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170-668: The Kent State shootings (also known as the Kent State massacre or May 4 massacre ) were the killing of four and wounding of nine unarmed college students by the Ohio National Guard on the Kent State University campus. The shootings took place on May 4, 1970, during a rally opposing the expanding involvement of the Vietnam War into Cambodia by United States military forces as well as protesting

340-535: A state of emergency , called the office of Ohio Governor Jim Rhodes to seek assistance, and ordered all of the bars to be closed. The decision to close the bars early only increased tensions in the area. Police eventually succeeded in using tear gas to disperse the crowd from downtown, forcing them to move several blocks back to the campus. City officials and downtown businesses received threats, and rumors proliferated that radical revolutionaries were in Kent to destroy

510-460: A "rethinking conference" to establish a coherent new direction for the organization failed. The conference, held on the University of Illinois campus at Champaign-Urbana over Christmas vacation, 1965, was attended by about 360 people from 66 chapters, many of whom were new to SDS. Despite a great deal of discussion, no substantial decisions were made. SDS chapters continued to use the draft as

680-525: A 22 Beretta handgun. Before advancing, Company C was instructed to fire only into the air and for only a single guardsman to fire. It is unknown whether the other two National Guard groups received any instructions about firing. As the advancing guardsmen approached the crowd, tear gas was again fired at the crowd, making the protesters retreat. At this point, some protesters threw stones at the Guard to no significant effect. Some students may have brought rocks to

850-558: A Democratic Society Students for a Democratic Society ( SDS ) was a national student activist organization in the United States during the 1960s and was one of the principal representations of the New Left . Disdaining permanent leaders, hierarchical relationships and parliamentary procedure, the founders conceived of the organization as a broad exercise in " participatory democracy ". From its launch in 1960 it grew rapidly in

1020-649: A Democratic Society , was founded in 2006. Progressive Era Repression and persecution Anti-war and civil rights movements Contemporary SDS developed from the youth branch of a socialist educational organization known as the League for Industrial Democracy (LID). LID itself descended from an older student organization, the Intercollegiate Socialist Society , founded in 1905 by Upton Sinclair , Walter Lippmann , Clarence Darrow , and Jack London . Early in 1960, to broaden

1190-500: A Kent State student who would become the lead singer of The Pretenders . In her 2015 autobiography Hynde described what she saw: Then I heard the tatatatatatatatatat sound. I thought it was fireworks. An eerie sound fell over the common. The quiet felt like gravity pulling us to the ground. Then a young man's voice: "They fucking killed somebody!" Everything slowed down and the silence got heavier. Ohio Army National Guard On May 4, 1970, Guard units infamously opened fire onto

1360-609: A National Guard which in addition to being a state force for quelling civil disturbances, was assuming a key role in the national defense. Leading the effort to accomplish this was Major General Charles Dick of the Ohio National Guard. After serving in the Spanish–American War, he was later elected to the U.S. Senate, where he was instrumental in passing the Dick Act of 1903. This benchmark legislation repealed

1530-438: A bullet passes your head, it makes a crack . I hit the ground behind the curve, looking over. I saw a student hit. He stumbled and fell, to where he was running towards the car. Another student tried to pull him behind the car, bullets were coming through the windows of the car. As this student fell behind the car, I saw another student go down, next to the curb, on the far side of the automobile, maybe 25 or 30 yards from where I

1700-538: A century" in which "to be idealistic is to be considered apocalyptic", Students for a Democratic Society would seek a "new left ... committed to deliberativeness, honesty [and] reflection." The Statement proposed the university, with its "accessibility to knowledge" and an "internal openness", as a "base" from which students would "look outwards to the less exotic but more lasting struggles for justice." "The bridge to political power" would be "built through genuine cooperation, locally, nationally, and internationally, between

1870-656: A college experience that the Port Huron Statement had described as "hardly distinguishable from that of any other communications channel—say, a television set." Students were to start taking responsibility for their own education. By the fall of 1965, largely under SDS impetus, there were several "free universities" in operation: in Berkeley, SDS reopened the New School offering " 'Marx and Freud,' 'A Radical Approach to Science,' 'Agencies of Social Change and

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2040-602: A communist-exclusion clause in the SDS constitution. When in 1965 those who considered this too obvious a concession to the Cold-War doctrines of the right succeeded in removing the language, there was a final parting of the ways. The students' tie to their parent organization was severed by mutual agreement. In drafting the Port Huron Statement, Hayden acknowledged the influence of a Bowdoin-College German-exchange student, Michael Vester. He encouraged Hayden to be more explicit about

2210-468: A confederal structure. Policy and direction would be discussed in a quarterly conclave of chapter delegates, the National Council. National officers, in the spirit of "participatory democracy", would be selected annually by consensus. Lee Webb of Boston University was chosen as national secretary, and Todd Gitlin of Harvard University was made president. In 1963, "racial equality" remained

2380-612: A consequence of the transformation of the 37th into an infantry brigade combat team, the unit is to be given the old Buckeye Patch of the 37th Infantry Division of World War I and World War II. The Ohio Army National Guard has maintained military partnerships with foreign militaries under the National Guard State Partnership Program. The OARNG, together with the Ohio Air National Guard, has worked with Hungary since 1993, and

2550-555: A crack unit came with a considerable cost as the Buckeye Division alone suffered almost 5400 casualties while in France. Ohio Guard units also formed part of the 42nd "Rainbow" Division which won an enviable combat record along the front lines. During the period between the two World Wars, the Ohio National Guard found itself frequently called upon to perform relief duties during natural disasters. Noteworthy were efforts during

2720-645: A critical part in the Union war effort and was one of the leading contributors of manpower (including a crop of gifted generals to include Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, McPherson, Griffin,). As most of the existing militia units were incorporated into federalized volunteer regiments, local defense and order fell to units of those exempted from federal service. Youths, middle aged men and a sprinkling of veterans who had completed their active duty enlistments stayed behind in Ohio. Numerous battalions were organized statewide that were for

2890-507: A crowd of both Vietnam War protestors and simple bystanders on the campus of Kent State University . This incident killed four and wounded nine others, an event known as the Kent State shootings . The President's Commission on Campus Unrest concluded that the Guard's actions were "unnecessary, unwarranted, and inexcusable." The Ohio National Guard can be traced back to the initial settlement at Marietta, Ohio , in July 1788. Rooted in

3060-543: A fully armed and trained militia. With the brief exception of a border dispute with Michigan that caused the Governor to issue a militia call up, meaningful local militia musters and drills again became more the exception than the rule. The Mexican–American War in 1848 saw a renewed interest in vitalizing the militia throughout the entire country. With the regular U.S. Army at a strength of just over 13,000, it became evident that any successful military campaign against Mexico

3230-542: A jail cell in Albany, Georgia, where he landed on a Freedom Ride organized by Sandra "Casey" Cason ( Casey Hayden ). It is Cason that had first led Hayden into the SDS in 1960. Although herself regarded as "one of the boys", her recollection of those early SDS meetings is of interminable debate driven by young male intellectual posturing and, if a woman commented, of being made to feel as if a child had spoken among adults. (In 1962, she left Ann Arbor, and Tom Hayden, to return to

3400-538: A large demonstration against Dow Chemical Company recruitment at the University of Wisconsin in Madison on October 17. Peaceful at first, the demonstrations turned to a sit-in that was violently dispersed by the Madison police and riot squad, resulting in many injuries and arrests. A mass rally and a student strike then closed the university for several days. A nationwide coordinated series of demonstrations against

3570-483: A minimum. Having demonstrated its value beyond the battlefield, the Ohio Guard was boosted in numbers and funding to a meaningful level. The breakout of hostilities with Spain over Cuba in 1898 also led to an increase in the size and improved equipment and training for the Ohio National Guard. Several regiments of infantry and artillery were formed and shipped to Tampa, Florida for training and eventual transport to

