fāṭimah al-Maʿṣūmah in Qom are very essential for Shīʿa Muslims. Other venerated pilgrimage sites include
18880-514: The hadith attributed to the Ahl al-Bayt and close associates, and most have their own separate hadith canon . Shīʿa Muslims believe that the armaments and sacred items of all of the Abrahamic prophets , including Muhammad , were handed down in succession to the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt . Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq , the 6th Shīʿīte Imam , in Kitab al-Kafi mentions that "with me are the arms of
19040-443: The intra-dynastic Third Muslim Civil War in 743–750. The Kalb's position in the Umayyad state began to deteriorate under the pro-Qaysite caliph al-Walid II ( r. 743–744 ), and collapsed under Caliph Marwan II ( r. 744–750 ), who relied almost entirely on the Qays for military and administrative support at the expense of Yamanite interests. In June 745, the Kalbite chief of Palmyra, al-Asbagh ibn Dhu'ala , led
19200-572: The last of the Qays–Kalb battles. The Kalb remained the backbone of the Umayyad army through the early part of Abd al-Malik's reign. After Abd al-Malik's reconciliation with Zufar in 691, which the Kalb had protested, the Qaysites were reintegrated into the army, ending the Kalb's monopoly of power there and beginning a policy by the caliphs of balancing Qaysite and Kalbite/Yamanite interests. Moreover, Abd al-Malik lacked ancestral or marital ties with
19360-460: The leaders of Medina and elected Abū Bakr as the first rāshidūn caliph. Abū Bakr served from 632 to 634, and was followed by Umar (634–644) and ʿUthmān (644–656). With the murder of ʿUthmān in 657 CE, the Muslims of Medina invited ʿAlī to become the fourth caliph as the last source, and he established his capital in Kufa . ʿAlī's rule over the early Islamic empire , between 656 CE to 661 CE,
19520-562: The mid-to-late 630s, Caliph Umar dismissed the Muslims' supreme commander in Syria, Khalid ibn al-Walid, and reassigned his forces, derived largely from the Mudar and Rabi'a tribal groups of Arabia, to the Sasanian front in Iraq . Athamina attributes this decision to the Kalb's probable opposition to the significant numbers of outside tribal soldiers and their families in Khalid's army, which
19680-401: The new Abbasid caliph and was captured and executed by the general Ahmad ibn al-Muwallad, but the Kalb of the Homs countryside continued to resist. Al-Fusays abandoned his alliance with the Kalb and assaulted the tribe. Although the Abbasids reconciled with al-Fusays, the fate of the Kalbite tribes of the Homs countryside is not known. The tribe later allied with Isa ibn al-Shaykh al-Shaybani ,
19840-522: The oasis of Tayma in the south to the wells of Quraqir in the northern Wadi Sirhan depression. The Kalb began to expand its grazing territories eastward toward the Euphrates River , following the retreat of the Taghlib tribe in c. 570 . The Kalb's tribal territory was bordered on the north by the powerful Tayy tribe, close allies of the Kalb. To the west, southeast, and east were
20000-418: The political and economic privileges the Kalb had acquired under the Sufyanids, gave his allegiance to Marwan in return for the continuation of these privileges and priority in Marwan's court. A former top aide of the Sufyanids, al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri , and the Kalb's main tribal rivals, the Qays, both supported Ibn al-Zubayr. Ibn Bahdal mobilized the Kalb and its tribal allies and routed al-Dahhak and
20160-419: The population in Pakistan , and 10–19% of Afghanistan 's population, and 45% in Bahrain . Saudi Arabia hosts a number of distinct Shia communities, including the Twelver Baharna in the Eastern Province and Nakhawila of Medina, and the Ismāʿīlī Sulaymani and Zaydī Shias of Najran . Estimations put the number of Shīʿīte citizens at roughly 15% of the local population. Approximately 40% of
20320-627: The population of Yemen are Shia Muslims. Significant Shia communities also exist in the coastal regions of West Sumatra and Aceh in Indonesia (see Tabuik ). The Shia presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where Muslims are predominantly Shāfiʿī Sunnīs. A significant Shia minority is present in Nigeria , made up of modern-era converts to a Shīʿīte movement centered around Kano and Sokoto states. Several African countries like Kenya , South Africa , Somalia , etc. hold small minority populations of various Shia subsects, primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during
20480-400: The ranks of the Arab Christian tribes against Muslim forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid at Ziza in Transjordan in 634. While Fück notes that individual Kalbite Muslims did not participate in the conquest, Athamina holds that "there are clear hints that one or more groups" of Kalbite tribesmen fought in the Muslim ranks from the initial phases of the invasion. A Kalbite, Alqama ibn Wa'il,
