196-517: Edward II (25 April 1284 – 21 September 1327), also known as Edward of Caernarfon or Caernarvon , was King of England from 1307 until he was deposed in January 1327. The fourth son of Edward I , Edward became the heir to the throne following the death of his older brother Alphonso . Beginning in 1300, Edward accompanied his father on campaigns in Scotland , and in 1306 he was knighted in
392-697: A 16th-century clergyman, suggested that the baby was offered to the Welsh as a prince "that was borne in Wales and could speake never a word of English", but there is no evidence to support this account. Edward's name was English in origin, linking him to the Anglo-Saxon saint Edward the Confessor , and was chosen by his father instead of the more traditional Norman and Castilian names selected for Edward's brothers: John and Henry, who had died before Edward
588-708: A coalition of the Marcher Lords and the local gentry, and Lancaster held a high-level gathering of the barons and clergy in June which condemned the Despensers for having broken the Ordinances. Edward attempted reconciliation, but in July the opposition occupied London and called for the permanent removal of the Despensers. Fearing that he might be deposed if he refused, Edward agreed to exile the Despensers and pardoned
784-417: A comfortable stipend; no reason is given for the order, suggesting that it may have been an act aimed at punishing the prince. The possibility that Edward had a sexual relationship with Gaveston or his later favourites has been extensively discussed by historians, complicated by the paucity of surviving evidence to determine for certain the details of their relationships. Homosexuality was fiercely condemned by
980-457: A comfortable, even humorous, relationship. Each year on Easter Monday , Edward allowed Eleanor's ladies to trap him in his bed and paid them a token ransom so he could go to her bedroom on the first day after Lent ; this custom was so important to Edward that in 1291, on the first Easter Monday after Eleanor's death, he gave her ladies the money he would have given them if she had been alive. Edward disliked ceremonies; in 1290, he refused to attend
1176-452: A constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the decisions of the prime minister and Cabinet, who by definition enjoy the confidence of the House of Commons. In Bagehot's words: "the sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights – the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn." Although the royal prerogative is extensive and parliamentary approval
1372-403: A contemporary notice of her death: "a Spaniard by birth, she acquired many fine manors". John Peckham , Archbishop of Canterbury , warned Eleanor's servants about her activities in the land market and her association with the highly unpopular moneylenders: A rumour is waxing strong throughout the kingdom and has generated much scandal. It is said that the illustrious lady queen, whom you serve,
1568-511: A covenant of constancy, and bound himself with him before all other mortals with a bond of indissoluble love, firmly drawn up and fastened with a knot." The first specific suggestion that Edward engaged in sex with men was recorded in 1334, when Adam Orleton , the Bishop of Winchester , was accused of having stated in 1326 that Edward was a "sodomite", although Orleton defended himself by arguing that he had meant that Edward's adviser, Hugh Despenser
1764-484: A date for his wedding to Isabella continued. During this time, Edward became close to Piers Gaveston . Gaveston was the son of one of the King's household knights whose lands lay adjacent to Gascony, and had himself joined Prince Edward's household in 1300, possibly on Edward I's instruction. The two got on well; Gaveston became a squire and was soon being referred to as a close companion of Edward, before being knighted by
1960-552: A defaulted debt but these could only be traded by royal permission, meaning Eleanor and a select group of very wealthy courtiers were the exclusive beneficiaries of these sales. The periodic excessive taxes of the Jews called "tallages" would force them to sell their bonds very cheaply, and these would be bought by courtiers. Access to these cut-price land bonds can be viewed as a form of royal patronage. Popular poem, quoted by Walter of Guisborough: The king would like to get our gold,
2156-596: A few cases, Eleanor's marriage projects for her female cousins provided Edward, as well as her father-in-law Henry III, with opportunities to sustain healthy relations with other realms. The marriage of Eleanor's kinswoman Marguerite de Guînes to the Earl of Ulster , one of the most-influential English noblemen in Ireland, gave Edward a new family connection in Ireland and also with Scotland because Marguerite's cousin Marie de Coucy
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#17327654789812352-543: A fragment of the True Cross . The pair returned to England in February, where Edward had ordered Westminster Palace to be lavishly restored in readiness for their coronation and wedding feast, complete with marble tables, forty ovens and a fountain that produced wine and pimento, a spiced medieval drink. After some delays, the ceremony went ahead on 25 February at Westminster Abbey, under the guidance of Henry Woodlock ,
2548-523: A grand ceremony at Westminster Abbey . Edward succeeded to the throne the next year, following his father's death. In 1308, he married Isabella , daughter of the powerful King Philip IV of France , as part of a long-running effort to resolve the tensions between the English and French crowns. Edward had a close and controversial relationship with Piers Gaveston , who had joined his household in 1300. The precise nature of Edward and Gaveston's relationship
2744-776: A grand ceremony in which the two kings knighted Philip's sons and two hundred other men in Notre-Dame de Paris , large banquets along the River Seine , and a public declaration that both kings and their queens would join a crusade to the Levant . Philip gave lenient terms for settling the problems in Gascony, and the event was spoiled only by a serious fire in Edward's quarters. On his return from France, Edward found his political position greatly strengthened. After intense negotiation,
2940-461: A keen interest in hunting, particularly with dogs. The royal family appears to have stayed each February at Quenington in the Cotswolds for hunting. She was a keen horse rider and employed Spanish horse-breeders. Eleanor enthusiastically played chess and backgammon , and passed this interest to her children. Contemporaneous monastic chroniclers are noticeably silent on Eleanor's piety, which
3136-423: A key fortification in Scotland; its English commander had stated that unless Edward arrived by 24 June, he would surrender. News of this reached the king in late May, and he decided to speed up his march north from Berwick-upon-Tweed to relieve the castle. Robert, with between 5,500 and 6,500 troops, predominantly spearmen , prepared to prevent Edward's forces from reaching Stirling. The battle began on 23 June as
3332-496: A majority in that House. The prime minister takes office by attending the monarch in a private audience, and after " kissing hands " that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument. The sovereign also has the power to dismiss the prime minister, but the last time this power was exercised was in 1834, when William IV dismissed Lord Melbourne ; since then, prime ministers have only left office upon their resignation, which they are expected to offer to
3528-505: A mentally ill man named John of Powderham appeared in Oxford, claiming that he was the real Edward II, and that Edward was a changeling , swapped at birth. John was duly executed, but his claims resonated with those criticising Edward for his lack of regal behaviour and steady leadership. Opposition also grew around Edward's treatment of his royal favourites. Edward had managed to retain some of his previous advisers, despite attempts by
3724-638: A new army of around 4,700 men to Scotland, where the military situation had continued to deteriorate. Robert the Bruce declined to give battle and the campaign progressed ineffectually over the winter until supplies and money ran out in 1311, forcing Edward to return south. By now the Ordainers had drawn up their Ordinances for reform and Edward had little political choice but to give way and accept them in October. The Ordinances of 1311 contained clauses limiting
3920-557: A new meeting of members of the Church and key barons in January 1309, and the leading earls then gathered in March and April, possibly under the leadership of Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster . Another parliament followed, which refused to allow Gaveston to return to England, but offered to grant Edward additional taxes if he agreed to a programme of reform. Edward sent assurances to the Pope that
4116-473: A normal upbringing for a member of a royal family. He was interested in horses and horsebreeding , and became a good rider; he also liked dogs, in particular greyhounds . In his letters, he shows a quirky sense of humour, joking about sending unsatisfactory animals to his friends, such as horses who disliked carrying their riders, or lazy hunting dogs too slow to catch rabbits. He was not particularly interested in hunting or falconry , both popular activities in
