The Khibiny Mountains ( Russian : Хиби́ны [xʲɪˈbʲinɨ] ; Kildin Sami : Umptek ) is one of the two main mountain ranges of the Kola Peninsula , Russia , within the Arctic Circle , located between Imandra and Umbozero lakes. The range is also known as Khibiny Massif, Khibinsky Mountains, Khibinsky Tundras, Khibins or Khibiny. The Khibiny National Park was set up in 2018.
134-545: The Khibiny Massif are the highest mountains of the Kola Peninsula , a large peninsula extending from northern Russia into the Barents and White seas. The total land area of the peninsula is approximately 100,000 square kilometres (39,000 sq mi). It is rich in minerals due to the removal of a layer of soil during the last ice age . The Khibiny Massif is of oval shape of about 1,300 km. and occupies
268-573: A degree of participation, also lured those whose primary interests were not the common good to the Ujamaa villages. This, in addition to the Order of 1973 dictating that all people had to live in villages ( Operation Vijiji ) eroded the sustainability of communal projects. In order for the communal farms to be successful, each member of the village would have to contribute to the best of their ability. Due to lack of sufficient foreign exchange, mechanization of
402-475: A few large-scale state farms in the late 1950s–early 1970s. By the mid-1970s, the state farms were further consolidated into just two, based in Lovozero and Krasnoshchelye . The consolidations were rationalized by the necessity to isolate the herders from the military installations, as well as by the need to flood some territories to construct hydroelectric plants . Fishing, being the traditional industry of
536-458: A gradual and integrated process of moving from one form of society to another, Romanian society in the Soviet orbit was being completely rearticulated, a process in which violence was inevitable." On the other hand, as Kligman and Verdery explain, "Collectivization brought undeniable benefits to some rural inhabitants, especially those who had owned little or no land. It freed them from laboring on
670-555: A high plateau , drained by a series of deep canyons. The peaks are of plateau type, with steep slopes, with glaciers , icefields and snowfields in some places. The overall terrain is alpine tundra . The second, and similar mountain range of the Kola Peninsula, the Lovozero Tundras , is located about 5 km east from the easternmost point of Khibiny, separated from it by Lake Umbozero . The Khibiny range
804-624: A joint enterprise". There are two broad types of communal farms: agricultural cooperatives , in which member-owners jointly engage in farming activities as a collective ; and state farms, which are owned and directly run by a centralized government. The process by which farmland is aggregated is called collectivization . In some countries (including the Soviet Union , the Eastern Bloc countries, China and Vietnam ), there have been both state-run and cooperative-run variants. For example,
938-428: A lack of fertile land, and government mismanagement, often causing the nation to rely on foreign aid as its primary source of food. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam implemented collective farming although de jure private ownership existed. Starting in 1958 collective farming was pushed such that by 1960, 85% of farmers and 70% of farmlands were collectivized including those seized by force. Collectivization however
1072-483: A nuclear waste radioactivity absorbent. By the foot of the massif the cities of Apatity and Kirovsk are situated. Khibiny have an Arctic-moderate climate, with an average winter temperature of −5 °C (23 °F). However, the temperature can potentially drop to −30 °C (−22 °F) during the night. The Gulf Stream , which brings warmer water to the Kolsky Peninsula from the north, moderates
1206-571: A number of nuclear families. Each calpulli owned the land and granted the individual families the right to farm parts of it each day. When the Spanish conquered Mexico they replaced this with a system of estates granted by the Spanish crown to Spanish colonists , as well as the encomienda , a feudal-like right of overlordship colonists were given in particular villages, and the repartimiento or system of indigenous forced labor . Following
1340-617: A period of 20 years while also sharing in the fruits of the CPA. Joining a CPA allowed individuals who were previously dispersed throughout the countryside to move to a centralized location with increased access to electricity, medical care, housing, and schools. Democratic practice tends to be limited to business decisions and is constrained by the centralized economic planning of the Cuban system. Another type of agricultural production cooperative in Cuba
1474-411: A railway was also considered, but no action was taken at the time. Also in 1896, Alexandrovsk (now Polyarny ) was founded, and grew in size so rapidly that it was granted town status in 1899; Kolsky Uyezd was renamed Alexandrovsky on that occasion. During World War I (1914-1918), the still poorly-developed peninsula suddenly found itself in a strategic position, as communication between Russia and
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#17327729271291608-662: A reindeer disease epidemic in their home lands in the southeast of the White Sea. The original administrative and economic center of the area was Kola , situated at the estuary of the Kola River into the Kola Bay . In 1916, Romanov-na-Murmane (now Murmansk) was founded and quickly became the largest city and port on the peninsula. Russian migration to the peninsula continued into the 16th century, when new settlements such as Kandalaksha and Porya-Guba were established. Kola
1742-598: A result of this, a recreational fishery has been developed, with a number of remote lodges and camps available to host sport-fishermen. The Kandalaksha Nature Reserve , established in 1932 to protect the population of common eider , is organized in thirteen clusters located in the Kandalaksha Gulf of the Kola Peninsula and along the coasts of the Barents Sea. The Kola Peninsula has many small but fast-moving rivers with rapids. The most important of them are
1876-444: A village government and a cooperative. Arable land was divided into sections based on soil quality and distance from the village. Each household had the right to claim one or more strips from each section depending on the number of adults in the household. The purpose of this allocation was not so much social (to each according to his needs) as it was practical (that each person pay his taxes). Strips were periodically re-allocated on
2010-555: A year. The waters of the Murman Coast remain warm enough to remain ice-free even in winter. Precipitation levels on the peninsula are rather high: 1,000 millimeters (39 in) in the mountains, 600–700 millimeters (24–28 in) on the Murman Coast, and 500–600 millimeters (20–24 in) in other areas. The wettest months are August through October, while March and April are the driest. The average temperature in January
2144-491: Is UBPC – Unidad Básica de Producción Cooperativa (Basic Unit of Cooperative Production). The law authorizing the creation of UBPCs was passed on 20 September 1993. It has been used to transform many state farms into UBPCs, similar to the transformation of Russian sovkhozes (state farms) into kolkhozes (collective farms) since 1992. The law granted indefinite usufruct to the workers of the UBPC in line with its goal of linking