20640-452: The regions of al-Jawf and Wadi Sirhan , as well as the Samawa, the great desert expanse between Syria and Iraq. After the Muslim conquest, the tribe expanded its presence into Syria proper, taking the dominant position in the Golan Heights , the northern Jordan Valley , the Damascus area, and in and around Homs and Palmyra. As Fatimid rule progressed in the 11th century, the tribe's main concentration between Damascus and Palmyra shifted to
20800-406: The reign of Mu'awiya I ( r. 661–680 ) to the early reign of Abd al-Malik ( r. 685–705 ). During the Second Muslim Civil War , the Kalb routed its main rival, the Qays , in the Battle of Marj Rahit in 684, inaugurating a long-running blood feud , in which the Qays eventually gained the advantage. In the resulting tribal factionalism which came to dominate Umayyad politics,
20960-414: The right to propose and veto measures, and significant, annual hereditary stipends for 2,000 nobles of the Kalb and the Quda'a. With this, the Kalb became the most influential tribe during the Sufyanid period (661–684) of the Umayyad Caliphate . Mu'awiya was careful to keep the Kalb onside, ensuring that tribal newcomers to Syria from the Qays and Mudar groups did not settle in the Kalb's territories in
21120-465: The ruling family, Marwan ibn al-Hakam . The latter had forged links with the family of al-Asbagh by marrying his granddaughter, Layla bint Zabban, with whom he had his son Abd al-Aziz —the family of al-Asbagh represented the preeminent clan of the Kalb in northern Arabia, while that of Bahdal led the Kalb of the Syrian steppe. A third Umayyad contender for the succession was the son of Sa'id ibn al-As, Amr al-Ashdaq , who had also forged marital ties with
21280-440: The same school of thought, the Jaʽfari jurisprudence , named after Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq , the 6th Shīʿīte Imam . Shīʿīte clergymen and jurists usually carry the title of mujtahid (i.e., someone authorized to issue legal opinions in Shia Islam). Twelver Shīʿīsm or Ithnāʿashariyyah is the largest branch of Shia Islam, and the terms Shia Muslim and Shia often refer to the Twelvers by default. The designation Twelver
21440-647: The sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime), and other areas of Islamic belief throughout the history of Islam . For instance, the hadith collections venerated by Shia Muslims are centered on narrations by members of the Ahl al-Bayt and their supporters, while some hadith transmitted by narrators not belonging to or supporting the Ahl al-Bayt are not included. Those of Abu Hurairah , for example, Ibn Asakir in his Taʿrikh Kabir , and Muttaqi in his Kanzuʿl-Umma report that ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb lashed him, rebuked him, and forbade him to narrate ḥadīth from Muhammad. ʿUmar
21600-414: The settled areas between Damascus, the Anti-Lebanon Mountains , and the Hauran , especially the last region. Smaller groups of the Kalb moved north of Homs and the Nile Delta in Lower Egypt around this time. In the Arab genealogical tradition, the progenitor of the tribe was named Kalb, which means 'dog' in Arabic . Kalb's father was Wabara and his mother, Asma bint Duraym ibn al-Qayn ibn Ahwad of
21760-427: The settled areas between Damascus, the Hauran , and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains . The Kalb was a Bedouin (nomadic) tribe well known for raising camels. Before the advent of Islam in the 7th century, the tribe's grazing grounds were in northwestern Arabia. Its earliest known abode, during the Byzantine era (4th–7th centuries CE), was in the al-Jawf depression, including the oasis of Dumat al-Jandal . The tribe
21920-496: The statement unequivocally designates ʿAlī as Muhammad's appointed successor. Shia sources also record further details of the event, such as stating that those present congratulated ʿAlī and acclaimed him as Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers"). When Muhammad died in 632 CE, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abū Bakr , ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb , and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah met with
22080-453: The status of ʿAlī is supported by numerous ḥadīth reports , including the Hadith of the pond of Khumm , Hadith of the two weighty things , Hadith of the pen and paper , Hadith of the invitation of the close families , and Hadith of the Twelve Successors . In particular, the Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad's feeling towards ʿAlī and his family by both Sunnī and Shia scholars. Shia Muslims prefer to study and read