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#17327654789814312-805: A powerful faction in England, but he was not personally interested in practical administration, nor was he a particularly imaginative or effective politician. Edward responded to the baronial threat by revoking the Ordinances and recalling Gaveston to England, being reunited with him at York in January 1312. The barons were furious and met in London, where Gaveston was excommunicated by the Archbishop of Canterbury and plans were put in place to capture Gaveston and prevent him from fleeing to Scotland. Edward, Isabella and Gaveston left for Newcastle, pursued by Lancaster and his followers. Abandoning many of their belongings,
4508-471: A range of challenges for his son to resolve. One of the most critical was the problem of English rule in Scotland, where Edward I's long but ultimately inconclusive military campaign was ongoing when he died. His control of Gascony created tension with the French kings. They insisted that the English kings give homage to them for the lands; the English kings saw this demand as insulting to their honour, and
4704-466: A range of concessions to placate those opposed to Gaveston, including agreeing to limit the powers of the royal steward and the marshal of the royal household, to regulate the Crown's unpopular powers of purveyance , and to abandon recently enacted customs legislation; in return, parliament agreed to fresh taxes for the war in Scotland. Temporarily, at least, Edward and the barons appeared to have come to
4900-488: A sense of humour, employing two fools , for example. Her taste in everyday clothes and emphasis on repairing rather than replacing where possible, contrasting with her predecessors and successors, suggests some practicality in her nature. With those outside her inner circle, Eleanor was frequently harsh and manipulative, and is known to have frequently lost her temper. Two letters from Peckham show some people thought Eleanor urged Edward to rule harshly, and that she could be
5096-448: A severe woman who did not take it lightly if anyone crossed her, contravening contemporaneous expectations that queens should intercede with their husbands on behalf of the needy, the oppressed and the condemned. Edward warned a convent of nuns: "if they knew what was good for them", they would accede to the queen's wishes and accept into their house a woman the convent had refused, whose vocation Eleanor had decided to sponsor. Records from
5292-569: A significant method for Eleanor to acquire land was the cheap purchase of debts owed by Christian landlords to Jewish moneylenders. In exchange for cancelling the debts, she received the lands pledged against the debts. Since the early 1200s, the Jewish community had been taxed well beyond its means, leading to a reduction in the capital the small number of rich Jewish moneylenders had to support their lending. Jews were also disallowed from holding land assets. Bonds for lands could be sold to recoup against
5488-712: A similar relationship to the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland as to the government of the UK. The sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament , and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the Senedd . In Scottish matters, the sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government . However, as devolution
5684-650: A simple marble tomb for his father. In 1308, Edward's marriage to Isabella of France proceeded. Edward crossed the English Channel to France in January, leaving Gaveston as his custos regni in charge of the kingdom. This arrangement was unusual, and involved unprecedented powers being delegated to Gaveston, backed by a specially engraved Great Seal . Edward probably hoped that the marriage would strengthen his position in Gascony and bring him much needed funds. The final negotiations, however, proved challenging: Edward and Philip IV did not like each other, and
5880-551: A son John, who was followed in early 1268 by a second boy named Henry, and in June 1269 by a healthy daughter named Eleanor. Eleanor of Castile came from a family who were heavily involved in the Crusades ; Eleanor appears to have been very committed to the church's call to arms, and took a vow to participate. Women were not obliged to travel to fulfil their vow and if not prohibited from doing so were discouraged. Although other female members of her family had travelled on crusade, it
6076-401: A stone cross at each stopping place on the journey to London, ending at Charing Cross , known as Eleanor crosses . This series of monuments may have included the renovated tomb of Little St Hugh – who was falsely believed to have been ritually murdered by Jews – to bolster her reputation as an opponent of supposed Jewish criminality. Eleanor exerted a strong cultural influence. She
Edward II of England - Misplaced Pages Continue
6272-410: A successful compromise. Following his return, Gaveston's relationship with the major barons became increasingly difficult. He was considered arrogant, and he took to referring to the earls by offensive names, including calling one of their more powerful members the "dog of Warwick". The Earl of Lancaster and Gaveston's enemies refused to attend parliament in 1310 because Gaveston would be present. Edward
6468-598: A tour north through Eleanor's properties began, but proceeded much more slowly than usual, and the autumn Parliament was convened in Clipstone rather than in London. Eleanor's children were summoned to visit her in Clipstone, despite warnings travel might endanger their health. Following the conclusion of the Parliament, Eleanor and Edward set out on the short distance from Clipstone to Lincoln . By this time, Eleanor
6664-566: A trip to Gascony, where their next child Alphonso – named for Eleanor's half-brother Alfonso X – was born, Edward and Eleanor returned to England and were crowned together on 19 August 1274. Available evidence indicates Eleanor and Edward were devoted to each other, and it appears that Edward was faithful to her in the marriage. The couple were rarely apart; Eleanor accompanied Edward on military campaigns in Wales, giving birth to their son Edward at Caernarfon Castle on 25 April 1284. Their household records narrate incidents that imply
6860-653: A truce with Robert. Opposition to the regime grew, and when Isabella was sent to France to negotiate a peace treaty in 1325, she turned against Edward and refused to return. Isabella allied herself with the exiled Roger Mortimer , and invaded England with a small army in 1326. Edward's regime collapsed and he fled into Wales, where he was captured in November. Edward was forced to relinquish his crown in January 1327 in favour of his son, Edward III , and he died in Berkeley Castle on 21 September, probably murdered on
7056-406: A very cold winter and heavy rains the following spring that killed many sheep and cattle. The bad weather continued, almost unabated, into 1321, resulting in a string of bad harvests. Revenues from the exports of wool plummeted and the price of food rose, despite attempts by Edward's government to control prices. Edward called for hoarders to release food, and tried to encourage both internal trade and
7252-457: Is also evidence Eleanor exchanged books with her brother Alfonso X. Eleanor is assumed to have spoken French, which was her mother's language and the dominant language of the English court. All of the extant literary works created for Eleanor are in French. In the domestic sphere , Eleanor emphasised comfort and made changes to residences to reflect her taste. She commissioned piped bath works at Leeds Caste and tiled bathrooms elsewhere, echoing
7448-549: Is also possible that hereditary heart conditions caused Eleanor's death. Eleanor returned from Gascony in August 1289, and there are signs from early 1290 that Eleanor may have been aware of her impending death. Arrangements were made for the marriage of her daughters Margaret and Joan, and negotiations for the marriage of young Edward of Caernarfon to Margaret, the Maid of Norway , heiress of Scotland, were hurried on. In mid 1290,
7644-418: Is evidence Eleanor's managers could impose very strict terms, and that she would have known of their actions; and she paid close attention to her property dealings. Eleanor acquired debts that had to be cleared on her succession to Ponthieu in 1279, and went on to acquire 24 properties in the region in the following years, partly financed from her English income. Eleanor's executors' financial accounts record
7840-622: Is further both mentioned in and the subject of songs, loyal toasts, and salutes. " God Save the King " (or, alternatively, "God Save the Queen") is the British national anthem . Oaths of allegiance are made to the Sovereign and their lawful successors. The monarch takes little direct part in government. The authority to use the sovereign's formal powers is almost all delegated, either by statute or by convention , to ministers or officers of
8036-475: Is little record of Eleanor's life in England until the 1260s, when the Second Barons' War between Henry III and his barons divided the kingdom. During this time, Eleanor actively supported Edward's interests, importing archers from Ponthieu , France. Eleanor was in England during the war, and held Windsor Castle and baronial prisoners for Edward. Rumours Eleanor was seeking fresh troops from Castile led