2278-561: Is a 95% reduction (compared to 2015) in SO2 by 2030 for its Polar Division on the Taimyr peninsula, which includes its Nadezhda smelter and Copper plant, partly through a SO2 capture solution. Other polluters of note include the thermal power stations in Apatity and Murmansk . The Rybachy Peninsula in the north of the Kola Peninsula was already settled in the 7th – 5th millennium BCE . In
2412-537: Is about −10 °C (14 °F), with lower temperatures typical in the central parts of the peninsula. The average temperature in July is about +11 °C (52 °F). Record lows reach −50 °C (−58 °F) in the central parts and −35 to −40 °C (−31 to −40 °F) on the coasts. Record highs exceed +30 °C (86 °F) almost on all the territory of the peninsula. First frosts occur as early as August and may last through May and even June. Most areas of
2546-432: Is developed in the region. The Kola Peninsula as a whole suffered major ecological damage, mostly as a result of pollution from the military (particularly naval) production, industrial mining of apatite , and military nuclear waste. About 137 active and 140 decommissioned or idle naval nuclear reactors, produced by the Soviet military, remain on the peninsula. For thirty years, nuclear waste had been dumped into
2680-456: Is extremely rich in minerals, mainly apatite and nepheline ores. 477 valid minerals have been reported and 108 of those are type localities or minerals first described in the Khibiny. The range is also seismically active. Khibiny mountains are mostly uninhabited, except for one of the world's richest mineral quarries. One of the minerals discovered there is reported to have a potential as
2814-557: Is one of the only places the rare Gray seals can be found. Greenland seals, or harp seals , also can be seen from time to time. Twenty-nine species of fresh water fish are recognized on the territory of peninsula, including trout , stickleback , northern pike , and European perch . The rivers are an important habitat for the Atlantic salmon , which return from Greenland and the Faroe Islands to spawn in fresh water. As
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#17327729271292948-554: Is steep and high, while the southern coast is flat. The western part of the peninsula is covered by two mountain ranges: the Khibiny Mountains and the Lovozero Massif ; the former contains the highest point of the peninsula— Yudychvumchorr . Mount Chasnachorr , the height of which is 1,191 meters (3,907 ft), had been formerly considered the highest point of the Khibiny. The Keyvy drainage divide lies in
3082-588: The Allies via the Baltic and Black Sea was cut. Britain helped in the development of the ice-free harbors of the Murman Coast as the only practical means of sending Allied war supplies to the Eastern Front . In March 1915, the construction of the railroad was rushed, and the railroad was quickly opened in 1916, even though it was only partially completed and poorly built. In 1916, Romanov-na-Murmane (Romanov on
3216-654: The 3rd – 2nd millennium BCE , the peninsula was settled by the peoples who arrived there from the south (the territory of modern Karelia ). Bolshoy Oleny Island in the Kola Bay of the Barents Sea is the location of an important Bronze Age archaeological site where ancient DNA has been recovered. By the end of the 1st millennium CE , the peninsula was settled only by the Sami people , who did not have their own state, lived in clans ruled by elders , and were engaged mostly in reindeer herding and fishing. In
3350-680: The Grand Duchy of Moscow after the Battle of Shelon in 1471, and the republic itself ceased to exist in 1478 when Ivan III took the city of Novgorod. All Novgorod territories, including those on the Kola Peninsula, became a part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The Novgorod Republic lost control of the peninsula to the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1471, but the Russian migration did not stop. Several new settlements were established during
3484-560: The Jacob's River , which now is a part of Norway. The Sami population was forced to pay tribute. The Norwegians were also attempting to take control of these lands, resulting in armed conflicts. In 1251, a conflict between the Karelians, Novgorodians and the servants of the king of Norway led to the establishment of a Novgorodian mission in Norway. Also in 1251, the first treaty with Norway
3618-650: The Karelian Isthmus border and the border north of Lake Ladoga . Another treaty dealing the matters of the northern borders was the Treaty of Novgorod signed with Norway in 1326, which ended the decades of the Norwegian-Novgorodian border skirmishes in Finnmark. Per the terms of this treaty, Norway relinquished all claims to the Kola Peninsula. The treaty did not address the situation with
3752-521: The Mexican Revolution , a new constitution in 1917 abolished any remnant of feudal-like rights hacienda owners had over common lands and offered the development of ejidos : communal farms formed on land purchased from the large estates by the Mexican government . The Huron had an essentially communal system of land ownership. The French Catholic missionary Gabriel Sagard described
3886-790: The Ponoy , the Varzuga , the Umba , the Teriberka , the Voronya , and the Yokanga . Most rivers originate from lakes and swamps and collect their waters from melting snow. The rivers become icebound during the winter, although the areas with strong rapids freeze later or not at all. Major lakes include Imandra , Umbozero , and Lovozero . There are no lakes with an area smaller than 0.01 square kilometers (0.0039 sq mi). Recreational fishery
4020-521: The Tsardom of Russia cede the peninsula. Russia declined, and in order to organize adequate defenses established the position of a voyevoda . The voyevoda sat in Kola, which became the administrative center of the region. Prior to that, the administrative duties were performed by the tax collectors from Kandalaksha. Newly established Kolsky Uyezd covered most of the territory of the peninsula (with
4154-667: The Turiy Peninsula . Kolo Volost lay to the west of that line, while Tre was situated to the east of it. By the 13th century, a need to formalize the border between the Novgorod Republic and the Scandinavian countries became evident. The Novgorodians, along with the Karelians who came from the south, reached the coast of what now is Pechengsky District and the portion of the coast of Varangerfjord near
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4288-740: The new socialist government . The first phase involved a confiscation of properties of Germans , Hungarians , and collaborators with the Nazi regime in accordance with the so-called Beneš decrees . The second phase, promulgated by so-called Ďuriš's laws (after the Communist Minister of Agriculture), in fact meant a complete revision of the pre-war land reform and tried to reduce maximal private property to 150 hectares (370 acres) of agricultural land and 250 hectares (620 acres) of any land. The third and final phase forbade possession of land above 50 hectares (120 acres) for one family. This phase
4422-462: The okrug was separated from Leningrad Oblast, merged with Kandalakshsky District of the Karelian ASSR , and transformed into modern Murmansk Oblast . All in all, the Soviet period saw a significant increase in population (from 15,000 in 1913 to 1,150,000 in 1989), although most of the population remained concentrated in the urban localities along the railroads and the sea coast. Most of
4556-575: The 1251 treaty. The treaty led to a short period of peace, but the armed conflicts resumed soon thereafter. Chronicles document attacks by the Novgorodians and the Karelians on Finnmark and northern Norway as early as 1271, and continuing well into the 14th century. The official border between the Novgorod lands and the lands of Sweden and Norway was established by the Treaty of Nöteborg on August 12, 1323. The treaty primarily focused on