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3740-452: A new left of young people and an awakening community of allies." It was to "stimulating this kind of social movement, this kind of vision and program in campus and community across the country" that the SDS were committed. For the sponsoring League for Industrial Democracy there was an immediate issue. The Statement omitted the LID's standard denunciation of communism: the regret it expressed at

3910-603: A rallying issue. Over the rest of the academic year, with the universities supplying the Selective Service Boards with class ranking, SDS began to attack university complicity in the war. The University of Chicago's administration building was taken over in a three-day sit-in in May. "Rank protests" and sit-ins spread to many other universities. The war, however, was not the only issue driving the newfound militancy. There were new and growing calls to seriously question

4080-470: A request granted immediately. The decision to call in the National Guard was made at 5:00 pm, but the guard did not arrive in town that evening until around 10 pm. By this time, a large demonstration was underway on the campus, and the campus Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) building was burning. The arsonists were never apprehended, and no one was injured in the fire. According to

4250-453: A result of the lackluster performance of some poorly trained and armed local units, the Ohio National Guard in actuality played a key role in the ultimate defeat of Gen. Morgan (and his vaunted force of Confederate cavalry). Instrumental in defending the approaches to Pomeroy and its river fords, Ohio Guardsmen were also responsible for blocking Morgan's escape route at Buffington Island .Pursuing Union forces eventually caught up and administered

4420-553: A secret plan. The Mỹ Lai massacre by American troops of between 347 and 504 Vietnamese villagers, exposed in November 1969, heightened opposition to the war. On April 29, 1970, U.S. and South Vietnamese forces invaded eastern Cambodia in what they claimed was an attempt to defeat the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops based there. The expansion of the war into Cambodia angered those who believed it only exacerbated

4590-518: A sergeant named Myron Pryor turned and began firing at the crowd of students with his .45 pistol. Several guardsmen nearest the students also turned and fired their rifles at the students. In all, at least 29 of the 77 guardsmen claimed to have fired their weapons, using an estimated 67 rounds of ammunition. The shooting was determined to have lasted 13 seconds, although John Kifner reported in The New York Times that "it appeared to go on, as

4760-480: A solid volley, for perhaps a full minute or a little longer." When the Guard began firing, many protesters ran while others dropped to the ground. Some assumed the Guard was firing blanks and reacted only after they noticed the bullets striking the ground around them. Several present related what they saw. An unidentified person told UPI : Suddenly, they turned around, got on their knees, as if they were ordered to, they did it all together, aimed. And personally, I

4930-479: A stinging defeat to Morgan on July 19, 1863 – the last battle fought on Ohio soil. Over 35,000 Ohio Guardsmen were federalized and organized into regiments for 100 days service in May 1864. Shipped to the Eastern Theater, they were designed to be placed into "safe" rear area duty to protect the railroads and supply points. As events transpired, many units found themselves in the thick of combat, stationed in

5100-573: A strong central directorate. National Office staffers worked long hours for little pay to service the local chapters, and to help establish new ones. Following the lead of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), most activity was oriented toward the civil rights struggle. By the end of the academic year, there were over 200 delegates at the annual convention at Pine Hill, New York , from 32 different colleges and universities. The convention chose

5270-478: A student voice in faculty hiring; (3) support for university employees; and (4) support for black students. The December 1967 convention took down what little suggestion there was of hierarchy within the structure of the organisation: it eliminated the Presidential and Vice-Presidential offices. They were replaced with a National Secretary (20-year-old Mike Spiegel), an Education Secretary (Texan Bob Pardun of

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5440-480: A successful amnesty bid for the protesters. On April 1, 1969, SDS members attempted to enter the administration building with a list of demands where they clashed with police. In response, the university revoked the Kent State SDS chapter charter. On April 16, a disciplinary hearing involving two protesters resulted in a confrontation between supporters and opponents of SDS. The Ohio State Highway Patrol

5610-567: A view towards annexing it to the United States). The first attempt ended with the surrender of Fort Detroit to the British by General William Hull in late 1812. Although not present in large numbers, Ohio militia were present and paroled shortly thereafter with the promise not to engage in any further hostilities. Ohio militia also played a role in the efforts of Gen. William Henry Harrison to re-capture Fort Detroit and decisively defeat

5780-523: A willingness to make some amends. The Women's Liberation Workshop succeeded in having a resolution accepted that insisted that women be freed "to participate in other meaningful activities" and that their "brothers" be relieved of "the burden of male chauvinism". The SDS committed to the creation of communal childcare centers, women's control over reproduction, the sharing of domestic work and, critically for an organization whose offices were almost entirely populated by men, to women participating at every level of

5950-468: Is moving to the right. Students are going to be the revolutionary force in this country. Students are going to make the revolution because we have the will. After a three-hour open mike meeting in the Life Sciences building, instead of closing with the civil-rights anthem "We Shall Overcome", the crowd "grabbed hands and sang the chorus to 'Yellow Submarine ' ". SDSers understanding of their "own"

6120-587: Is the ROTC building still standing?" A further protest organised by the Black United Students (BUS) also took place during the afternoon, to demonstrate solidarity with antiwar protests at Kent State University and at The Ohio State University; attracting around 400 students, and ending peacefully at 3:45 pm. Further issues arose following President Nixon's arrival at the Pentagon later during

6290-451: The 37th Infantry Brigade Combat Team and the 371st Sustainment Brigade . The 16th Engineer Brigade , a current formation, will have two of its subordinate commands, the 512th and 612th Engineer Battalions, inactivated. Some parts of the 73d Troop Command will also undergo changes. The result, when completed by September 2007, will be an Ohio Army National Guard organized under a Joint Force Headquarters and made up of five major commands:

6460-602: The Korean War Armistice Agreement of 1953, the Ohio Guard's focus returned to its state mission and reorganization in accordance with federal mandates. Significant challenges were met by the continuing changes and advances in technology which required a flexible and better educated force. World events also continued to impact the Ohio Guard. The Berlin Crisis of 1961 resulted in the mobilization of ten Ohio Air and Army National Guard units to help counter

6630-536: The National Guard presence on campus and the draft . Twenty-eight National Guard soldiers fired about 67 rounds over 13 seconds, killing four students and wounding nine others, one of whom suffered permanent paralysis . Students Allison Krause , 19, Jeffrey Miller , 20, and Sandra Scheuer , 20, died on the scene, while William Schroeder , 19, was pronounced dead at Robinson Memorial Hospital in nearby Ravenna shortly afterward. Krause and Miller were among

6800-547: The Ohio Territory by the United States was contested by the region's native inhabitants. A confederation of Indian tribes with British backing engaged in a campaign of raids and depredations upon the scattered settlements, resulting in full-scale war by the 1790s. The disastrous campaigns led by Generals Josiah Harmar and Arthur St. Clair only intensified Indian resistance to white migration, and threatened

6970-642: The United Automobile Workers union (UAW) paid for a range of expenses for the 1962 convention, including use of the UAW summer retreat in Port Huron. The Port Huron Statement decried what it described as "disturbing paradoxes": that the world's "wealthiest and strongest country" should "tolerate anarchy as a major principle of international conduct"; that it should allow "the declaration 'all men are created equal... ' " to ring "hollow before

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7140-410: The "perversion of the older left by Stalinism" was too discriminating, and its references to Cold War tensions too even handed. Hayden, who had succeeded Haber as SDS president, was called to a meeting where, refusing any further concession, he clashed with Michael Harrington (as he later would with Irving Howe). As security against "a united-front style takeover of its youth arm" the LID had inserted