Edward II of England - Misplaced Pages Continue
8232-676: Is marked by the State Opening of Parliament , during which the monarch reads the speech from the throne in the chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term, and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Commons. If not dissolved sooner, Parliaments are automatically dissolved after five years. The Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 temporarily removed
8428-696: Is more limited in Wales, in Welsh matters the monarch acts on the advice of the prime minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly , if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland . The sovereign is deemed the "fount of justice"; although the monarch does not personally rule in judicial cases, judicial functions are performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on
8624-482: Is not formally required for its exercise, it is limited. Many Crown prerogatives have fallen out of use or have been permanently transferred to Parliament. For example, the sovereign cannot impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, "The Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers", and Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation. The royal prerogative includes
8820-483: Is occupying many manors, lands, and other possessions of nobles, and has made them her own property – lands which the Jews have extorted with usury from Christians under the protection of the royal court. Peckham also warned Eleanor of complaints against her officials' demands upon her tenants. The majority of the lands Eleanor acquired were not acquired through the cheap acquisition of Jewish bonds. This method declined after 1275, and especially after 1281, because
9016-420: Is significant in English history for the evolution of a stable financial system for the king's wife and for the honing this process gave the queen-consort's prerogatives. As queen, Eleanor had income other than that from her estates. Queen's gold was paid as an additional sum of ten percent on taxes. She also benefited from revenues from vacant estates, and could be granted income from trials and seizures, but
9212-549: Is the best-preserved example. All three monuments have lost their crosses "of immense height" that originally surmounted them; only the lower stages remain. The Waltham cross has been heavily restored and to prevent further deterioration, its original statues of Eleanor are now in the Victoria and Albert Museum , London. The monument now known as " Charing Cross " in London, in front of the Charing Cross railway station ,
9408-497: Is uncertain; they may have been friends, lovers, or sworn brothers . Gaveston's arrogance and power as Edward's favourite provoked discontent both among the barons and the French royal family, and Edward was forced to exile him. On Gaveston's return, the barons pressured the King into agreeing to wide-ranging reforms called the Ordinances of 1311 . The newly empowered barons banished Gaveston, to which Edward responded by revoking
9604-409: Is used to pardon convicted offenders or reduce sentences. The sovereign is the " fount of honour ", the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. The Crown creates all peerages , appoints members of the orders of chivalry , grants knighthoods and awards other honours. Although peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the prime minister, some honours are within
9800-427: The Bishop of Winchester . As part of the coronation, Edward swore to uphold "the rightful laws and customs which the community of the realm shall have chosen". It is uncertain what this meant: It might have been intended to force Edward to accept future legislation, it may have been inserted to prevent him from overturning any future vows he might take, or it may have been an attempt by the king to ingratiate himself with
9996-542: The British Army , and the Royal Air Force ), and accredits British High commissioners and ambassadors, and receives heads of missions from foreign states. The sovereign has the power to appoint the prime minister. In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the monarch appoints the individual who commands the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of a party or coalition that has
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#173276547898110192-632: The Duchy of Gascony in the south of Aquitaine – the last possession of the Kings of England in France ;– which he claimed had formed part of the dowry of Eleanor of England . Henry III of England swiftly countered Alfonso's claims with both diplomatic and military moves. Early in 1253, the two kings began to negotiate; after haggling over the financial provision for Eleanor, Henry and Alfonso agreed she would marry Henry's son Edward, who now held
10388-578: The February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed prime minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilson's Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party. The second followed the May 2010 general election , in which the Conservatives (the largest party) and Liberal Democrats (the third-largest party) agreed to form
10584-531: The Lascelles Principles , if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse and would do so under three conditions. When Harold Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974, Queen Elizabeth II granted his request as Heath had already failed to form a coalition. The resulting general election gave Wilson a small majority. The monarch could in theory unilaterally dismiss
10780-600: The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland . Edward called for a fresh military campaign for Scotland, but this idea was quietly abandoned, and instead the king and the barons met in August 1308 to discuss reform. Behind the scenes, Edward started negotiations to convince both Pope Clement V and Philip IV to allow Gaveston to return to England, offering in exchange to suppress the Knights Templar in England, and to release Bishop Langton from prison. Edward called
10976-483: The Lordship of Ireland . Meanwhile, Magna Carta began the process of reducing the English monarch's political powers. In the 16th century, English and Scottish monarchs played a central role in what became the religious English Reformation and Scottish Reformation , and the English king became King of Ireland . Beginning in 1603, the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign . From 1649 to 1660,
11172-477: The Treaty of Birgham , in which he promised to marry his six-year-old son to the young Margaret of Norway , who had a potential claim to the crown of Scotland. Margaret died later that year, bringing an end to the plan. Edward's mother, Eleanor, died shortly afterwards, followed by his grandmother, Eleanor of Provence . Edward I was distraught at his wife's death and held a huge funeral for her; his son inherited
11368-592: The feudal vassal of the king of France ), and Eleanor, Countess of Ponthieu in northern France. Eleanor was from the Castilian royal family. Edward I proved a successful military leader, leading the suppression of the baronial revolts in the 1260s and joining the Ninth Crusade . During the 1280s he conquered North Wales , removing the native Welsh princes from power and, in the 1290s, he intervened in Scotland's civil war , claiming suzerainty over
11564-565: The petty kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England and early medieval Scotland , which consolidated into the kingdoms of England and Scotland by the 10th century. England was conquered by the Normans in 1066, after which Wales also gradually came under the control of Anglo-Normans . The process was completed in the 13th century when the Principality of Wales became a client state of the English kingdom. The Anglo-Normans also established
11760-464: The 1301 Scottish campaign; he took an army of around 300 soldiers north with him and captured Turnberry Castle . Prince Edward also took part in the 1303 campaign during which he besieged Brechin Castle , deploying his own siege engine in the operation. In the spring of 1304, Edward conducted negotiations with the rebel Scottish leaders on the King's behalf and, when these failed, he joined his father for
11956-420: The 14th century. He enjoyed music, including Welsh music and the newly invented crwth instrument, as well as musical organs . He did not take part in jousting , either because he lacked the aptitude or because he had been banned from participating for his personal safety, but he was certainly enthusiastic in his support of the sport. Edward grew up to be tall and muscular, and was considered good-looking by
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#173276547898112152-566: The 1980s. Eleanor was born in Burgos to Ferdinand III of Castile and Joan, Countess of Ponthieu . She was named after her paternal great-grandmother Eleanor of England , the daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine and Henry II of England . Eleanor was the second of five children; her elder brother Ferdinand was born in 1239/40, her younger brother Louis in 1242/43, and two brothers who were born after Louis's death in childhood. Because her parents were separated for 13 months while King Ferdinand