4690-644: The 12th century, Russian Pomors from the shores of the Onega Bay and in the lower reaches of the Northern Dvina discovered the peninsula and its game and fish riches. The Pomors organized regular hunting and fishing visits and started barter trade with the Sami. They also called the White Sea coast of the peninsula Tersky Coast ( Те́рский бе́рег ) or Terskaya Land ( Те́рская земля́ ). By
4824-625: The 16th century, and the Sami and Pomor people were forced into serfdom . In the second half of the 16th century, the peninsula became a subject of dispute between the Tsardom of Russia and the Kingdom of Denmark–Norway , which resulted in the strengthening of the Russian position. By the end of the 19th century, the indigenous Sami population had been mostly forced north by the Russians as well as by newly arriving Izhma Komi and Kominized Nenets (so-called Yaran people ), who migrated here to escape
4958-420: The 1930s–1950s, and in 2007 over two thousand people—descendants of those forcibly sent there—still live on the peninsula. A significant portion of the people deported to Kola were peasants from southern Russia subjected to dekulakization . Prisoner labor was often used when building new factories and for manning those which were operational: in 1940, for example, the whole Severonikel Metallurgy Mining Complex
5092-573: The 2010 Census, the population consisted mostly of Russians (89.0%), Ukrainians (4.8%), and Belarusians (1.7%). Other groups of note include Komi (~1,600 inhabitants), Sami (~1,600), and Karelians (~1,400). The indigenous Sami people are mostly concentrated in Lovozersky District . During the 15th–16th centuries, the main occupations of the Tersky Coast population were Atlantic salmon fishing, seal hunting, and
5226-489: The Huron did seem to have lands designated for the individual, the significance of this possession may be of little relevance; the placement of corn storage vessels in the longhouses , which contained multiple families in one kinship group, suggests the occupants of a given longhouse held all production in common. The Iroquois had a similar communal system of land distribution. The tribe owned all lands but gave out tracts to
5360-530: The Kola Peninsula are subarctic climate ( Köppen climate classification : Dfc ). The nearby islands usually belong to tundra ( Köppen climate classification : ET ). The peninsula is covered by taiga in the south and tundra in the north. In the tundra, cold and windy conditions and permafrost limit the growth of the trees, resulting in a landscape dominated by grasses, wildflowers, and shrubs such as dwarf birch and cloudberry . In northern coastal areas, stony and shrub lichens are common. The taiga in
5494-542: The Kola Peninsula gradually became a part of the Novgorodian lands. A 1265 treaty of Yaroslav Yaroslavich with Novgorod mentions Tre Volost ( волость Тре ), which is later also mentioned in other documents dated as late as 1471. In addition to Tre, Novgorodian documents of the 13th–15th centuries also mention Kolo Volost , which bordered Tre approximately along the line between Kildin Island and Turiy Headland of
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5628-568: The LPG were introduced in 1953. After 1959 all farmers were required to surrender independently owned land and join the LPGs. Similarly to the Soviet Union, ultimately most of the land was transferred into de jure or de facto state controlled entities with the former farmers becoming employees – now of the state instead of the erstwhile Junker class. The Polish name of a collective farm
5762-550: The Murman: modern Murmansk ) was founded as the terminal point of the new railroad; the town quickly grew to become the largest one on the peninsula. Soviet power was established on the territory of the peninsula on November 9 [ O.S. October 26], 1917, but the territory was occupied by the forces of Russia's pre-war allies in March 1918–March 1920. Alexandrovsky Uyezd was transformed into Murmansk Governorate by
5896-403: The Sami people paying tribute to both Norway and Novgorod, and the practice continued until 1602. While the 1326 treaty did not define the border in detail, it confirmed the 1323 border demarcation, which remained more or less unchanged for the next six hundred years, until 1920. In the 15th century, Novgorodians started to establish permanent settlements on the peninsula. Umba and Varzuga ,
6030-475: The Sami population had mostly been forced north, with ethnic Russians settling in the south of the peninsula. In 1894, the peninsula was visited by the Russian Minister of Finance, Sergei Witte , who became convinced of the region's economic potential. Consequently, in 1896 telephone and a telegraph communications were extended to Kola, improving links with the mainland. The possibility of building
6164-476: The Soviet Union had both kolkhozy (cooperative-run farms) and sovkhozy (state-run farms). Under the Aztec Empire , central Mexico was divided into small territories called calpulli , which were units of local administration concerned with farming as well as education and religion. A calpulli consisted of a number of large extended families with a presumed common ancestor , themselves each composed of
6298-536: The Soviet collectivization. Like Professor Barry Naughton , she observes that China's collectivization proceeded smoothly in part because, unlike the Soviet experience, a network of state institutions already existed in the countryside. Similarly, Professor Edward Friedman describes China's collectivization process as a "miracle of miracles". During 1954–1955, farmers in many areas began pooling their land, capital resources, and labor into beginning-level agricultural producers' cooperatives ( chuji nongye hezuoshe ). In
6432-782: The Soviet government in June 1921. On August 1, 1927, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK) issued two Resolutions: "On the Establishment of Leningrad Oblast" and "On the Borders and Composition of the Okrugs of Leningrad Oblast", according to which Murmansk Governorate was transformed into Murmansk Okrug (which was divided into six districts) and included into Leningrad Oblast . This arrangement existed until May 28, 1938, when
6566-465: The USSR is debatable. A Soviet article in March 1975 found that 27% of the total value of Soviet agricultural produce was produced by privately farmed plots despite the fact that they only consisted of less than 1% of arable land (approximately 20 million acres), making them roughly 40 times more efficient than collective farms. In 1935, the establishment of Personal Subsidiary Farms (LPH) on collective land
6700-503: The USSR's communist blueprint. These attempts often fell short. By strictly adhering to this Soviet blueprint, the implementation of communism in Romania inevitably created dilemmas and contributions that led to violence. Kligman and Verdery state "The violence collectivization, emerges then, less, as an abhoration than as a product of sociocultural shaping and of deep problems with how the soviet blueprint came to be implemented... instead of
6834-528: The Vietnamese communists banned other political parties, arrested suspects believed to have collaborated with the United States and embarked on a mass campaign of collectivization of farms and factories. Private land ownership was "transformed" to subsume under State and collective ownership. Reconstruction of the war-ravaged country was slow and serious humanitarian and economic problems confronted