22240-403: The suppression of revolts in Iraq in the 690s, the brothers Hanzala ibn Safwan and Bishr ibn Safwan , frequent governors of Ifriqiya and Egypt in the 720s–740s, al-Hakam ibn Awana , the governor of Sind in 731–740, Sa'id ibn al-Abrash , an adviser of Caliph Hisham ( r. 724–743 ), Abu al-Khattar , the governor of Muslim Spain in 743–745, and Mansur ibn Jumhur , a major player in
22400-424: The suzerainty of Syria's Turkish atabegs until its demise in 1157. Shia Islam Shia Islam ( / ˈ ʃ iː ə / ) is the second-largest branch of Islam . It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib (656–661 CE) as his successor ( Arabic : خليفة , romanized : khalīfa ) as Imam ( امام , 'spiritual and political leader'), most notably at
22560-399: The term Shia refers to those who believe that ʿAlī is designated as the heir , Imam, and caliph by Muhammad and that ʿAlī's authority is maintained through his descendants. For the adherents of Shia Islam, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and the history of Islam . Shia Muslim scholars emphasize that the notion of authority is linked to the family of the Abrahamic prophets as
22720-434: The title of Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers"); Muawiyah will not nominate any successor. Ḥasan then retired to Medina , where in 670 CE he was poisoned by his wife Ja'da bint al-Ash'ath , after being secretly contacted by Muawiyah who wished to pass the caliphate to his own son Yazid and saw Ḥasan as an obstacle. Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī , ʿAlī's younger son and brother to Ḥasan, initially resisted calls to lead
22880-437: The tribes of Balqayn , Ghatafan , and Anaza , respectively. The Kalb's domination of Wadi Sirhan and al-Jawf put its tribesmen is a good position to migrate northward into Syria. With the advent of Islam in the 630s, the Kalb began to enter Syria in large numbers, at first making their abodes in the Golan Heights , the northern Jordan Valley , and in and around Damascus . Its tribesmen eventually became major landowners in
23040-456: The villages along the way, before launching an abortive, seven-month siege on the city. The besiegers were dispersed and Yahya was killed by an army sent by the Tulunids , who ruled Egypt, nominally on behalf of the Abbasids. The Kalb then escaped Damascus with al-Husayn. The latter's Kalb-dominated army, led by the da'i and chief al-Nu'man of the Ullays, was devastated by the forces of the Abbasid caliph al-Muktafi ( r. 902–908 ) at
23200-423: The world of evil. According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdi's tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus (ʿĪsā), who is to assist the Mahdi against the Masih ad-Dajjal (literally, the "false Messiah" or Antichrist). Jesus, who is considered the Masih (" Messiah ") in Islam, will descend at the point of a white arcade east of Damascus , dressed in yellow robes with his head anointed. He will then join
23360-443: Was Muhammad's first-cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammad's daughter, Fāṭimah . The Shīʿīte version of the Shahada ( Arabic : الشهادة ), the Islamic profession of faith, differs from that of the Sunnīs . The Sunnī version of the Shahada states La ilaha illallah, Muhammadun rasulullah ( Arabic : لَا إِلٰهَ إِلَّا الله مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ الله , lit. 'There
23520-488: Was a groundswell of support in Kufa for Ḥusayn to return there and take his position as caliph and Imam, so Ḥusayn collected his family and followers in Medina and set off for Kufa. En route to Kufa, Husayn was blocked by an army of Yazid's men, which included people from Kufa, near Karbala ; rather than surrendering, Husayn and his followers chose to fight. In the Battle of Karbala , Ḥusayn and approximately 72 of his family members and followers were killed, and Husayn's head
23680-404: Was a son of Ma'add , thus making the tribe northern Arabians, or a descendant of Himyar , the semi-legendary patriarch of the southern Arabs. With the exception of three small clans, all the branches of the Kalb descended from the line of Rufayda ibn Thawr ibn Kalb. The Kalb's most prominent branch was the Banu Abdallah ibn Kinana, especially its largest subbranch, the Banu Janab, which provided
23840-417: Was appointed caliph by a group of Muhammad's other companions at Saqifah, to be the first Rashidun ('rightful') caliph after Muhammad (632–634 CE). Shia Muslims' belief that Ali was the designated successor to Muhammad as Islam's spiritual and political leader later developed into the concept of Imamah , the idea that certain descendants of Muhammad, the Ahl al-Bayt ( أَهْل البَيْت , 'People of