7310-527: The 137 AGAD, until 1 April 1963, and then transferred to the 371 AGAD, 1 April 1963, to 1 February 1972. With the escalation of the Vietnam War , the Ohio Guard was again called upon to engage in combat upon foreign shores. Both the Ohio Army and Air National Guards deployed units to Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War. The mission to support state authorities still continued during this time with

7480-406: The 137th Air Defense Artillery Regiment was part of the force. The Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 371st Antiaircraft Artillery Group, was consolidated on 1 September 1959 with the 103d Antiaircraft Artillery Detachment as the 371st Artillery Group. 2d and 3d Battalions, 137th ADA Regiment (2-137 & 3-137) served with 371 AGAD from 1 September 1959 to 1 February 1968, which 1-137 served with

7650-488: The 1967 convention in Ann Arbor there was another, perhaps equally portentous, demand for equality and autonomy. Despite the winding down of SDS leadership support for ERAP, in some community projects struggles against inequality, racism and police brutality had taken on a momentum of their own. The projects had drawn in white working class activists. While open in acknowledging the debt they believed they owed to SNCC and to

7820-403: The 1st Battalion, 145th Armor and the 2d Squadron, 107th Cavalry belong to the 174th Air Defense Artillery Brigade for day-to-day command and control purposes. In addition, there are elements of the 137th Aviation Regiment in the state, previously part of the 18th Aviation Brigade before it was inactivated. Additional changes will occur with the subsidiary units of the 73d Troop Command. As

7990-552: The 2- 107th Armored Cavalry , Ohio National Guard (ARNG), the units on the campus grounds, under the command of Brigadier General Robert Canterbury, attempted to disperse the students. The legality of the order to disperse was debated during a subsequent wrongful death and injury trial. On appeal, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit ruled that authorities did indeed have the right to disperse

8160-425: The 37th Brigade Combat Team, 73rd Troop Command, 16th Engineer Brigade, 416th Engineer group, 145th Regiment (Regional Training Institute), 196th Mobile Public Affairs Detachment , 112th Engineer Battalion, 216th Engineer Battalion, 731st Transportation Battalion in response to Hurricane Katrina . The Ohio National Guard sent 1,500 troops to Louisiana and Mississippi to haul relief supplies such as food, water and ice;

8330-550: The 37th Infantry BCT, the 16th Engineer Brigade, the 174th Air Defense Artillery Brigade , the 73d Joint Task Force, and the 371st Sustainment Brigade. All of this will occur with minimal changes in the end strength of the OHARNG at 10,300 Soldiers. The 37th Infantry BCT will be one of 34 combat brigades in the Army National Guard. Its core is two infantry battalions and a fires battalion: Remaining combat units in

8500-516: The 3rd Marine Division and others. March 1944 saw a ferocious attack by Japanese forces against the division at Bougainville, one which the stretched and weakened division fought off. January 1945 saw the division go ashore in Luzon as part of the XIV Corps , and by February it had liberated Manila. The Buckeye Division produced seven Medal of Honor recipients during World War II. MG Beightler led

8670-532: The 73d Brigade was released from assignment to the 38th ID in 1977 and was redesignated the 73d Infantry Brigade, a separate brigade. During the draw down of forces after the Cold War, units of the 73rd and the 107th Armored Cavalry Regiment consolidated to form the 37th Brigade, 28th Infantry Division. A year later, the brigade was reunited with the 38th Infantry Division. When Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990,

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8840-466: The 900 that President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent. Lyndon B. Johnson significantly escalated involvement, raising the number of American troops in Vietnam to 100,000 in 1965 , and eventually to more than 500,000 combat troops in 1968 with no tangible results and with increasing opposition and protests at home. When Richard M. Nixon was elected in 1968 , he promised to end the conflict, claiming he had

9010-507: The Austin chapter), and an Inter-organizational Secretary (former VP Carl Davidson). A clear direction for a national program was not set but delegates did manage to pass strong resolutions on the draft, resistance within the Army itself, and for an immediate withdrawal from Vietnam. There was no women's-equality plank in the Port Huron Statement. Tom Hayden had started drafting the statement from

9180-630: The Balkans to provide peacekeeping support in war–torn Bosnia and Kosovo. Units of the Ohio Guard continued to take a role in providing humanitarian assistance in impoverished areas of Central America. Engineering, transportation and medical detachments provided medical care as well as building roads, wells, bridges, schools and other infrastructure. On the domestic front the Ohio Guard fulfilled its role in assisting civilian authorities in maintaining order in extraordinary circumstances. A significant number of Ohio Guardsmen were activated in 1993 to help quell

9350-574: The Black Panthers , many were conscious that their poor white, and in some cases southern, backgrounds had limited their acceptance in "the Movement". In a blistering address, Peggy Terry announced that she and her neighbors in uptown, "Hillbilly Harlem", Chicago, had ordered student volunteers out of their community union. They would be relying on themselves, doing their own talking, and working only with those outsiders willing to live as part of

9520-562: The British at the Battle of the Thames . After the end of the inconclusive War of 1812, the militia system in Ohio abandoned its regimental formations and reverted to multiple small units representing the various municipalities throughout the rapidly growing state. With the last Indians expelled from the state's borders and peaceful relations along the Canada–US border, there seemed little need for

9690-657: The Buckeye Division throughout the course of the war, the only one of 32 National Guard division commanders to accomplish this. The 37th Infantry Division was reformed in the OH ARNG in 1945–46. During this time period the Air Force also broke off from the Army to become a separate service branch. Within the Ohio Guard this was reflected in the creation of the Ohio Air National Guard . The demobilization from World War II had barely taken place when once again

9860-543: The English and early colonial tradition of citizen-soldiers providing local protection and law enforcement. These American Revolutionary War veterans and their families quickly organized into local militia units. The federal government passed the Militia Act of 1792 , which required all able bodied men ages 18 to 45 to serve in their local militia units, and provide their own weapons and equipment. It further authorized

10030-474: The Governor of each state to appoint an Adjutant General to enact the orders of the Governor, and to supervise unit training and organization. Reflecting the Founding Fathers' distrust of a large standing army, it strictly limited the ability of the militia to serve outside of their state borders. And, it placed effective control with the Governor rather than the federal government. The occupation of

10200-480: The Highway Patrol. ...this is when we're going to use every part of the law enforcement agency of Ohio to drive them out of Kent. We are going to eradicate the problem. We're not going to treat the symptoms. ...and these people just move from one campus to the other and terrorize the community. They're worse than the brown shirts and the communist element and also the night riders and the vigilantes. They're

10370-457: The Jeep, singing protest songs, and chanting. At some point, a few rocks were thrown at the Jeep as it drove by the crowd, with one rock striking the Jeep and a second one striking a guardsman, but without causing any damage. The crowd ignored repeated orders to disperse. After the crowd failed to follow the order to disperse, grenadiers were ordered to fire tear gas from M79 grenade launchers , but

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10540-621: The National Guard under federal control in October 1940, the Buckeye Division was among their ranks. Notably, Company C, 192nd Tank Battalion , from Camp Perry, Ohio, joined a provisional unit sent to the Philippines to bolster the active duty and Filipino forces there. When the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 brought the country into a declared war, the Ohio tankers found themselves under attack as Japanese forces landed in

10710-907: The New Movements'; in Gainesville, a Free University of Florida was established, and even incorporated; in New York, a Free University was begun in Greenwich Village, offering no fewer than forty-four courses ('Marxist Approaches to the Avant-garde Arts', 'Ethics and Revolution', 'Life in Mainland China Today'); and in Chicago, something called simply The School began with ten courses ('Neighborhood Organization and Nonviolence', 'Purposes of Revolution'). By