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#17327729271296968-633: The adoption of collective farming was also driven by communist government policies. Leon Trotsky and the Opposition bloc had originally advocated a programme of industrialization which also proposed agricultural cooperatives and the formation of collective farms on a voluntary basis. According to Sheila Fitzpatrick , the scholarly consensus was that Stalin appropriated the position of the Left Opposition on such matters as industrialisation and collectivisation . Other scholars have argued
7102-418: The average July temperature of only 11 °C (52 °F). The peninsula is covered by taiga in the south and by tundra in the north, where permafrost limits the growth of trees, resulting in landscape dominated by shrubs and grasses. The peninsula supports a small variety of mammals, and its rivers are an important habitat for the Atlantic salmon . The Kandalaksha Nature Reserve , established to protect
7236-515: The basis of a census, to ensure equitable share of the land. This was enforced by the state, which had an interest in the ability of households to pay their taxes. The Soviet Union introduced collective farming in its constituent republics between 1927 and 1933. The Baltic states and most of the Eastern Bloc (except Poland ) adopted collective farming after World War II , with the accession of communist regimes to power. In Asia ( People's Republic of China , North Korea , Laos , and Vietnam )
7370-477: The bulk of the territory of Murmansk Oblast , it lies almost completely inside the Arctic Circle and is bordered by the Barents Sea to the north and by the White Sea to the east and southeast. The city of Murmansk , the most populous settlement on the peninsula, has a population of roughly 270,000 residents. While humans had already settled in the north of the peninsula in the 7th–5th millennium BCE,
7504-529: The central part of the peninsula at a relative elevation of 900–1000 m above the surrounding plain. The mountains are not particularly high; the two highest peaks are the Yudychvumchorr , which stands 1,201 metres (3,940 ft), and the Chasnachorr , which stands 1,191 metres (3,907 ft). The average elevation is 1,116 metres (3,661 ft). The mountains form the shape of a horseshoe topped by
7638-457: The central part. The mountainous reliefs of the Murman and Kandalaksha Coasts stretch from southeast to northwest, mirroring the peninsula's main orographic features. Administratively , the territory of the peninsula consists of Lovozersky and Tersky Districts , parts of Kandalakshsky and Kolsky Districts , as well as the territories subordinated to the cities and towns of Murmansk , Ostrovnoy , Severomorsk , Kirovsk , and parts of
7772-409: The climate, making it slightly warmer than other Arctic regions. Kola Peninsula The Kola Peninsula ( Russian : Ко́льский полуо́стров , romanized : Kólʹskij poluóstrov, Kolsky poluostrov ; Kildin Sami : Куэлнэгк нёа̄ррк ) is a peninsula located mostly in northwest Russia and partly in Finland and Norway . It is one of the largest peninsulas of Europe . Constituting
7906-435: The collective farming method. From this time, nearly all Chinese crops began to blossom, not just grain. The reform included the removal of land from rich land owners for use of agricultural land for peasants, but not ownership. This policy increased production and helped reverse the effects of The Great Leap Forward. The two main reasons why China succeeded was because 1) the government chose to make gradual changes, which kept
8040-515: The communist regime. In an historic shift in 1986, the Communist Party of Vietnam implemented free-market reforms known as Đổi Mới ( Renovation ). With the authority of the state remaining unchallenged, private enterprise, deregulation and foreign investment were encouraged. Land ownership nonetheless is the sole prerogative of the state. The economy of Vietnam has achieved rapid growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction and housing, exports and foreign investment. However,
8174-533: The complex system of beginning-level agricultural producers' cooperatives, farmers received a share of the harvest based on a combination of how much labor and how much land they contributed to the cooperative. By June 1956, over 60% of rural households had been collectivized into higher-level agricultural producers' cooperatives ( gaoji nongye hezuoshe ), a structure that was similar to Soviet collective farmering via kolkhozy . In these cooperatives, tens of households pooled land and draft animals. Adult members of
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#17327729271298308-420: The cooperative were credited with work points based on how much labor they had provided at which tasks. At the end of the year, the collective deducted taxes and fixed-price sales to the state, and the cooperative retained seed for the next year as well as some investment and welfare funds. The collective then distributed to the households the remainder of the harvest and some of the money received from sales to
8442-428: The cooperatives had problems competing with technologically advanced foreign competition and were unable to obtain investment to improve their situation. Quite a large percentage of them collapsed. The others that remained were typically insufficiently funded, lacking competent management, without new machinery and living from day to day. Employment in the agricultural sector dropped significantly (from approximately 25% of
8576-436: The country arriving to the peninsula to trade with the merchants from Western Europe. In 1585 the trade was moved to Archangel , although the settlement of Kola was still permitted to trade locally produced goods. During the 17th century, the salt extraction activities gradually went into decline as the locally produced salt was uncompetitive with cheap salt produced in the Kama River regions. Extensive poaching also led to
8710-401: The creation of Ujamaa Villages . Since the majority of the rural population was spread out, and agriculture was traditionally undertaken individually, the rural population had to be forced to move together, to farm communally. Following forced migration, incentive to participate in communal farming activities was encouraged by government recognition. These incentives, in addition to encouraging
8844-433: The cultural center of the Sami people in Russia. Those Sami resisting the collectivization were subject to forced labor or death. Various forms of repression against the Sami continued until Stalin 's death in 1953. In the 1990s, 40% of the Sami lived in urbanized areas, although some herd reindeer across much of the region. The Sami were not the only people subject to repressions. Thousands of people were sent to Kola in
8978-406: The different clans for further distribution among households for cultivation. The land would be redistributed among the households every few years, and a clan could request a redistribution of tracts when the Clan Mothers ' Council gathered. Those clans that abused their allocated land or otherwise did not take care of it would be warned and eventually punished by the Clan Mothers' Council by having
9112-563: The dominant form of rural collectivization in China. During The Great Leap Forward , the Mao Zedong -led Communist Party rapidly convert the Chinese economy to a socialist society through rapid industrialization and large scale collectivization. Later, the country was hit by massive floods and droughts. This, combined with the usage of severely flawed policies of Lysenkoism and the Four Pests Campaign , caused " The Great Chinese Famine of 1959," where nearly 30 million people died of hunger. The party officially blamed floods and droughts for