12348-422: The 19th century. The constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the "dignified" rather than the "efficient" part of government. That part of the government's executive authority which remains theoretically and nominally vested in the sovereign is known as the royal prerogative . The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, exercising prerogative powers only on
12544-523: The Anglo-Saxon period, while the feudal system continued to develop. Eleanor, Countess of Ponthieu Eleanor of Castile (1241 – 28 November 1290) was Queen of England as the first wife of Edward I . She was educated at the Castilian court and also ruled as Countess of Ponthieu in her own right ( suo jure ) from 1279. After diplomatic efforts to secure her marriage and affirm English sovereignty over Gascony , 13-year-old Eleanor
12740-447: The Church in 14th-century England, which equated it with heresy . Both men had sexual relationships with their wives, who bore them children; Edward also had an illegitimate son, and may have had an affair with his niece, Eleanor de Clare . The contemporary evidence supporting their homosexual relationship comes primarily from an anonymous chronicler in the 1320s who described how Edward "felt such love" for Gaveston that "he entered into
12936-593: The County of Ponthieu from Eleanor. Next, a French marriage was considered for the young Edward, to help secure a lasting peace with France, but King Philip IV 's refusal to release fortresses in Gascony offered by Edward I provoked the Gascon War in 1294. The idea was replaced with the proposal of a marriage to a daughter of the rebellious Guy, Count of Flanders , but this too failed after King Philip
13132-498: The Crown , or other public bodies . Thus the acts of state done in the name of the Crown, such as Crown Appointments, even if personally performed by the monarch, such as the King's Speech and the State Opening of Parliament , depend upon decisions made elsewhere. In formal terms: The sovereign's role as a constitutional monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours . This role has been recognised since
13328-454: The Crown forced them to sell their bonds. These transactions associated Eleanor with the abuse of usury and the supposed exploitation of Jews, bringing her into conflict with the church. She profited from the hanging of over 300 Jewish alleged coin clippers and after the expulsion of the Jews in 1290, she gifted the former Canterbury Synagogue to her tailor. Eleanor died at Harby near Lincoln in late 1290; following her death, Edward built
13524-449: The Crown had largely removed the wealth of the Jewish community. By the late 1280s, Eleanor's income from the lands she had acquired was sufficient to fund future purchases. Eleanor's selection of lands was judicious, and aimed at consolidation of her estates. Neighbouring rather than isolated lands were chosen, and the price of the potential acquisitions was less important than whether it would make sense for her estate's management. Eleanor
13720-510: The Earl of Pembroke that the battle was lost and he dragged the king away from the battlefield, hotly pursued by the Scottish forces. Edward only just escaped the heavy fighting, making a vow to found a Carmelite religious house at Oxford if he survived. The historian Roy Haines describes the defeat as a "calamity of stunning proportions" for the English, whose losses in the battle were huge. In
13916-542: The Earl of Pembroke, Edward and Lancaster finally agreed to the Treaty of Leake in August 1318, which pardoned Lancaster and his faction and established a new royal council, temporarily averting conflict. Edward's difficulties were exacerbated by prolonged problems in English agriculture , part of a wider phenomenon in northern Europe known as the Great Famine . It began with torrential rains in late 1314, followed by
14112-519: The Empire to an end. George VI and his successors adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states. The United Kingdom and fourteen other independent sovereign states that share the same person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms . Although the monarch is shared, each country is sovereign and independent of the others, and
14308-490: The English army attempted to force its way across the high ground of the Bannock Burn , which was surrounded by marshland. Skirmishing between the two sides broke out, resulting in the death of Sir Henry de Bohun , whom Robert killed in personal combat. Edward continued his advance the following day, and encountered the bulk of the Scottish army as they emerged from the woods of New Park. Edward appears not to have expected
14504-639: The French king drove a hard bargain over the size of Isabella's dower and the details of the administration of Edward's lands in France. As part of the agreement, Edward gave homage to Philip for the Duchy of Aquitaine and agreed to a commission to complete the implementation of the 1303 Treaty of Paris. The pair were married in Boulogne on 25 January. Edward gave Isabella a psalter as a wedding gift, and her father gave her gifts worth over 21,000 livres and
14700-544: The Gascon crisis but Eleanor's position in England would have been difficult; some of her relatives travelled to England soon after her marriage. Eleanor's brother Henry of Castile stayed in England for three years, hoping Henry III would help him reconcile with his father Alphonso. While Eleanor was still young and childless, the prospect of a new Castilian family faction at court would have been troubling for those surrounding Henry, making Eleanor's position precarious. There
14896-548: The King during the Feast of the Swans in 1306. The King then exiled Gaveston to Gascony in 1307 for reasons that remain unclear. According to one chronicler, Edward had asked his father to allow him to give Gaveston the County of Ponthieu , and the King responded furiously, pulling his son's hair out in great handfuls, before exiling Gaveston. The official court records, however, show Gaveston being only temporarily exiled, supported by
15092-438: The Marcher Lords for their actions. Edward began to plan his revenge. With the help of Pembroke, he formed a small coalition of his half-brothers, a few of the earls and some of the senior clergy, and prepared for war. Edward started with Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Baron Badlesmere , and Isabella was sent to Bartholomew's stronghold, Leeds Castle , to deliberately create a casus belli . Bartholomew's wife, Margaret , took
15288-774: The Northumbrian lord John de Vescy , who married a close friend and relation of hers. In the 1280s, Archbishop Peckham wrote a theological work for Eleanor to explain angels and their roles. She almost certainly commissioned the Alphonso Psalter , which is now in the British Library , and is also thought to be the commissioner of the Bird Psalter , which bears the arms of Alphonso and his prospective wife. Eleanor's accounts reveal her corresponding in 1290 with an Oxford master about one of her books. There
15484-445: The Ordainers to remove them, and divided the extensive de Clare inheritance among two of his new favourites, the former household knights Hugh Audley and Roger Damory , instantly making them extremely rich. Many of the moderates who had helped deliver the peaceful compromise in 1318 now began to turn against Edward, making violence ever more likely. The long-threatened civil war finally broke out in England in 1321, triggered by
15680-458: The Ordinances through a new reform commission, but he appears to have abandoned this role soon afterwards, partially because of disagreements with the other barons, and possibly because of ill-health. Lancaster refused to meet with Edward in parliament for the next two years, bringing effective governance to a standstill. This stymied any hopes for a fresh campaign into Scotland and raised fears of civil war. After much negotiation, once again involving
15876-530: The Scots to give battle here, and as a result had kept his forces in marching, rather than battle, order, with the archers —who would usually have been used to break up enemy spear formations—at the back of his army, rather than the front. His cavalry found it hard to operate in the cramped terrain and were crushed by Robert's spearmen. The English army was overwhelmed and its leaders were unable to regain control. Edward stayed behind to fight, but it became obvious to
16072-404: The Scottish campaign in 1307, which Prince Edward was due to join that summer, but the elderly king had been increasingly unwell and died on 7 July at Burgh by Sands . Edward travelled from London immediately after the news reached him, and on 20 July he was proclaimed king. He continued north into Scotland and on 4 August received homage from his Scottish supporters at Dumfries , before abandoning
16268-658: The United Kingdom , commonly referred to as the British monarchy , is the form of government used by the United Kingdom by which a hereditary monarch reigns as the head of state , with their powers regulated by the British Constitution . The term may also refer to the role of the royal family within the UK's broader political structure . The monarch since 8 September 2022 is King Charles III , who ascended