10880-525: The Ohio Guard playing a key role in quelling a full-scale riot at the Ohio Penitentiary in 1968 and in helping to curb the violence associated with the trucker's strike in 1970. It was subsequent to this latter event that the Ohio Guard was involved in one of the most unfortunate events in its long history, the Kent State shootings of May 4, 1970. Called to the campus Kent State University to quell demonstrations and anti-war protests, members of

11050-486: The Ohio Guard was an essential asset in situations other than war. Like the rest of the nation, labor unrest started to spread in the latter part of the century resulting in violent strikes and crippling shutdowns, especially in the railroad industry. Ohio Governors repeatedly called upon Ohio Guardsmen to keep the peace. In numerous situations the Guard's intervention resulted in the immediate restoration of peace and order and succeeded in keeping violence and property damage to

11220-559: The Ohio Guardsmen were defiantly a significant part of the battle. With the end of the Civil War, the Ohio National Guard was rapidly demobilized and its extensive inventory placed into mothballs maintained by a few non-commissioned officers. From a war-time strength in excess of 50,000, by 1870 the Ohio National Guard had been allowed to dwindle to fewer than 500 officers and enlisted men. Yet Ohio officials soon rediscovered that

11390-554: The Ohio National Guard provided numerous transportation, logistical and other combat support units to assist in Operation Desert Storm. Additionally, numerous individual Ohio Guardsmen with specialty skills volunteered and served in Operation Desert Storm. Although active hostilities ceased in February 1991 after a lightning campaign, the continuing presence of Saddam Hussein required continued military presence in

11560-403: The Ohio National Guard was mobilized for the Korean War . As part of the mobilization of National Guard divisions across the country, in 1952 the Buckeye Division activated to serve as a training division at then- Camp Polk , Louisiana. While no major Ohio Guard units were deployed as units to Korea during hostilities, National Guard units from Ohio were sent to Korea where individual soldiers from

11730-416: The Persian Gulf region. The Ohio Guard continued in its role as key player as its Air National Guard units were routinely deployed to enforce the no-fly zones over Iraq as part of Operation Northern Watch. Other Ohio Guard units were periodically deployed to the Persian Gulf and Kuwait to engage in joint desert warfare training. Ohio Guardsmen also saw overseas service in a demanding environment when deployed to

11900-525: The Philippines within days. As the remnant defenders withdrew to Bataan, the 192nd disintegrated as a unit, its members eventually captured along with the others in 1942. These Ohioans, who had fought from the very beginning of the war, remained as prisoners for the duration. The Buckeye Division participated in the Pacific theater of the war, serving in the Northern Solomons and Luzon (Philippines) campaigns. Entering combat in June 1943, they fought at New Georgia and Bougainville (in November 1943) alongside

12070-593: The SDS "from licking stamps to assuming leadership positions." However, when the resolution was printed in the NO's New Left Notes it was with a caricature of a woman dressed in a baby-doll dress, holding a sign "We want our rights and we want them now!" Little changed in the two years that followed. By and large the issues that were spurring the growth of an autonomous women's liberation movement were not considered relevant for discussion by SDS men or women (and if they were discussed, one prominent activist recalls, "separatism" had to be denounced "every five minutes"). Over

12240-539: The SDS a household name. Membership again soared in the 1968–69 academic year. More important for thinking within the National Office, Columbia and the outbreak of student protest which it symbolized seemed proof that "long months of SDS work were paying off." As targets students were "picking war, complicity, and racism, rather than dress codes and dorm hours, and as tactics sit-ins and takeovers, rather than petitions and pickets." Yet Congressional investigation

12410-489: The SDSers in "a politics of adjustment". Lyndon B. Johnson 's landslide in the November 1964 presidential election swamped considerations of Democratic-primary, or independent candidature, interventions—a path that had been tentatively explored in a Political Education Project. Local chapters expanded activity across a range of projects, including University reform, community-university relations, and were beginning to focus on

12580-791: The SNCC in Atlanta). Seeking the "roots of the women's liberation movement" in the New Left, Sara Evans argues that in Hayden's ERAP program this presumption of male agency had been one of the undeclared sources of tension. Confronted with the reality of a war-heated economy, in which the only unemployed men "left to organize were very unstable and unskilled, winos, and street youth," the SDSers were disconcerted to find themselves having to organize around "nitty-gritty issues"—welfare, healthcare, childcare, garbage collection—springing "in cultural terms ... from

12750-589: The Soviet threat. It was during this period that the Ohio Guard's units switched over to the next United States Army division structure, the Reorganisation Objective Army Division (ROAD) structure. Most notable among these changes was the deactivation of the storied 37th "Buckeye" Division on February 15, 1968. Much of the former division's units became part of the 73d Infantry Brigade, 38th Infantry Division . From 1959 to 1968,

12920-472: The State of Ohio have also been realigned. The 1st Battalion, 107th Cavalry , along with one company from the 148th Infantry and one company from the 112th Engineer Battalion, transformed into the 1st Battalion, 145th Armor Regiment and, together with the 2d Squadron, 107th Cavalry , were briefly elements of the 2d Brigade Combat Team, 28th Infantry Division , Pennsylvania Army National Guard . Currently, both

13090-471: The Texas State Capitol during a visit by Vice-President Hubert Humphrey . The example set a precedent for campus events across the country. The winter and spring of 1967 saw an escalation in the militancy of campus protests. Demonstrations against military-contractors and other campus recruiters were widespread, and ranking and the draft issues grew in scale. The school year had started with

13260-522: The UT West Mall. A summary ban by the UT administration ensured an even bigger, more enthusiastic, turnout for the second Gentle Thursday in the spring of 1967. Part of "Flipped Out Week", organized in coordination with a national mobilization against the war, it was a more defiant and overtly political affair. It included appearances by Stokley Carmichael, beat-poet Allen Ginsberg , and anti-war protests at

13430-493: The Union building a twenty-foot banner proclaimed "Happiness Is Student Power". A booming address announced: We're giving notice today, all of us, that we reject the notion that we should be patient and work for gradual change. That's the old way. We don't need the Old Left. We don't need their ideology or the working class, those mythical masses who are supposed to rise up and break their chains. The working class in this country

13600-582: The United States joined the war in April 1917, the manpower requirements for a modern field army were so great that only with a draft could the ranks be filled. Congress passed the Selective Service Act, which decentralized the selection to local draft boards within each state. With this massive mobilization the strength of the Ohio National Guard expanded and was eventually organized into the 37th Division. To preserve its Ohio identity, they adopted

13770-523: The United States was to avoid the conflict and maintain a stance of neutrality. As hostilities between the great European powers bogged down into a bloody stalemate, each side sought an edge to break the deadlock. For Germany, it was unrestricted submarine warfare. While this assisted in slowing down trade and supplies between the Allies and the United States, the result was to propel the United States into war as American merchant ships began to be targeted. After

13940-582: The Victory Bell on the Commons, with some 1,000 more gathered on a hill behind the first crowd. The crowd was largely made up of students enrolled at the university, with a few non-students (that included Kent State dropouts and high school students) also present. The crowd appeared leaderless and was initially peaceful and relatively quiet. One person made a short speech, and some protesters carried flags. Companies A and C, 1- 145th Infantry and Troop G of

14110-545: The almost annual flooding of the Ohio River and the great tornado of 1924 in the Lorain and Sandusky area. Units were again utilized to keep the peace during a series of bitter strikes in the coal-mining region of southeast Ohio. Although initially perceived as being brought in to aid and assist the mine operators, they won begrudging respect for adopting a fair and even-handed approach. Unlike the bloody history associated with

14280-526: The antiquated militia laws and effectively converted the various volunteer militias into the National Guard as we know it today. Under the Dick Act Guard units received increased federal funding and equipment. In return each state National Guard was required to conform to federal standards for training and organization. Rather than the periodic muster, each unit was expected to muster for a set number of monthly drills and an extended summer camp. Also, for