9246-473: The early 1950s, only one-quarter of peasants had agreed to join cooperatives. In the spring of 1955 the drive for collectivization was renewed, again using physical force to encourage membership, but this second wave also ended in dismal failure. After the events of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution , the ruling Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party opted for a more gradual collectivization drive. The main wave of collectivization occurred between 1959 and 1961, and at
9380-424: The early 1960s because of the Soviet leadership's focus on a policy of Russification of Moldavians into the Russian way of life . Much of the collectivization in Moldova had undergone in Transnistria , in Chişinău , the present-day capital city of Moldova. Most of the directors who regulated and conducted the process of collectivization were placed by officials from Moscow. The efficiency of collective farms in
9514-421: The early 21st century, and is considered the most industrially developed and urbanized region in northern Russia. Despite the peninsula's northerly location, its proximity to the North Atlantic Current (an extension of the Gulf Stream ) leads to unusually high temperatures in winter, but also results in high winds due to the temperature variations between land and the Barents Sea. Summers are rather chilly, with
9648-445: The economic programme of Trotsky differed from the forced policy of collectivisation implemented by Stalin after 1928 due to the levels of brutality associated with its enforcement. As part of the first five-year plan , forced collectivization was introduced in the Soviet Union by general secretary Joseph Stalin in the late 1920s as a way, according to the policies of socialist leaders, to boost agricultural production through
9782-600: The end of the 12th century, the Pomors explored all of the northern coast of the peninsula and reached Finnmark (an area in the north of Norway ), necessitating the Norwegians to support a naval guard in that area. The name given by the Pomors to the northern coast was Murman —a distorted form of Norman meaning "Norwegian". Pomors were soon followed by tribute collectors from the Novgorod Republic , and
9916-687: The end of this period more than 95% of agricultural land in Hungary had become the property of collective farms. In February 1961, the Central Committee declared that collectivization had been completed. In Czechoslovakia , centralized land reforms after World War I allowed for the distribution of most of the land to peasants and the poor, and created large groups of relatively well-to-do farmers (though village poor still existed). These groups showed no support for communist ideals. In 1945, immediately after World War II, new land reform started with
10050-581: The exception of Varzuzhskaya and Umbskaya Volosts, which were a part of Dvinsky Uyezd ), as well as the northern part of Karelia all the way to Lendery . Despite the economic activity, permanent settlement of the peninsula did not intensify until the 1860s, and even then it remained sporadic until 1917. The population of Kola in 1880, for example, was only around 500 inhabitants living in 80 households, compared to 1,900 inhabitants in 300 households living there in 1582. Transportation facilities were virtually non-existent and communication with
10184-401: The expense involved, and the soil became heavily polluted with chemicals. Also, the intensive use of heavy machinery damaged topsoil. Furthermore, the cooperatives were infamous for over-employment. In the late 1970s, the economy of Czechoslovakia entered into stagnation , and the state-owned companies were unable to deal with advent of modern technologies. A few agricultural companies (where
10318-541: The extraction of salt from the sea water. The salt extraction in Kandalaksha and Kola was mostly carried out by the monasteries in Pechenga and Solovki , and for a long time remained the only "industry" on the peninsula. By the mid-16th century, Atlantic cod fishing developed on the Murman Coast in the north. The 1560s saw a rapid growth of international trade, with the Russian merchants from different regions of
10452-455: The famine; however, it was clear to the party members at the party meetings that famine was caused mostly by their own policies. Recent studies also demonstrate that it was career incentives within the politburo system as well as political radicalism that led to the great famine. Collectivization of land via the commune system facilitated China's rapid industrialization through the state's control of food production and procurement. This allowed
10586-502: The fields of others, and it increased their control over wages, lending to their daily existence a stability previously unknown to them." Collective farms in the People's Republic of Bulgaria , introduced in 1945, were called Labour Cooperative Agricultural Farm ( Bulgarian : Трудово кооперативно земеделско стопанство , romanized : Trudovo kooperativno zemedelsko stopanstvo ). In Hungary , agricultural collectivization
10720-526: The first documented permanent settlements of the Novgorodians, date back to 1466. Over time, all coastal areas to the west of the Pyalitsa River had been settled, creating a territory where the population was mostly Novgorodian. Administratively, this territory was divided into Varzuzhskaya and Umbskaya Volosts , which were governed by a posadnik from the area of the Northern Dvina . The Novgorod Republic lost control of both of these volosts to
10854-482: The fundamentals. The Huron had "as much land as they need[ed]." As a result, the Huron could give families their own land and still have a large amount of excess land owned communally. Any Huron was free to clear the land and farm on the basis of usufruct . He maintained possession of the land as long as he continued to actively cultivate and tend the fields. Once he abandoned the land, it reverted to communal ownership, and anyone could take it up for themselves. While
10988-487: The initial years that followed the Cuban Revolution , government authorities experimented with agricultural and farming production cooperatives. Between 1977 and 1983, farmers began to collectivize into CPAs – Cooperativa de Producción Agropecuaria (Agricultural Production Cooperatives). Farmers were encouraged to sell their land to the state for the establishment of a cooperative farm, receiving payments for
11122-545: The labour was impossible, therefore it was essential that every villager contributed to manual labour. In the European Union , collective farming is fairly common and agricultural cooperatives hold a 40% market share among the 27 member states . In the Netherlands , cooperative agriculture holds a market share of approximately 70%, second only to Finland . In France , cooperative agriculture represents 40% of
11256-559: The land redistributed to another clan. Land property was really only the concern of the women, since it was the women's job to cultivate food and not the men's. The Clan Mothers' Council also reserved certain areas of land to be worked by the women of all the different clans. Food from such lands, called kěndiǔ"gwǎ'ge' hodi'yěn'tho , would be used at festivals and large council gatherings. The obshchina (Russian: общи́на , IPA: [ɐpˈɕːinə] , literally: " commune ") or mir (Russian: мир , literally: "society" (one of