16464-506: The Younger , became close friends and advisers to Edward, but in 1321 Lancaster and many of the barons seized the Despensers' lands and forced the King to exile them. In response, Edward led a short military campaign , capturing and executing Lancaster. Edward and the Despensers strengthened their grip on power, revoking the 1311 reforms, executing their enemies and confiscating estates. Unable to make progress in Scotland, Edward finally signed
16660-412: The Younger , was a sodomite, rather than the late king. The Meaux Chronicle from the 1390s simply notes that Edward gave himself "too much to the vice of sodomy". Alternatively, Edward and Gaveston may have simply been friends with a close working relationship. Contemporary chronicler comments are vaguely worded; Orleton's allegations were at least in part politically motivated, and are very similar to
16856-610: The Younger, whom one chronicler noted he "loved ... dearly with all his heart and mind". In early 1321, Lancaster mobilised a coalition of the Despensers' enemies across the Marcher territories. Edward and Hugh the Younger became aware of these plans in March and headed west, hoping that negotiations led by the moderate Earl of Pembroke would defuse the crisis. This time, Pembroke made his excuses and declined to intervene, and war broke out in May. The Despensers' lands were quickly seized by
17052-452: The administration of Gascony, and as part of this Edward and Isabella agreed to travel to Paris in June 1313 to meet with Philip IV. Edward probably hoped both to resolve the problems in the south of France and to win Philip's support in the dispute with the barons; for Philip it was an opportunity to impress his son-in-law with his power and wealth. It proved a spectacular visit, including
17248-529: The advance in 1319, but the famine made it increasingly difficult to keep his garrisons supplied with food. Meanwhile, a Scottish expedition led by Robert's brother Edward Bruce successfully invaded Ireland in 1315. Edward Bruce declared himself the High King of Ireland . He was finally defeated in 1318 by Edward II's Irish justiciar, Edmund Butler, at the Battle of Faughart , and Edward Bruce's severed head
17444-443: The advice of ministers responsible to Parliament, often through the prime minister or Privy Council . In practice, prerogative powers are exercised only on the prime minister's advice – the prime minister, and not the sovereign, has control. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the prime minister; no records of these audiences are taken and the proceedings remain fully confidential. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as
17640-476: The aftermath of the defeat, Edward retreated to Dunbar , then travelled by ship to Berwick, and then back to York ; in his absence, Stirling Castle quickly fell. After the fiasco of Bannockburn, the Earls of Lancaster and Warwick saw their political influence increase, and they pressured Edward to re-implement the Ordinances of 1311. Lancaster became the head of the royal council in 1316, promising to take forward
17836-537: The age at which their daughters could marry foreign rulers, preventing her 12-year-old daughter Eleanor from leaving England in 1282. Eleanor of Castile was in part educated in diplomatic practices – such as giving gifts to visiting princes and envoys, as a means to win influence, and in the art of interceding to reduce friction from disputes – by Edward's mother Eleanor of Provence . While Edward honoured his obligations to Eleanor's father Alfonso X, his support may be seen as relatively limited. When Alfonso's need
18032-462: The bait and her men killed several of Isabella's retinue, giving Edward an excuse to intervene. Lancaster refused to help Bartholomew, his personal enemy, and Edward quickly regained control of south-east England. Alarmed, Lancaster now mobilised his own army in the north of England, and Edward mustered his own forces in the south-west. The Despensers returned from exile and were pardoned by the royal council. King of England The monarchy of
18228-523: The baronial leader Simon de Montfort to order her removal from Windsor Castle in June 1264 after the defeat of the royalist army at the Battle of Lewes . Edward was captured at Lewes and imprisoned, and Eleanor was confined at Westminster Palace . After Edward's and Henry's army defeated the baronial army at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, Edward took a major role in reforming the government, and Eleanor rose to prominence. In July 1266, after she had birthed three short-lived daughters, Eleanor gave birth to
18424-461: The barons involved. The earls of Pembroke and Surrey were embarrassed and angry about Warwick's actions, and shifted their support to Edward in the aftermath. To Lancaster and his core of supporters, the execution had been both legal and necessary to preserve the stability of the kingdom. Civil war again appeared likely, but in December, the Earl of Pembroke negotiated a potential peace treaty between
18620-464: The barons remained high, and the earls opposed to the king kept their personal armies mobilised late into 1311. By now Edward had become estranged from his cousin, the Earl of Lancaster, who was also the Earl of Leicester , Lincoln, Salisbury and Derby , with an income of around £11,000 a year from his lands, almost double that of the next wealthiest baron. Backed by the earls of Arundel , Gloucester , Hereford , Pembroke and Warwick , Lancaster led
18816-422: The barons. The event was marred by the large crowds of eager spectators who surged into the palace, knocking down a wall and forcing Edward to flee by the back door. Isabella was only twelve at the time of her wedding, young even by the standards of the period, and Edward probably had sexual relations with mistresses during their first few years together. During this time he fathered an illegitimate son, Adam , who
19012-463: The bathroom culture of Castile. Eleanor popularised the use of tapestries and carpets; the use of hangings and especially floor coverings was noted as a Spanish extravagance on her arrival in London but by the time of her death, it was much in vogue among rich magnates. Eleanor also promoted the use of fine tableware, elegantly decorated knives, and forks, though it is uncertain whether forks were used as personal eating utensils or as serving pieces from
19208-430: The campaign and returning south. Edward promptly recalled Piers Gaveston, who was then in exile, and made him Earl of Cornwall , before arranging his marriage to the wealthy Margaret de Clare. Edward also arrested his old adversary Bishop Langton, and dismissed him from his post as treasurer. Edward I's body was kept at Waltham Abbey for several months before being taken for burial to Westminster, where Edward erected
19404-515: The castle deliberately as the location for Edward's birth as it was an important symbolic location for the native Welsh, associated with Roman imperial history , and it formed the centre of the new royal administration of North Wales. Edward's birth brought predictions of greatness from contemporary prophets , who believed that the Last Days of the world were imminent, declaring him a new King Arthur , who would lead England to glory. David Powel ,
19600-416: The chronicler may have been writing to flatter her son Edward II, who had succeeded his father in 1307. Eleanor of Castile had birthed at least 16 children, suggesting she was not frail. Shortly after the birth of her last child, financial accounts from Edward's household and her own show frequent payments for medicines for the queen's use. The nature of the medicines is not specified in these documents, so
19796-461: The commander of the rearguard at the siege of Caerlaverock Castle . In the spring of 1301, the King declared Edward the Prince of Wales , granting him the earldom of Chester and lands across North Wales; he seems to have hoped that this would help pacify the region, and that it would give his son some financial independence. Edward received homage from his Welsh subjects and then joined his father for
19992-464: The common bowls or platters. She also had considerable influence on the development of garden design in the royal estates. Extensive spending on gardens, including the use of water features (such as fountains) – commonly found in Castilian garden designs – is in evidence at her properties and in most places she stayed. The picturesque Gloriette (or elevated garden building) at Leeds Castle
20188-402: The conflict surrounding Gaveston's role was at an end. On the basis of these promises, and procedural concerns about how the original decision had been taken, the Pope agreed to annul the Archbishop's threat to excommunicate Gaveston, thus opening the possibility of Gaveston's return. Gaveston arrived back in England in June, where he was met by Edward. At the parliament the next month, Edward made
20384-506: The consequences of the Baronial rebellions and to defend the Earl of Cornwall in 1287 against charges of incompetence, arguing they were unjustified. Eleanor was a "clever operator" at court with "unique influence" due to Edward's love for her. She appears to have limited her role to avoid the wide criticism her mother-in-law had experienced, and perhaps due to her immediate concerns with pregnancies and building her landholdings. Edward