14450-618: The attacks of September 11, numerous units from the Army Guard supplemented by security police units of the Air Guard were mobilized on short notice in the following days and executed critical security missions at various locations for extended periods of time. Other communications and engineering units deployed to the Persian Gulf area and Afghanistan in support of the war on terrorism. In 2005, The Ohio Army National Guard deployed

14620-501: The bi-monthly of the War Resisters League , under the title "Sex and Caste". As "the final impetus" for organizing a "women's workshop," Evans suggest it was "the real embryo of the new feminist revolt." But this was a revolt that was to play out largely outside of the SDS. When, at the 1966 SDS convention, women called for debate they were showered with abuse, pelted with tomatoes. The following year there seemed to be

14790-405: The blaze. Several fire engine companies had to be called because protesters carried the fire hose into the Commons and slashed it. The National Guard made numerous arrests, mostly for curfew violations, and used tear gas; at least one student was slightly wounded with a bayonet . During a press conference at the Kent firehouse, an emotional Governor Rhodes pounded on the desk, which can be heard in

14960-601: The campuses called "Ten Days of Resistance" and local chapters cooperated with the Student Mobilization Committee in rallies, marches, sit-ins and teach-ins, and on April 18 in a one-day strike. About a million students stayed away from classes that day, the largest student strike to date. But it was the student shutdown of Columbia University in New York that commanded the national media. Led by an inter-racial alliance of Columbia SDS chapter activists and Student Afro Society activists, it helped make

15130-438: The canisters fell short and managed only to make the protesters retreat somewhat from their previous positions. The tear gas was also made ineffective by the wind. Some protesters lobbed the canisters back at the Guard to the crowd's merriment. The crowd also began to chant "Pigs off campus". Another demand to disperse was made over the loudspeaker but simply elicited more oppositional chanting. After repeatedly failing to disperse

15300-672: The cause célèbre. In November 1963, the Swarthmore College chapter of SDS partnered with Stanley Branche and local parents to create the Committee for Freedom Now which led the Chester school protests along with the NAACP in Chester, Pennsylvania . From November 1963 through April 1964, the demonstrations focused on ending the de facto segregation that resulted in the racial categorization of Chester public schools, even after

15470-434: The chapters. FBI Director Hoover's general COINTELPRO directive was for agents to "expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize" the activities and leadership of the movements they infiltrated. The National Office sought to provide greater coordination and direction (partly through New Left Notes , its weekly correspondence with the membership). In the spring of 1968, National SDS activists led an effort on

15640-426: The city and university. Several merchants reported they were told that their businesses would be burned down if they did not display anti-war slogans. Kent's police chief told the mayor that according to a reliable informant, the ROTC building, the local army recruiting station, and the post office had been targeted for destruction that night. There were unconfirmed rumors of students with caches of arms, plots to spike

15810-448: The community, and of "the working class", for the long haul. With what she regarded as an implicit understanding for Stokely Carmichael 's call for black people to define their own goals, to lead their own organizations, Terry argued that "the time has come for us to turn to our own people, poor and working-class whites, for direction, support, and inspiration, to organize around our own identity, our own interests." Yet as Peggy Terry

15980-531: The conflict and violated a neutral nation's sovereignty. Across the U.S., campuses erupted in protests in what Time called "a nation-wide student strike", setting the stage for the events of early May 1970. In April 1970 Nixon told Congress that he would end undergraduate student draft deferments by Executive Order if authorized by Congress to do so. This request was approved by the Senate Armed Services Committee on April 23. After

16150-524: The contradictions "between political democracy and economic concentration of power", and to take a more international perspective. Vester was to be the first of a number of close connections between the American SDS and the West German SDS ( Sozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund ), a student movement that was to follow a similar trajectory. In the academic year 1962–1963, the president

16320-579: The country to incorporate the "participatory democracy, community organizing and synthesis of politics and culture that the New Left of the midsixties was trying to develop." Inspired by a leaflet distributed by some poets in San Francisco, and organized by the Rag and the SDS in the belief that "there is nothing wrong with fun", a "Gentle Thursday" event in the fall of 1966 drew hundreds of area residents, bringing kids, dogs, balloons, picnics and music, to

16490-421: The country. It increased participation in the student strike that began on May 1. Ultimately, more than 4 million students participated in organized walk-outs at hundreds of universities, colleges, and high schools. The shootings and the strike affected public opinion at an already socially contentious time over the role of the United States in the Vietnam War . Eight of the shooters were charged with depriving

16660-474: The course of the tumultuous decade with over 300 campus chapters and 30,000 supporters recorded nationwide by its last national convention in 1969. The organization splintered at that convention amidst rivalry between factions seeking to impose national leadership and direction, and disputing "revolutionary" positions on, among other issues, the Vietnam War and Black Power . A new national network for left-wing student organizing, also calling itself Students for

16830-480: The crowd dispersed to attend classes by 1 pm, another rally was planned for May 4 to continue the protest of the expansion of the Vietnam War into Cambodia . There was widespread anger, and many protesters called to "bring the war home." A group of history students buried a copy of the United States Constitution to symbolize that Nixon had killed it. A sign was put on a tree asking: "Why

17000-449: The crowd, a group of 96 National Guard troops from A Company and Company C, 145th Infantry, and Troop G, 107th Armored Cavalry, were ordered to advance. The guardsmen had their weapons "locked and loaded" (according to standard Ohio National Guard rules) and affixed with bayonets. Most carried M1 Garand rifles , with some also carrying .45 handguns, a few carrying shotguns with No. 7 birdshot and 00 buckshot munitions, and one officer carrying

17170-464: The crowd. At about noon, the National Guard obtained a bullhorn from the university police department and used it to order the crowd to disperse. However, the announcement was too faint to hear as it elicited no response from the crowd. Campus patrolman Harold Rice, accompanied by three guardsmen, then approached the crowd in a National Guard Jeep, again using the bullhorn to order the students to disperse. Students responded by making obscene gestures at

17340-482: The day, some students came to downtown Kent to help with clean-up efforts after the rioting, actions which were met with mixed reactions from local business people. Mayor Satrom, under pressure from frightened citizens, ordered a curfew until further notice. Around 8 pm, another rally was held on the campus Commons. By 8:45 pm, the Guardsmen used tear gas to disperse the crowd, and the students reassembled at

17510-482: The day. Upon his arrival he was greeted by a group of Pentagon employees; with one female employee commenting in regards to Nixon's speech announcing the launch of the Cambodian Incursion: "I loved your speech. It made me proud to be an American". This prompted Nixon's controversial response: "You see these bums, you know, blowing up the campuses. Listen, the boys that are on the college campuses today are

17680-669: The deadly prison riots at the Lucasville Correctional Facility . Personnel from the Ohio Guard also provided crucial advice and stood by to provide law enforcement support during rioting in Cincinnati and civic unrest surrounding the operation of a toxic waste incinerator plant near East Liverpool . Disaster relief also continued to be a priority mission with service during the Shadyside floods , tornadoes, snow emergencies and Ohio River flooding. After

17850-472: The desert regions of the southwest also served as a confidence builder for the units and their active duty counterparts. The errors and problems of the 1916 mobilization also proved to be excellent teaching tools that were to pay dividends when the entire Ohio Guard was to be mobilized by President Woodrow Wilson a scant 10 months later in April 1917 As war had broken out in Europe in 1914, the original intent of

18020-456: The dispossessed" had been misplaced: "It is through the experience of the middle class and the anesthetic of bureaucracy and mass society that the vision and program of participatory democracy will come—if it is to come." Hayden, who committed himself to community organizing in Newark (where he witnessed the "race riots" in 1967) later suggested that if ERAP failed to build to greater success it