11390-509: The late 1990s, the collective farming system collapsed under a strain of droughts . Estimates of deaths due to starvation ranged into the millions, although the government did not allow outside observers to survey the extent of the famine. Aggravating the severity of the famine, the government was accused of diverting international relief supplies to its armed forces. Agriculture in North Korea has suffered tremendously from natural disasters,
11524-576: The low wage working class began to be known worldwide, increasing the Chinese FDI. A 2017 study found that Chinese peasants slaughtered massive numbers of draft animals as a response to collectivization, as this would allow them to keep the meat and hide, and not transfer the draft animals to the collectives. The study estimates that "the animal loss during the movement was 12 to 15 percent, or 7.4-9.5 million dead. Grain output dropped by 7 percent due to lower animal inputs and lower productivity." In
11658-474: The meanings)) or Selskoye obshestvo (Russian: сельское общество ("Rural community", official term in the 19th and 20th century) were peasant communities, as opposed to individual farmsteads, or khutors , in Imperial Russia . The term derives from the word о́бщий, obshchiy (common). The vast majority of Russian peasants held their land in communal ownership within a mir community, which acted as
11792-626: The monopoly of the Chinese Communist Party and 2) because the reform process began from the bottom and later expanded to the top. Throughout the reform process, the Communist Party reacted positively to the bottom-up reform initiatives that emerged from the rural population. Deng Xiaoping described the reform process as "fording the river by feeling for the stones". This statement refers to the Chinese people who called for
11926-561: The needs of the populace. This system was largely abolished in the 1950s. See: Law of 23 August 1945 with amendments until 1 December 1948. At the end of the Land Reform movement , individual families in China owned the land they farmed, paid taxes as households, and sold grain at prices set by the state. Rural collectivization began soon after the CCP announced its 1953 "general line for
12060-652: The northeastern edge of the Baltic Shield . The western border of the peninsula stretches along the meridian from the Kola Bay through the valley of the Kola River , Lake Imandra , and the Niva River to the Kandalaksha Gulf , although some sources push it all the way west to Russia's border with Finland. Under a more restrictive definition, the peninsula covers an area of about 100,000 square kilometers (39,000 sq mi). The northern coast
12194-441: The organization of land and labor into large-scale collective farms ( kolkhozy ). At the same time, Joseph Stalin argued that collectivization would free poor peasants from economic servitude under the kulaks (farmland owners). The Soviet Communist Party resorted to the execution and mass deportation of defiant kulaks to Siberia in order to implement the plan (see: Dekulakization ). The centuries-old system of farming
12328-459: The peninsula became heavily industrialized and militarized, largely due to its strategic position (as the pre-eminent Soviet ice-free Atlantic coast) and to the discovery of the vast apatite deposits in the 1920s. As a result, the peninsula suffered major ecological damage . After the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union , the economy went into decline. Its population fell from 1,150,000 in 1989 to 795,000 in 2010. The peninsula recovered somewhat in
12462-482: The peninsula gradually became a part of the Novgorodian lands. The Novgorodians, however, established no permanent settlements until the 15th century. The Soviet period (1917–1991) saw a rapid population increase, although most of the new arrivals remained confined to urbanized territories along the sea coast and the railroads. The Sami people were subject to forced collectivization , including forced relocation to Lovozero and other centralized settlements, and overall
12596-611: The peninsula to the Gulf Stream leads to unusually high temperatures in winter for the region, resulting in significant temperature variations between land and the Barents Sea and in fluctuating temperatures during high winds. Cyclones are typical during the cold seasons, while the warm seasons are characterized by anticyclones . Monsoon winds are common in most areas, with south and southwesterly winds prevailing in winter months and with somewhat more pronounced easterly winds in summer. Strong storm winds blow for 80–120 days
12730-464: The peninsula, mostly along the shores. However, the discovery of the vast natural resource deposits and industrialization efforts led to an explosive population growth during the Soviet times. By 1970, the population of the peninsula was around 799,000. The trend reverted in the 1990s, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union . The population of the whole Murmansk Oblast went down from 1,150,000 in 1989 to 890,000 in 2002 to 795,000 in 2010. As of
12864-452: The peninsula. Beluga whales are the only cetacean being common around the peninsula. Other dolphins, including Atlantic white-sided dolphins , white-beaked dolphins , and harbor porpoises , as well as large whales, such as bowhead , humpback , blue , and finback , also visit the area. The coasts of the Kandalaksha Gulf and the Barents Sea are important breeding grounds for bearded seals and ringed seals . The Barents Sea
12998-648: The peninsula. The main industrial pollution source is Norilsk Nickel in Monchegorsk —the large smelters responsible for over 80% of the sulfur dioxide emissions and for nearly all nickel and copper emissions. Since 1998, SO 2 emissions in the area have dropped by almost 60%, from 88.3 thousand tonnes to 37.3 thousand tonnes in 2016, according to Norilsk Nickel. Based on its new ‘Sulphur programme 2.0', Norilsk Nickel has set itself staged targets in cutting down sulphur dioxide emissions, which can have negative health and environmental effects. The ultimate aim
13132-543: The population of common eider , is located in the Kandalaksha Gulf . The peninsula is also the site of the Kola Superdeep Borehole , the deepest hole drilled into the Earth. The peninsula is located in the far northwest of Russia, almost completely inside the Arctic Circle and is bordered by the Barents Sea in the north and the White Sea in the east and southeast. Geologically, the peninsula occupies
13266-543: The population to approximately 1%). Collective farms in the German Democratic Republic were typically called Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaft (LPG), and corresponded closely to the Soviet kolkhoz. East Germany also had a few state-owned farms which were equivalent to the Soviet sovkhoz , which were called the Volkseigenes Gut (VEG). The structure of farms in what
13400-670: The power of the Communist Party of Vietnam over all organs of government remains firm, preventing full land ownership. Conflicts between the state and private farmers over land rights have grown with the potential to spark social and political instability. Despite the reforms however, over 50% of all farms in Vietnam remain collective cooperatives (over 15,000 farming cooperatives in Vietnam), and almost all farmers being members of some kind of cooperative. The state also heavily encourages collective cooperative farming over private farming. In
13534-522: The practice of peat production from the Norwegians and started using peat for heating. Timber cutting industry developed in the region at the end of the 19th century; mostly in Kovda and Umba. The Soviet era saw drastic industrialization and militarization of the peninsula. In 1925–1926, significant deposits of apatite were discovered in the Khibiny Mountains, and the first apatite batch