20580-409: The country. He was considered an extremely successful ruler by his contemporaries, largely able to control the powerful earls that formed the senior ranks of the English nobility. The historian Michael Prestwich describes Edward I as "a king to inspire fear and respect", while John Gillingham characterises him as an "efficient bully". Despite Edward I's successes, when he died in 1307 he left
20776-412: The earls, including Lancaster and Warwick, came to a compromise in October 1313, fundamentally very similar to the draft agreement of the previous December. Edward's finances improved, thanks to parliament agreeing to the raising of taxes, a loan of 160,000 florins (£25,000) from the Pope, £33,000 borrowed from Philip, and further loans organised by Edward's new Italian banker, Antonio Pessagno . For
20972-489: The evening of 28 November 1290, aged 49 and after 36 years of marriage. Edward was at Eleanor's bedside to hear her final requests. Edward was greatly affected by Eleanor's death, shown for instance in his January 1291 letter to the abbot of Cluny in France, in which he sought prayers for the soul of the wife "whom living we dearly cherished, and whom dead we cannot cease to love". Only one of Eleanor's four sons survived childhood, and even before she died, Edward worried over
21168-461: The expense of the other Marcher Lords . The Earl of Lancaster and the Despensers were fierce enemies, and Lancaster's antipathy was shared by most of the Despensers' neighbours, including the Earl of Hereford, the Mortimer family and the recently elevated Hugh Audley and Roger Damory. Edward, however, increasingly relied on the Despensers for advice and support, and he was particularly close to Hugh
21364-430: The feast. Parliament met in February 1308 in a heated atmosphere. Edward was eager to discuss the potential for governmental reform, but the barons were unwilling to begin any such debate until the problem of Gaveston had been resolved. Violence seemed likely, but the situation was resolved through the mediation of the moderate Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln , who convinced the barons to back down. A fresh parliament
21560-524: The first coalition government since World War II. The third occurred shortly thereafter, in June 2017 , when the Conservative Party lost its majority in a snap election, though the party remained in power as a minority government . The sovereign has the power to summon, prorogue and dissolve Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the sovereign's summons. The new parliamentary session
21756-436: The first time in his reign, Edward's government was well funded. By 1314, Robert the Bruce had recaptured most of the castles in Scotland once held by Edward, pushing raiding parties into northern England as far as Carlisle . In response, Edward planned a major military campaign with the support of Lancaster and the barons, mustering a large army between 15,000 and 20,000 strong. Meanwhile, Robert had besieged Stirling Castle,
21952-421: The growth of parliamentary institutions during his reign was a positive development for England over the longer term. Debate has continued into the 21st century as to whether Edward was a lazy and incompetent king, or simply a reluctant and ultimately unsuccessful ruler. Edward II was the fourth son of Edward I, King of England , Lord of Ireland , and ruler of Gascony in south-western France (which he held as
22148-599: The higher powers were in Eleanor's favour. Apart from her religious foundations, Eleanor was not given to direct good works; she left her chaplains to distribute alms for her. Eleanor gave significant funds to charitable foundations. Eleanor birthed between 14 and 17 children, only six of whom survived into adulthood. Most of Eleanor's children were born at Windsor, although she gave birth to three while on travels. It has been suggested Eleanor and Edward were more devoted to each other than to their children. As king and queen, it
22344-464: The highly politicised sodomy allegations made against Pope Boniface VIII and the Knights Templar in 1303 and 1308, respectively. Later accounts by chroniclers of Edward's activities may trace back to Orleton's original allegations, and were certainly adversely coloured by the events at the end of Edward's reign. Such historians as Michael Prestwich and Seymour Phillips have argued that
22540-627: The hope she would marry Theobald II of Navarre . The marriage would have afforded several advantages: the Pyrenees kingdom afforded passage from Castile to Gascony; and Theobald II was not yet of age so an opportunity to rule or potentially annex Navarre into Castile existed. To avoid Castilian control, in August 1253, Margaret of Bourbon – mother and regent to Theobald II – allied with James I of Aragon instead, and as part of that treaty, solemnly promised Theobald would never marry Eleanor. In 1252, Alfonso X resurrected an ancestral claim to
22736-447: The importation of grain, but with little success. The requisitioning of provisions for the royal court during the famine years only added to tensions. Meanwhile, Robert the Bruce exploited his victory at Bannockburn to raid northern England, initially attacking Carlisle and Berwick, and then reaching further south into Lancashire and Yorkshire , even threatening York itself. Edward undertook an expensive but unsuccessful campaign to stem
22932-405: The income she received from these sources was at the king's discretion rather than being a right. Eleanor was granted significant income from hidden or unclaimed assets resulting from trials. For instance, during the late 1270s, Jews were targeted for coin-clipping offences. Although the evidence was largely fictional, around ten percent of the Jewish population – over 300 individuals –
23128-506: The issue remained unresolved. Edward I also faced increasing opposition from his barons over the taxation and requisitions required to resource his wars, and left his son debts of around £200,000 on his death. Edward II was born in Caernarfon Castle in north Wales on 25 April 1284, less than a year after Edward I had conquered the region, and as a result is sometimes called Edward of Caernarfon. The King probably chose
23324-503: The king's administrations shows Hugh Despenser the Elder , who agreed to allow Eleanor to hold one of his manors for a term of years to clear his debt to her, thought it well to demand official assurances from the King's Exchequer the manor would be restored to him as soon as the queen had recovered the exact amount of the debt. A chronicle written at St Albans in 1307–1308 includes the first positive assessment of Eleanor's character, though
23520-723: The king's right to go to war or to grant land without parliament's approval, giving parliament control over the royal administration, abolishing the system of prises, excluding the Frescobaldi bankers, and introducing a system to monitor the adherence to the Ordinances. In addition, the Ordinances exiled Gaveston once again, this time with instructions that he should not be allowed to live anywhere within Edward's lands, including Gascony and Ireland, and that he should be stripped of his titles. Edward retreated to his estates at Windsor and Kings Langley ; Gaveston left England, possibly for northern France or Flanders. Tensions between Edward and
23716-484: The landed classes and by the church. An example of a cheaply-purchased estate is the release of Leeds Castle to Edward and Eleanor by William de Leybourne ; it became a favourite residence. Through these acquisitions, Eleanor gained an "unsavoury reputation". Records of her unpopularity are common: for instance, Walter of Guisborough highlighted her reputation and preserved a contemporaneous poem reflecting her acquisitiveness. The annalist of Dunstable Priory noted in
23912-431: The marriage of Earl Marshal Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk ; Eleanor paid minstrels to play for him while he sat alone during the wedding. Eleanor's acquisition of lands was unprecedented for an English queen: between 1274 and 1290, she acquired estates worth about £2,600 yearly. This provided a majority of her expenditure, which amounted to £8,000 a year at the time of her death, while income from her dower lands
24108-944: The monarch has a different, specific, and official national title and style for each realm. Although the term is rarely used today, the fifteen Commonwealth realms are, with respect to their monarch, in personal union . The monarch is also head of state of the Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories . King Charles III [REDACTED] William, Prince of Wales [REDACTED] Charles III ( King-in-Council ) [REDACTED] Starmer ministry ( L ) Keir Starmer ( L ) Angela Rayner ( L ) ( King-in-Parliament ) [REDACTED] Charles III [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The Lord Reed The Lord Hodge Andrew Bailey Monetary Policy Committee In
24304-421: The monarch to dismiss them; such ministers are euphemistically described as "leaving the government". In a hung parliament where no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command the most support, though it would usually be the leader of the largest party. Since 1945, there have only been three hung parliaments. The first followed