18190-876: The draft led by members of the Resistance, the War Resisters League , and SDS added fuel to the fire of protest. After conventional civil rights tactics of peaceful pickets seemed to have failed, the Oakland, California, Stop the Draft Week ended in mass hit and run skirmishes with the police. The huge (100,000 people) October 21 March on the Pentagon saw hundreds arrested and injured. Night-time raids on draft offices began to spread. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), mainly through its secret COINTELPRO (COunter INTELligence PROgram) and other law enforcement agencies were often exposed as having spies and informers in

18360-497: The draft reforms students could only postpone their service until the end of the semester. This is still the law today. During the 1966 Homecoming Parade, protesters walked dressed in military paraphernalia with gas masks. In the fall of 1968, the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and Black United Students staged a sit-in to protest against police recruiters on campus. Two hundred fifty black students walked off campus in

18530-547: The end of 1966 there were perhaps fifteen. Universities understood the challenge, and soon began to offer seminars run on similar student-responsive lines, beginning what SDSers saw as a "liberal swallow-up". The summer convention of 1966 was moved farther west, to Clear Lake, Iowa . Nick Egleson was chosen as president, and Carl Davidson was elected vice president. Jane Adams, former Mississippi Freedom Summer volunteer and SDS campus traveler in Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri,

18700-568: The engineering units cleared debris and helped to open roads. 25 Ohio National Guard soldiers were among the 1,500 troops that were deployed to Middle East amid tensions with Iran . The Ohio troops were stationed in Kuwait . As of late 2006, the Ohio Army National Guard began a process of transformation in line with the overall transformation of all active and National Guard units. Ohio will activate two new modular units,

18870-554: The existence of white Ohio settlements. The decisive victory of General "Mad" Anthony Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794), outside of present-day Toledo and the subsequent Treaty of Greenville (1795). And so removed the combined British-Indian military threat to Ohio settlers for the time being. While only limited numbers of Ohio militia played a part in these campaigns, the local militia units formed an important bulwark defending their local communities against potential attack. After achieving statehood in 1803 Ohio continued

19040-423: The facts of Negro life"; that, even as technology creates "new forms of social organization", it should continue to impose "meaningless work and idleness"; and with two-thirds of mankind undernourished that its "upper classes" should "revel amidst superfluous abundance". In searching for "the spark and engine of change" the authors disclaimed any "formulas" or "closed theories". Instead, "matured" by "the horrors of

19210-433: The field as naive and doomed to failure. Their view of the poor and of what could be achieved by consensus was absurdly romantic. Placing a premium on strong local leadership, structure and accountability, Alinsky's "citizen participation" was something "fundamentally different" from the "participatory democracy" envisaged by Hayden and Gitlin. With the election of new leadership at the July 1964 national SDS convention there

19380-562: The first major challenge to campus governance. On October 1, 1964, crowds of upwards of three thousand students surrounded a police cruiser holding a student arrested for setting up an informational card table for the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). The sit-down prevented the car from moving for 32 hours. By the end of the year, demonstrations, meetings and strikes all but shut the university down. Hundreds of students were arrested. In February 1965, President Johnson dramatically escalated

19550-682: The first time state Adjutant Generals had a formal relationship with the War Department. These common sense reforms were to pay their first dividends in 1916 when Ohio National Guard units were mobilized to serve as part of Gen. John Pershing 's punitive expedition against Pancho Villa along the Mexican Border. Although the expedition failed to capture or dispatch the notorious Villa and his army of bandits, valuable lessons were learned in combined operations and mobile warfare. The relatively speedy and seamless mobilization and deployment to

19720-520: The first time titled "National Guard.". During the war the Ohio National Guard served in a variety of roles, providing not only guards at the Camp Chase and Johnson Island POW camps, but serving in a number of combat situations. During the September 1862 Confederate incursion into southeast Ohio and Morgan's Raid in July 1863, Ohio guardsmen were actively involved. While subjected to ridicule as

19890-509: The five tumultuous days of the final convention in June 1969 women were given just three hours to caucus and their call on women to struggle against their oppression was rejected. Inasmuch as women felt both empowered and thwarted in the movement, Todd Gitlin was later to claim some credit for SDS in engendering second-wave feminism . Women had gained skills and experience in organising but had been made to feel keenly their second-class status. At

20060-469: The front lines in Cuba. Due to the rapid American success, the war ended prior to any of these units actually being deployed in a combat situation. The Spanish–American War thrust the United States into the role of a world power and both military and civilian leaders recognized that it was necessary to maintain a uniformly trained and armed military force. This reflected the slow evolution of the Ohio militia into

20230-473: The gathering, handing out 12,000 leaflets stating that the event was canceled. Despite these efforts, an estimated 2,000 people gathered on the university's Commons, near Taylor Hall. The protest began with the ringing of the campus's iron Victory Bell (which had historically been used to signal victories in football games) to mark the beginning of the rally, and the first protester began to speak. According to most estimates, some 200–300 protesters gathered around

20400-488: The guard — in what was recently described as "one of America's most horrific campus tragedies" — killed four unarmed students and wounded several more, garnering severely negative international attention and criticism, especially as some of the victims were simply passersby. After the United States withdrew from Vietnam, the Ohio Guard, like the rest of the military, was faced by the challenges of significantly decreased funding and adapting to new missions. Increasing attention

20570-514: The hill. The crowd on top of the hill parted to allow the guardsmen to pass through. After reaching the crest of Taylor Hall, the Guard fired at the protesters following them. The guardsmen gave no verbal warning to the protesters before opening fire. During their climb back to Blanket Hill, several guardsmen stopped and half-turned to keep their eyes on the students in the Prentice Hall parking lot. At 12:24 pm, according to eyewitnesses,

20740-449: The intersection of Lincoln and Main, holding a sit-in with the hopes of gaining a meeting with Mayor Satrom and University President Robert White. At 11:00 pm, the Guard announced that a curfew had gone into effect and began forcing the students back to their dorms. A few students were bayoneted by Guardsmen. On Monday, May 4, a protest was scheduled to be held at noon, as planned three days earlier. University officials attempted to ban

20910-474: The issue of the draft and Vietnam War . They did so within the confines of university bans on on-campus political organization and activity. While students at Kent State, Ohio, had been protesting for the right to organize politically on campus a full year before, it is the televised birth of the Free Speech Movement at the University of California, Berkeley that is generally recognized as

21080-443: The landmark Supreme Court case Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka . The racial unrest and civil rights protests made Chester one of the key battlegrounds of the civil rights movement . However, within the Congress of Racial Equality , and within the SNCC (particularly after the 1964 Freedom Summer ), there was the suggestion that white activists might better advance the cause of civil rights by organising "their own". At

21250-443: The law creating a body of "state troops" and each significant village or county providing its own local unit. The military readiness of these local militia units varied greatly as did their uniform and armament. The monthly militia muster was supposed to train the members in close order drill and marksmanship, but in many cases was more of a social and political event. Moreover, each unit was responsible for electing its own officers with

21420-494: The local water supply with LSD , and of students building tunnels to blow up the town's main store. Satrom met with Kent city officials and a representative of the Ohio Army National Guard . Because of the rumors and threats, Satrom feared that local officials would not be able to handle future disturbances. Following the meeting, Satrom decided to call Rhodes and request that the National Guard be sent to Kent,

21590-528: The luckiest people in the world, going to the greatest universities, and here they are burning up the books, storming around this issue. You name it. Get rid of the war there will be another one." Trouble exploded in town around midnight when people left a bar and began throwing beer bottles at police cars and breaking windows in downtown storefronts. In the process, they broke a bank window, setting off an alarm. The news spread quickly, and several bars closed early to avoid trouble. Before long, more people had joined