13668-400: The reforms they wanted by "placing the stones at his feet" and he would then just approve the reforms the people wanted. The peasants started their own "household responsibility system" apart from the government. After Chinese trade was privately deemed successful, all Deng had to do was approve its legalization. This increased competition between farmers domestically and internationally, meaning
13802-594: The region, was always considered important although the volumes of production remained insignificant until the beginning of the 20th century. In the 1920s–1930s, the Murmansk Trawl Fleet was created and the fishing infrastructure started to develop intensively. By 1940, fishing accounted for 40% of the oblast's and for 80% of Murmansk's economy. Collective farming Collective farming and communal farming are various types of "agricultural production in which multiple farmers run their holdings as
13936-427: The remaining private farmers; only a handful of them remained after the 1960s. The lifestyle of villagers had eventually reached the level of cities, and village poverty was eliminated. Czechoslovakia was again able to produce enough food for its citizens. The price of this success was a huge waste of resources because the cooperatives had no incentive to improve efficiency. Every piece of land was cultivated regardless of
14070-465: The rest of Russia was irregular. 1887 saw an influx of Izhma Komi and Nenets people who were migrating to the peninsula to escape a reindeer-disease epidemic in their homelands and brought their large deer herds with them, resulting in increased competition for the grazing lands, a conflict between the Komi and the Sami, and in marginalization of the local Sami population. By the end of the 19th century,
14204-402: The rest of its territory remained uninhabited until the 3rd millennium BCE, when various peoples started to arrive from the south. By the 1st millennium CE only the Sami people remained. This changed in the 12th century, when Russian Pomors discovered the peninsula's rich resources of game and fish. Soon after, the Pomors were followed by the tribute collectors from the Novgorod Republic , and
14338-476: The rules were less strict than in state companies) used this situation to start providing high-tech products. For example, the only way to buy a PC-compatible computer in the late 1980s was to get it (for an extremely high price) from one agricultural company acting as a reseller. After the fall of communism in Czechoslovakia in 1989 subsidies to agriculture were halted with devastating effect. Most of
14472-490: The sea by the Northern Fleet and Murmansk Shipping Company . There is also evidence of contamination from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster , with contaminants being found in the flesh of reindeer and other animals, and from the 1972 and 1984 controlled nuclear explosions 21 kilometers (13 mi) northwest of Kirovsk . Additionally, several nuclear weapons test ranges and radioactive waste storage facilities exist on
14606-557: The significantly reduced outputs from pearl hunting . Commercial deer herding became more popular, although its share in the economy remained negligible until the 19th century. By the end of the 17th century, the practice of seasonal fishing and hunting settlements in the north of the peninsula became very common. Peter the Great , recognizing the political and economical importance of the peninsula, promoted its industries and commerce. The region fell into neglect after St. Petersburg
14740-462: The small peasant landholder stage that had followed land reform elsewhere in China. Central Tibet was under the joint administration of the People's Liberation Army and the Dalai Lama's theocracy until 1959, and consequently did not experience land reform or collectivization until 1960 in agricultural areas and 1966 in pastoral areas. After the death of Mao Zedong , Deng Xiaoping reformed
14874-614: The southern areas is composed mostly of pine trees and spruces . Reindeer herds visit the grasslands in summer. Other animals include red and Arctic foxes , wolverines , moose , otters , and lynx in the southern areas. American minks , which were released near the Olenitsa River in 1935–1936, are now common throughout the peninsula and are commercially hunted. Beavers , which became endangered by 1880, were re-introduced in 1934–1957. All in all, thirty-two species of mammals and up to two hundred bird species inhabit
15008-404: The sparsely populated territories outside the urbanized areas were used for deer herding. This region is also home to the Kola Superdeep Borehole . In 1920–1940, the town of Kirovsk and several work settlements were established on the peninsula. The Sami peoples were subject to forced collectivization , with more than half of their reindeer herds collectivized in 1928–1930. In addition,
15142-467: The state to accelerate the process of capital accumulation , ultimately laying the successful foundation of physical and human capital for the economic growth of China's reform and opening up . During the early and middle 1950s, collectivization was an important factor in the major change in Chinese agriculture during that period, the dramatic increase in irrigated land. For example, collectivization
15276-523: The state. The distribution was based partly on work points accrued by the adult members of a household, and partly at a standard rate by age and sex. These cooperatives also lent small amounts of land back to households individually on which the households could grow crops to consume directly or sell at market. Apart from the large-scale communization during the Great Leap Forward, higher-level agricultural producers' collective were generally
15410-618: The territories subordinated to Apatity , Olenegorsk , and Polyarnye Zori . Because the last ice age removed the top sediment layer of the soil, the surface of Kola Peninsula is extremely rich in various ores and minerals, including apatites and nephelines ; copper , nickel , and iron ores ; mica ; kyanites ; ceramic materials , as well as rare-earth elements and non-ferrous ores. Deposits of construction materials such as granite , quartzite , and limestone are also abundant. Diatomaceous earth deposits are common near lakes and are used to produce insulation . Proximity of
15544-415: The traditional Sami herding practices were phased out in favor of the more economically profitable Komi approach, which emphasized permanent settlements over free herding. Since the Sami culture is strongly tied to the herding practices, this resulted in the Sami people gradually losing their language and traditional herding knowledge. Most Sami were forced to settle in the village of Lovozero , which became
15678-455: The transition to socialism". Over the next six years, collectivization took several incrementally progressing forms: mutual aid groups, primitive cooperatives, and people's communes. As London School of Economics and Political Science Professor Lin Chun notes, researchers agree that communization proceeded on a largely voluntary basis that avoided both the violence and sabotage that occurred during
15812-503: The workers to the land. It established material incentives for increased production by tying workers' earnings to the overall production of the UBPC, and increased managerial autonomy and workers' participation in the management of the workplace. The move to a collective farming method in Tanzania was based on the Soviet model for rural development. In 1967, President Julius Nyerere issued "Socialism and Rural Development" which proposed