24500-415: The monarch upon losing their majority in the House of Commons. While the sovereign also appoints and may dismiss every other Minister of the Crown , by convention they do so only on the recommendation of the prime minister. It is therefore the prime minister who controls the composition of the government. In practice, the prime minister will request a member of the government resign in preference to advising
24696-613: The monarch's role, including that of Head of the Armed Forces , is limited to functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the prime minister , which are performed in a non-partisan manner. The UK Government has called the monarchy "a unique soft power and diplomatic asset". The Crown also occupies a unique cultural role, serving as an unofficial brand ambassador for British interests and values abroad, increasing tourism at home, and promoting charities throughout civil society . The British monarchy traces its origins from
24892-487: The nature of Eleanor's illness cannot be deduced until late 1287, when Eleanor is recorded as having a double quartan fever , while she was in Gascony with Edward. This suggests she was suffering from a strain of malaria . Malaria is not directly fatal but weakens its victims and makes them vulnerable to opportunistic infections. Among other complications, the liver and spleen become enlarged, brittle and susceptible to injury, which may cause death from internal bleeding . It
25088-674: The norm, a likelihood that is reinforced by her later literary activities as queen. Eleanor was at her father's deathbed in Seville in 1252. Eleanor's marriage in 1254 to the future Edward I of England was not the only marriage her family planned for her. The kings of Castile had long made a tenuous claim to be paramount lords of the Kingdom of Navarre due to sworn homage from Garcia VI of Navarre in 1134. In 1253, Ferdinand III's heir Alfonso X of Castile – Eleanor's half-brother – appears to have stalled negotiations with England in
25284-443: The one in name and the other in deed". Accusations, probably untrue, were levelled at Gaveston that he had stolen royal funds and had purloined Isabella's wedding presents. Gaveston had played a key role at Edward's coronation, provoking fury from both the English and the French contingents about the earl's ceremonial precedence and magnificent clothes, and about Edward's apparent preference for Gaveston's company over that of Isabella at
25480-447: The orders of the new regime. Edward's relationship with Gaveston inspired Christopher Marlowe 's 1592 play Edward II , along with other plays, films, novels and media. Many of these have focused on the possible sexual relationship between the two men. Edward's contemporaries criticised his performance as a king, noting his failures in Scotland and the oppressive regime of his later years, although 19th-century academics have argued that
25676-645: The participants pledged to support each other in a form of "brotherhood-in-arms", were not unknown between close male friends in the Middle Ages. Many chroniclers described Edward and Gaveston's relationship as one of brotherhood, and one explicitly noted that Edward had taken Gaveston as his adopted brother. Chaplais argues that the pair may have made a formal compact in either 1300 or 1301, and that they would have seen any later promises they made to separate or to leave each other as having been made under duress, and therefore invalid. Edward I mobilised another army for
25872-477: The payments of reparations to many of those who brought actions before the judicial proceedings in 1291, done on Eleanor's request shortly before her death to provide redress for wrongdoings in her property dealings. She is likely to have been aware of the heavy-handed tactics of her administrators because she was regularly notified of activities regarding her estates. Notwithstanding the manner by which she acquired her estates and income, Eleanor of Castile's queenship
26068-671: The personal gift of the sovereign and are not granted on ministerial advice. The sovereign alone appoints members of the Order of the Garter , the Order of the Thistle , the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of Merit . The sovereign is personally immune from criminal prosecution or arrest, as well as from civil actions, and their property is not subject to execution or foreclosure . The Crown , however, as distinct from
26264-522: The powers to appoint and dismiss ministers, regulate the civil service, issue passports, declare war, make peace, direct the actions of the military, and negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The sovereign is the Head of the Armed Forces (the Royal Navy ,
26460-442: The practice of fostering noble children in other dignified households was common. Edward and Eleanor regretted allowing Joan of Ponthieu to foster Joan; when six-year-old Joan travelled to England in 1278, they found she had been spoilt; she was a spirited child and at times defiant. To her immediate friends and family, Eleanor appears to have been kind, loyal and considerate, and although not overtly charming; she appears to have had
26656-483: The present borders of England, though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation. The conquest of England in 1066 by William, Duke of Normandy , was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in
26852-417: The prime minister, but in practice, the prime minister's term nowadays comes to an end only by electoral defeat, death, or resignation. Before a bill passed by the legislative Houses can become law, royal assent (the monarch's approval) is required. In theory, assent can either be granted (making the bill law) or withheld (vetoing the bill), but since 1708 assent has always been granted. The sovereign has
27048-405: The products of her own writing office. The number and variety of new works written for her show her interests were broad and sophisticated. After Eleanor succeeded her mother as Countess of Ponthieu in 1279, a romance about the life of a fictional, ninth-century count of Ponthieu was written for her. Eleanor commissioned an Arthurian romance with a Northumbrian theme, possibly for the marriage of
27244-468: The public nature of the English royal court would have made it unlikely that any homosexual affairs would have remained discreet; neither the contemporary Church, Edward's father nor his father-in-law appear to have made any adverse comments about Edward's sexual behaviour. A more recent theory, proposed by the historian Pierre Chaplais , suggests that Edward and Gaveston entered into a bond of adoptive brotherhood . Compacts of adoptive brotherhood, in which
27440-458: The queen and that afterwards the business would end happily for the bishop. As queen, Eleanor's major opportunity for power and influence would have come later in her life, when her sons grew older, by promoting their political and military careers. Eleanor patronised many of her relatives, though as queen, given the unpopularity of foreigners in England, and the criticism of Henry III and Eleanor of Provence's generosity to them, Eleanor of Castile
27636-461: The queen, our manors fair, to hold ... By the 1270s, this situation had led the Jewish community into a desperate position while Edward, Eleanor and a few others gained vast new estates. According to contemporaries, however, the problem resulted from Jewish " usury ", which contributed to a rise in anti-Semitic beliefs. Eleanor's participation in Jewish usury and dispossession of middling landowners caused her to be criticised, both by members of
27832-527: The reforms and recalling his favourite. Led by Edward's cousin Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster , a group of the barons seized and executed Gaveston in 1312, beginning several years of armed confrontation. English forces were pushed back in Scotland, where Edward was decisively defeated by Robert the Bruce at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. Widespread famine followed, and criticism of the King's reign mounted. The Despenser family, in particular Hugh Despenser
28028-407: The royal party fled by ship and landed at Scarborough , where Gaveston stayed while Edward and Isabella returned to York. After a short siege, Gaveston surrendered to the earls of Pembroke and Surrey , on the promise that he would not be harmed. He had with him a huge collection of gold, silver and gems, probably part of the royal treasury, which he was later accused of having stolen from Edward. On
28224-479: The siege of Stirling Castle . In 1305, Edward and his father quarrelled, probably over the issue of money. The prince had an altercation with Bishop Walter Langton , who served as the royal treasurer, apparently over the amount of financial support Edward received from the Crown. The king defended his treasurer, and banished Prince Edward and his companions from his court, cutting off their financial support. After some negotiations involving family members and friends,
28420-400: The son and daughter of King Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. Following the marriage, they spent nearly a year in Gascony and Edward ruled as lord of Aquitaine. During this time Eleanor, aged thirteen and a half, almost certainly gave birth to her first child, a short-lived daughter. Eleanor travelled to England alone in mid 1255 and Edward followed her a few months later. Henry III resolved