21760-564: The mass demonstrations called by the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam to coincide with the August 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. In the event, under a mandate to recruit and to offer support should the Chicago police "start rioting" (which they did), national SDSers were present. On August 28 national secretary Michael Klonsky was on Havana radio: "We have been fighting in

21930-520: The military and, again, ranking for the draft. Despite the absence of a politically effective campus SDS chapter, Berkeley again became a center of particularly dramatic radical upheaval over the university's repressive anti-free-speech actions. One description of the convening of an enthusiastically supported student strike suggests the distance travelled from both the Left, and the civil rights, roots of earlier activism. Over "a sea of cheering bodies" before

22100-495: The moral horror of the war, others concentrated on its illegality, a number argued that it took funds away from domestic needs, and a few even then saw it as an example of 'American imperialism'. This was Oglesby's developing position. Thereafter, on November 27, at an anti-war demonstration in Washington, when Oglesby suggested that U.S. policy in Vietnam was essentially imperialist, and then called for an immediate ceasefire, he

22270-546: The more than 300 students who gathered to protest the expansion of the Cambodian campaign, which President Richard Nixon had announced in an April 30 television address. Scheuer and Schroeder were in the crowd of several hundred others who had been observing the proceedings more than 300 feet (91 m) from the firing line; like most observers, they watched the protest during a break between their classes. The shootings triggered immediate and massive outrage on campuses around

22440-726: The nickname of the "Buckeye" Division. Again under the overall leadership of "Black Jack" Pershing, Ohio Guardsmen were a key component of the American Expeditionary Force sent over to France. Rated by the German General Staff as one of the best six American divisions for combat effectiveness, the "Buckeye" Division proved its worth in numerous battles including the Meuse-Argonne Offensive and the St. Mihiel Salient. This reputation for being

22610-580: The other peace groups, 25,000 attended. The first teach-in against the war was held in the University of Michigan , followed by hundreds more across the country. The SDS became recognized nationally as the leading student group against the war. The National Convention in Akron (which FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover reported was attended by "practically every subversive organization in the United States") selected as President Carl Oglesby (Antioch College). He had come to SDSers' attention with an article against

22780-521: The path of Confederate Gen. Jubal Early 's veteran Army of the Valley during its Raid on Washington. These Guard units participated in the battles of Monacacy, Fort Stevens, Maryland Heights, and in the siege of Petersburg. Ohio Guard units helped to blunt the Confederate offensive, thereby saving The District of Columbia from confederate capture. Significant casualties were incurred on all sides, but

22950-499: The poor". By the end of 1964, ERAP had ten inner-city projects engaging 125 student volunteers. Ralph Helstein , president of the United Packinghouse Workers of America , arranged for Hayden and Gitlin to meet with Saul Alinsky who, with 25 years experience in Chicago and across the country, was the acknowledged father of community organizing. To Helstein's dismay, Alinsky dismissed the SDSers' venture into

23120-455: The practice field, some members of Troop G were ordered to kneel and aim their weapons toward the parking lot. The troop did so, but none of them fired. At the same time, one person (likely an officer) fired a handgun into the air. The Guard was then ordered to regroup and move up the hill past Taylor Hall. Protesters began following the Guard as it retraced its steps up the hill. Some guardsmen claim to have been struck by rocks as they retreated up

23290-454: The program's inception, and in September 2006 initiated a second program with Serbia . The purpose of the program is to provide assistance to the host countries in establishing reserve military forces like the National Guard, before transitioning to follow-on programs designed to assist the citizen-soldiers in their non-military lives. The Ohio Army National Guard presently consists of the following major commands or units: Students for

23460-435: The protest anticipating a confrontation. The students retreated up and over Blanket Hill, heading out of the Commons area. Once over the hill, the students, in a loose group, moved northeast along the front of Taylor Hall, with some continuing toward a parking lot in front of Prentice Hall (slightly northeast of and perpendicular to Taylor Hall). The guardsmen pursued the protesters over the hill, but rather than veering left as

23630-448: The protesters from the Commons area, and many students had left. Some students who had retreated beyond the practice field fence obtained rocks and possibly other objects with which they again began pelting the guardsmen. The number of rock throwers is unknown, with estimates of 10–50 throwers. According to an FBI assessment, rock-throwing peaked at this point. Tear gas was again fired at crowds at multiple locations. Just before departing

23800-431: The protesters had, they continued straight, heading toward an athletic practice field enclosed by a chain link fence. Here they remained for about 10 minutes, unsure of how to get out of the area short of retracing their path: they had boxed themselves into a fenced-in corner. During this time, the bulk of the students assembled to the left and front of the guardsmen, approximately 150 to 225 ft (46 to 69 m) away, on

23970-411: The recording of his speech. He called the student protesters un-American, referring to them as revolutionaries set on destroying higher education in Ohio. We've seen here at the city of Kent especially, probably the most vicious form of campus-oriented violence yet perpetrated by dissident groups... they make definite plans of burning, destroying, and throwing rocks at police and at the National Guard and

24140-644: The report of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest : Information developed by an FBI investigation of the ROTC building fire indicates that, of those who participated actively, a significant portion weren't Kent State students. There is also evidence to suggest that the burning was planned beforehand: railroad flares, a machete, and ice picks are not customarily carried to peaceful rallies. There were reports that some Kent firemen and police officers were struck by rocks and other objects while attempting to extinguish

24310-469: The same time, for many, 1963–64 was the academic year in which white poverty was discovered. Michael Harrington's The Other America "was the rage". Conceived in part as a response to the gathering danger of a "white backlash," and with $ 5,000 from United Automobile Workers union, Tom Hayden promoted an Economic Research and Action Project (ERAP). SDS community organizers would help draw neighborhoods, both black and white, into an "interracial movement of

24480-601: The scope for recruitment beyond labor issues, the Student League for Industrial Democracy was reconstituted as SDS. They held their first meeting in 1960 on the University of Michigan campus at Ann Arbor, where Alan Haber was elected president. The SDS manifesto, known as the Port Huron Statement , was adopted at the organization's first convention in June 1962, based on an earlier draft by staff member Tom Hayden . Under Walter Reuther 's leadership,

24650-528: The streets for four days. Many of our people have been beaten up, and many of them are in jail, but we are winning." But at the first national council meeting after the convention (University of Colorado, Boulder, October 11–13), the Worker Student Alliance had their line confirmed: attempts to influence political parties in the United States fostered an "illusion" that people can have democratic power over system institutions. The correct answer

24820-454: The students of their civil rights , but were acquitted in a bench trial . The trial judge stated, "It is vital that state and National Guard officials not regard this decision as authorizing or approving the use of force against demonstrators, whatever the occasion of the issue involved. Such use of force is, and was, deplorable." President John F. Kennedy increased U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War , sending 16,000 advisors in 1963, up from

24990-434: The system", "building alternative institutions," and "revolutionary potential", credibility on the doorstep rested on their ability to secure concessions from, and thus to develop relations with, the local power structures. Regardless of the agenda (welfare checks, rent, day-care, police harassment, garbage pick-up) the daytime reality was of delivery built "around all the shoddy instruments of the state." ERAP had seemed to trap

25160-453: The units were then assigned to serve in the regular Army as replacements. On April 22, 1951, the 987th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, a National Guard unit from Stark County, Ohio, was assigned by IX Corps, Eight Army, to provide support to a two-divisional attack "Reconnaissance-in-Force" in the north central part of the Korean peninsula, just below the 38th Longitudinal Parallel. After

25330-422: The use of the National Guard in labor disputes in many other states, the Ohio Guard's non-partisan approach alleviated numerous potentially explosive labor conflicts. As the year 1939 brought yet another world war, the Ohio Guard found itself in a moderate state of readiness and under the leadership of Major General Robert S. Beightler . When President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared a state of emergency and brought