15946-874: Was rolnicza spółdzielnia produkcyjna , 'agricultural production cooperative'. Collectivisation in Poland was stopped in 1956; later, nationalisation was supported. Collective farming was introduced as a League of Communists of Yugoslavia government policy throughout the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia after World War II , by taking away land from wealthy pre-war owners and limiting possessions in private ownership first to 25, and later to 10 hectares. The large, state-owned farms were known as "Agricultural cooperatives" ( zemljoradničke zadruge in Serbo-Croatian ) and farmers working on them had to meet production quotas in order to satisfy
16080-477: Was a factor that contributed to the introduction of double cropping in the south, a labor-intensive process which greatly increased agricultural yields. Both land reform movement and collectivization largely left in place the social systems in the ethnic minority group areas of Chinese Central Asia and Zomia . These areas generally underwent collectivization in the form of agricultural producers' cooperatives during winter of 1957 through 1958, having skipped
16214-426: Was allowed- in the range of .25-1 hectare. Private cattle ownership existed after 1935, but was severely restricted by decree in 1956. In Romania , land collectivization began in 1948 and continued for over more than a decade until its virtual eradication in 1962. In Romania, force sometimes had to be used to enforce collective agricultural practices. Collective farming in Romania was an attempt to implement
16348-424: Was attempted a number of times between 1948 and 1956 (with disastrous results), until it was finally successful in the early 1960s under János Kádár . The first serious attempt at collectivization based on Stalinist agricultural policy was undertaken in July 1948. Both economic and direct police pressure were used to coerce peasants to join cooperatives , but large numbers opted instead to leave their villages. By
16482-598: Was called East Elbia until German partition was dominated by latifundia , and thus the land reform which was justified on denazification grounds and with the aim of destroying the Prussian Junker class – which had been hated by the left during the Weimar Republic and which was blamed for Prussian militarism and the authoritarian tendencies of the German Empire and later Nazi Germany –
16616-550: Was carried out in April 1948, two months after the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia took power by force . Farms started to be collectivized, mostly under the threat of sanctions. The most obstinate farmers were persecuted and imprisoned. The most common form of collectivization was agricultural cooperative ( Czech : Jednotné zemědělské družstvo , JZD; Slovak : Jednotné roľnícke družstvo , JRD). The collectivization
16750-537: Was common, and food became scarce. Seeing the massive outflow of people from agriculture into cities, the government started to massively subsidize the cooperatives in order to make the standard of living of farmers equal to that of city inhabitants; this was the long-term official policy of the government. Funds, machinery, and fertilizers were provided; young people from villages were forced to study agriculture; and students were regularly sent (involuntarily) to help in cooperatives. Subsidies and constant pressure destroyed
16884-556: Was destroyed in Ukraine. In 1932–1933, an estimated 11 million people, 3–7 million in Ukraine alone, died from famine after Stalin forced the peasants into collectives (see: Holodomor ). It was not until 1940 that agricultural production finally surpassed its pre-collectivization levels. Collectivization throughout the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was not aggressively pursued until
17018-408: Was first mentioned in 1565. In the end of the 15th century, the Pomors and the Sami people were forced into serfdom , mostly by the monasteries. Monastery votchiny greatly expanded during the 17th century, but were abolished in 1764, when all of the Kola Peninsula peasants became state peasants . In the second half of the 16th century, King Frederick II of Denmark–Norway demanded that
17152-480: Was founded in 1703 and most of the shipping trade shifted there. In 1732, large deposits of silver in native form were discovered on Medvezhy Island in the Kandalaksha Gulf and copper, silver, and gold deposits were found in the lower reaches of the Ponoy River. Despite the efforts ongoing for the next two centuries, there was no commercial success. At the end of the 18th century, the local population learned
17286-526: Was implemented in three stages (1949–1952, 1953–1956, 1956–1969) and officially ended with the 1960 implementation of the constitution establishing the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic , which made private ownership illegal. Many early cooperatives collapsed and were recreated. Their productivity was low since they provided tiny salaries and no pensions, and they failed to create a sense of collective ownership; small-scale pilfering
17420-668: Was initially popular with many small farmers and landless peasants. East German President Wilhelm Pieck coined the slogan Junkerland in Bauernhand! ("Junker land into farmer's hand!") to promote land reform, which was initially pledged to be more moderate than full-scale collectivization. Although the ruling Socialist Unity Party and the Soviet Military Administration in Germany promised to allow large landowners to keep their land, they were expelled as
17554-619: Was seen by the communist leadership as a half-measure when compared to full state ownership. Following the Fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975, South Vietnam briefly came under the authority of a Provisional Revolutionary Government , a puppet state under military occupation by North Vietnam , before being officially reunified with the North under Communist rule as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 2 July 1976. Upon taking control,
17688-577: Was shipped only a few years later, in 1929. In 1930, sulfide deposits were discovered in the Moncha area ; in 1932–1933 iron ore deposits were found near the upper streams of the Iona River ; in 1935, significant deposits of titanium ores were discovered in the area of modern Afrikanda . The collectivization efforts in the 1930s led to the concentration of the reindeer herds in kolkhozes (collective farms), which in turn were further consolidated into
17822-545: Was signed in Novgorod regarding the Sami lands and the system of tribute collections, making the Sami people pay tribute to both Novgorod and Norway. By the terms of the treaty, Novgorodians could collect tribute from the Sami as far as the Lyngen fjord in the west, while Norwegians could collect tribute on the territory of the whole Kola Peninsula except in the eastern part of Tersky Coast. No state borders were established by
17956-522: Was turned over to the NKVD system. Until the 1800s, the Kola Peninsula was extremely sparsely populated, with only 5,200 inhabitants in 1858. In 1868 the Russian government created incentives for settlement and not only Russians but also Finns , Norwegians and Karelians moved to the peninsula. By the 1897 census 9,291 people were counted in the Kola uyezd ; 63% Russian, 19% Sami, 11% Finnish and 3% Karelian. By 1913 about 13,000–15,000 people lived in
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