24000-431: Was charged with guarding the Byzantines' eastern frontier against Sassanian Persia and the latter's Arab vassals in al-Hira , the Lakhmids . As a result of their firm incorporation in the Byzantine foederati system, the Kalb "became accustomed to military discipline and to law and order", according to the historian Johann Fück . There is scant record of the Kalb's activities in the so-called ayyam literature,
24160-430: Was delivered to Yazid in Damascus. The Shi'a community regard Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī as a martyr ( shahid ), and count him as an Imam from the Ahl al-Bayt . The Battle of Karbala and martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī is often cited as the definitive separation between the Shia and Sunnī sects of Islam . Ḥusayn is the last Imam following ʿAlī mutually recognized by all branches of Shia Islam. The martyrdom of Husayn and his followers
24320-401: Was entrusted with distributing the spoils of the decisive Muslim victory against the Byzantines and their Ghassanid allies at the Battle of Yarmouk , a particularly high-stakes assignment due to the Muslim army's composition of diverse and competing groups of Arab tribes. The greater part of the Kalb did not participate in that battle, whether to avoid entanglement with either side or because of
24480-432: Was first used during Muhammad's lifetime. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the Muslim community after Muhammad belongs to ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib , Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and his successors. Nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims who at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded ʿAlī as the Imam and caliph . Al-Shahrastani expresses that
24640-400: Was largely due to the machinations of Bahdal's grandson, Hassan ibn Malik ibn Bahdal , who was commonly known as 'Ibn Bahdal'. Mu'awiya II died weeks into his rule, leaving the caliphate in disarray. Ibn Bahdal favored electing one of Yazid's other, younger sons as successor, while the influential, ousted governor of Iraq, Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad , favored an Umayyad from a different branch of
24800-418: Was mainly concentrated in this region, bordering the eastern frontiers of the Byzantine Empire. They seasonally migrated from there deep into the vast desert steppe between Syria and Mesopotamia , which the Arabic sources called the Samawa or Samawat Kalb , after the tribe, especially the southwestern part of this region. To the west of al-Jawf, the tribe's Banu Amir al-Akbar branch roamed between
24960-454: Was married to Uthman's Umayyad kinsman, the governor Sa'id ibn al-As . Mu'awiya married two Kalbite noblewomen, including Maysun , the daughter of Bahdal ibn Unayf , the Kalb's preeminent chieftain, who remained Christian until his death sometime before 657. The Kalb's marital ties with the Umayyads became a major source of their considerable political influence. During the conflict between Mu'awiya and Caliph Ali ( r. 656–661 ),
25120-463: Was meant to lead the community after Muhammad's death in 632. Historians dispute over the origins of Shia Islam , with many Western scholars positing that Shīʿīsm began as a political faction rather than a truly religious movement. Other scholars disagree, considering this concept of religious-political separation to be an anachronistic application of a Western concept. Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his heir during
25280-473: Was often contested. Tensions eventually led to the First Fitna , the first major civil war between Muslims within the empire, which began as a series of revolts fought against ʿAlī. While the rebels had previously affirmed the legitimacy of ʿAlī's khilafāʾ (caliphate), they later turned against ʿAlī and fought him. Tensions escalated into the Battle of the Camel in 656, where Ali's forces emerged victorious against Aisha , Talhah , and al-Zubayr . However,
25440-446: Was the fourth successor to Abū Bakr, while Shia Muslims maintain that ʿAlī was the first divinely sanctioned "Imam", or successor of Muhammad. The seminal event in Shia history is the martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala of ʿAlī's son, Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī , and 71 of his followers in 680 CE, who led a non-allegiance movement against the defiant caliph. It is believed in Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam that divine wisdom ( ʿaql )
25600-399: Was the source of the souls of the prophets and Imams, which bestowed upon them esoteric knowledge ( ḥikmah ), and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees. Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation ( waḥy ), he had a close relationship with God , through which God guides him, and the Imam, in turn, guides the people. Imamate , or belief in
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