25500-467: The vandalism. By the time police arrived, a crowd of 120 had already gathered. Some people from the crowd lit a small bonfire in the street. The crowd appeared to be a mix of bikers, students, and transient people. A few crowd members threw beer bottles at the police and then started yelling obscenities at them. The entire Kent police force was called to duty, as well as officers from the county and surrounding communities. Kent Mayor LeRoy Satrom declared

25670-444: The veranda of Taylor Hall. Others were scattered between Taylor Hall and the Prentice Hall parking lot, while still others were standing in the parking lot, or dispersing through the lot as they had been previously ordered. While on the practice field, the guardsmen generally faced the parking lot, about 100 yards (91 m) away. At one point, the guardsmen formed a loose huddle and appeared to be talking to one another. They had cleared

25840-408: The victors often being the most popular or the one best able to furnish a ready supply of sour mash. With the advent of war with Great Britain in 1812, there was renewed interest in beefing up the size and effectiveness of the militia. Ohio Governor Josiah Meigs formed three regiments of Ohio militia in response to the proposed invasion to drive the British, and their Indian allies, from Canada (With

26010-521: The war in Vietnam. He ordered the bombing of North Vietnam ( Operation Flaming Dart ) and committed ground troops to fight the Viet Cong in the South. Campus chapters of SDS all over the country started to lead small, localized demonstrations against the war. On April 17 the National Office coordinated a march in Washington. Co-sponsored by Women Strike for Peace , and with endorsements from nearly all of

26180-584: The war, written while he had been working for a defense contractor. The Vice President was Jeff Shero from the increasingly influential University of Texas chapter in Austin. Consensus, however, was not reached on a national program. At the September National Council meeting "an entire cacophony of strategies was put forward" on what had clearly become the central issue, Vietnam. Some urged negotiation, others immediate U.S. withdrawal, still others Viet-Cong victory. "Some wanted to emphasize

26350-470: The women's sphere of home and community life." Sexism was acknowledged as commonplace in the anti-war and New Left movement. In December 1965, the SDS held a "rethinking conference" at the University of Illinois. One of the papers included in the conference packet, was a memo Casey Hayden and others had written the previous year for a similar SNCC event, and published the previous month in Liberation ,

26520-565: The worst type of people that we harbor in America. Now I want to say this. They are not going to take over [the] campus. I think that we're up against the strongest, well-trained, militant, revolutionary group that has ever assembled in America. Rhodes also claimed he would obtain a court order declaring a state of emergency that would ban further demonstrations and gave the impression that a situation akin to martial law had been declared; however, he never attempted to obtain such an order. During

26690-507: Was Hayden, the vice president was Paul Booth , and the national secretary was Jim Monsonis. There were nine chapters with, at most, about 1000 members. The National Office (NO) in New York City consisted of a few desks, some broken chairs, a couple of file cabinets and a few typewriters. As a student group with a strong belief in decentralization and a distrust for most organizations, the SDS had not developed, and never would develop,

26860-433: Was already dissent. The "whole balance of the organization shifted to ERAP headquarters in Ann Arbor", the new national secretary, C. Clark Kissinger cautioned against "the temptation to 'take one generation of campus leadership and run!' We must instead look toward building the campus base as the wellspring of our student movement." Gitlin's successor as president, Paul Potter, was blunter. The emphasis on "the problems of

27030-488: Was because of the escalating U.S. commitment in Vietnam: "Once again the government met an internal crisis by starting an external crisis." Yet there were ERAP volunteers more than ready to leave their storefront offices and heed the anti-war call to return to campus. Tending to the "less exotic struggles" of the urban poor had been a dispiriting experience. However much the volunteers might talk at night about "transforming

27200-678: Was called, and fifty-eight people were arrested. Four SDS leaders spent six months in prison due to the incident. On April 10, 1970, Jerry Rubin , a leader of the Youth International Party (also known as the Yippies), spoke on campus. In remarks reported locally, he said: "The first part of the Yippie program is to kill your parents. They are the first oppressors." Two weeks after that, Bill Arthrell, an SDS member and former student, distributed flyers to an event where he said he

27370-409: Was declaring her independence from the SDS as a working-class militant, the most strident voices at the convention were of those who, jettisoning the reservations of the Port Huron old guard, were declaring the working class as, after all, the only force capable of subverting U.S. imperialism and of effecting real change. It was on the basis of this new Marxist polemic that endorsements were withheld from

27540-496: Was directed towards peace-keeping and civic assistance missions. Of particular success were the efforts of the Ohio Guard in saving lives and aiding hard pressed local authorities during the winter blizzards of 1977 and 1978. Also of note was the extensive mission to Honduras which provided considerable infrastructure improvement and medical assistance to an impoverished nation while at the same time providing valuable training experience to Ohio Guard personnel. In organization terms,

27710-462: Was elected Interim National Secretary. That fall, her companion Greg Calvert , recently a History Instructor at Iowa State University, became National Secretary. The convention marked a further turn towards organization around campus issues by local chapters, with the National Office cast in a strictly supporting role. Campus issues ranged from bad food, powerless student "governments", various in loco parentis manifestations, on-campus recruiting for

27880-405: Was going to napalm a dog. The event turned out to be an anti-napalm teach-in . President Nixon announced that the " Cambodian Incursion " had been launched by United States combat forces. At Kent State University, a demonstration with about 500 students was held on May 1 on the Commons, a grassy knoll in the center of campus traditionally used as a gathering place for rallies and protests. As

28050-461: Was going to require extensive militia involvement. Ohio played a significant role, raising several regiments of infantry and artillery batteries from existing militia units and volunteers. The 1st Ohio Volunteers comprised part of the army under Gen. Zachary Taylor and took part in the battlefield victories of Monterrey and Buena Vista . It was during the great Civil War however, that the Ohio National Guard can directly trace its start. Ohio played

28220-428: Was increasingly colored by the country's exploding countercultural scene. There were explorations—some earnest, some playful—of the anarchist or libertarian implications of the commitment to participatory democracy. At the large and active University of Texas chapter in Austin, The Rag , an underground newspaper founded by SDS leaders Thorne Dreyer and Carol Neiman has been described as the first underground paper in

28390-415: Was lying. It was maybe 25, 30, 35 seconds of sporadic firing. The firing stopped. I lay there maybe 10 or 15 seconds. I got up, I saw four or five students lying around the lot. By this time, it was like mass hysteria. Students were crying, they were screaming for ambulances. I heard some girl screaming, "They didn't have blank, they didn't have blank," no, they didn't. Another witness was Chrissie Hynde ,

28560-482: Was standing there saying, they're not going to shoot, they can't do that. If they are going to shoot, it's going to be blank. Chris Butler , who later formed the band The Waitresses , was there with his friend Jeffrey Miller. Butler said that as the guardsmen formed in a kneeling position and pointed their rifles, "Everybody laughed, because, c'mon, you're not going to shoot us." Another unidentified person told UPI: The shots were definitely coming my way, because when

28730-412: Was to find that most chapters continued to follow their own, rather than a national, agenda. In the fall of 1968 their issues fell into one or more of four broad categories: (1) war-related issues such as opposition to ROTC, military or CIA recruitment, and military research, on campus; (2) student power issues including requests for a pass-fail grading system, beer sales on campus, no dormitory curfews, and

28900-415: Was wildly applauded and nationally reported. The new, more radical, and uncompromising anti-war profile this suggested, appeared to drive the growth in membership. The influx discomfited older members like Todd Gitlin who, as he later conceded, simply had no "feel" for an anti-war movement. No consensus was reached as to what role the SDS should play in stopping the war. A final attempt by the old guard at

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