28616-486: The sovereign's authority to dissolve Parliament, however, this power was restored by the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022 . The sovereign's power of prorogation was unaffected, which is a regular feature of the parliamentary calendar . In 1950 the King's Private Secretary Sir Alan "Tommy" Lascelles , writing pseudonymously to The Times newspaper, asserted a constitutional convention: according to
28812-430: The sovereign's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown. The common law holds that the sovereign "can do no wrong", and so cannot be prosecuted for criminal offences. The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government), but not lawsuits against the monarch personally. The sovereign exercises the "prerogative of mercy", which
29008-526: The sovereign's property without permission. Following Viking raids and settlement in the ninth century, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex, achieved dominance over western Mercia , and assumed the title "King of the Anglo-Saxons". His grandson Æthelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to
29204-407: The sovereign, can be the subject of proceedings for tort and contract since 1947 . There are more than 160 laws granting express immunity to the sovereign or their property in various respects. For example, the sovereign is exempt from anti-discrimination legislation and other workers' rights, health and safety, or pensions laws, as well as numerous taxes, and environmental inspectors cannot enter
29400-428: The standards of the period. He had a reputation as a competent public speaker and was known for his generosity to household staff. Unusually, he enjoyed rowing , as well as hedging and ditching , and enjoyed associating with labourers and other lower-class workers. This behaviour was not considered normal for the nobility of the period and attracted criticism from contemporaries. In 1290, Edward's father had confirmed
29596-430: The succession: if that son died, their daughters' husbands might cause a succession war. Edward therefore married again, in 1299 to Margaret of France . He delighted in the sons his new wife bore, but attended memorial services for Eleanor to the end of his life. Eleanor's embalmed body was borne in great state from Lincoln to Westminster Abbey , through the heartland of Eleanor's properties, and accompanied for most of
29792-529: The tension between many of the barons and the royal favourites, the Despenser family. Hugh Despenser the Elder had served both Edward and his father, while Hugh Despenser the Younger had married into the wealthy de Clare family, become the King's chamberlain , and acquired Glamorgan in the Welsh Marches in 1317. Hugh the Younger subsequently expanded his holdings and power across Wales, mainly at
29988-425: The terms of the Ordinances; he was beheaded on Blacklow Hill the following day, under the authority of Lancaster. Gaveston's body was not buried until 1315, when his funeral was held in King's Langley Priory . Reactions to the death of Gaveston varied considerably. Edward was furious and deeply upset over what he saw as the murder of Gaveston; he made provisions for Gaveston's family, and intended to take revenge on
30184-496: The throne on the death of Queen Elizabeth II , his mother. The monarch and their immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic and representational duties. Although formally the monarch has authority over the government —which is known as " His/Her Majesty's Government "—this power may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament and within constraints of convention and precedent . In practice
30380-439: The throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain , and in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . Beginning in the 16th century, the monarch was the nominal head of what came to be the vast British Empire , which covered a quarter of the world's land area at its greatest extent in 1921. The title Emperor of India
30576-566: The time they were 13, the children spent much of their time with their parents. In 1290, Eleanor sent one of her scribes to join her children's household, probably to help with their education. Eleanor's children were frequently cared for by relatives and other trusted families. In 1274, when their six-year-old son Henry lay dying at Guildford neither parent made the short journey from London to see him but Edward's mother Eleanor of Provence tended to Henry. Henry had lived with his grandmother while his parents were absent on crusade, and because he
30772-580: The title of Duke of Gascony, and Alfonso would transfer his Gascon claims to Edward. Henry was anxious for the marriage to take place; he willingly abandoned the already-made, elaborate preparations for the knighting of Edward in England and agreed Alfonso would knight Edward on or before the next Feast of Assumption . Eleanor and Edward were married at the monastery of Las Huelgas , Burgos, on 1 November 1254. Edward and Eleanor were second cousins once removed because Edward's grandfather King John of England and Eleanor's great-grandmother Eleanor of England were
30968-693: The tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England , which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms . Following the installation of William III and Mary II as co-monarchs in the Glorious Revolution , the Bill of Rights 1689 , and its Scottish counterpart the Claim of Right Act 1689 , further curtailed the power of the monarchy and excluded Catholics from succession to
31164-408: The two men were reconciled. The Scottish conflict flared up once again in 1306, when Robert the Bruce killed his rival John Comyn III of Badenoch , and declared himself King of the Scots. Edward I mobilised a fresh army, but decided that, this time, his son would be formally in charge of the expedition. Prince Edward was made the duke of Aquitaine and then, along with many other young men, he
31360-402: The two sides, which would pardon the opposition barons for the killing of Gaveston, in exchange for their support for a fresh campaign in Scotland. Lancaster and Warwick, however, did not give the treaty their immediate approval, and further negotiations continued through most of 1313. Meanwhile, the Earl of Pembroke had been negotiating with France to resolve the long-standing disagreements over
31556-495: The uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom , the monarch (exclusively referred to in legislation as "the Sovereign ", and styled His or Her Majesty ) is the head of state . The monarch's image is used to signify British sovereignty and government authority – their profile, for instance, appears on Bank of England notes and all British coins and their portrait in government buildings. The Sovereign
31752-460: The way back from the north, Pembroke stopped in the village of Deddington in the Midlands, putting Gaveston under guard there while he went to visit his wife. The Earl of Warwick took this opportunity to seize Gaveston, taking him to Warwick Castle , where the Earl of Lancaster and the rest of his faction assembled on 18 June. At a brief trial, Gaveston was declared guilty of being a traitor under
31948-662: The way by Edward and a substantial cortege of mourners. Edward ordered the erection of memorial crosses at the site of each overnight stop between Lincoln and Westminster. These artistically significant monuments, which were based on crosses in France marking Louis IX 's funeral procession, enhanced the image of Edward's kingship and bear witness to his grief. Eleanor crosses stood at Lincoln , Grantham , Stamford , Geddington , Hardingstone near Northampton , Stony Stratford , Woburn , Dunstable , St Albans , Waltham , Westcheap and Charing . Only three of these monuments have survived, none in their entirety. The cross at Geddington
32144-635: Was knighted in a lavish ceremony at Westminster Abbey called the Feast of the Swans . Amid a huge feast in the neighbouring hall, reminiscent of Arthurian legends and crusading events, the assembly took a collective oath to defeat Bruce. It is unclear what role Prince Edward's forces played in the campaign that summer, which, under the orders of Edward I, saw a punitive, brutal retaliation against Bruce's faction in Scotland. Edward returned to England in September, where diplomatic negotiations to finalise
32340-643: Was a keen patron of literature and encouraged the use of tapestries, carpets and tableware in the Spanish style, as well as innovative garden designs. She was a generous patron of the Dominican friars , founding priories in England, and supporting their work at Oxford and Cambridge universities. Notwithstanding the sources of her wealth, Eleanor's financial independence had a lasting impact on the institutional standing of English queens, establishing their future independence of action. After her death, Eleanor's reputation
32536-600: Was a militarily failure but Baibars of the Bahri dynasty was worried by Edward's presence at Acre and in June 1272, an assassination attempt was made on Edward. Edward was wounded in the arm by a dagger that is thought to have been poisoned. The wound quickly became seriously inflamed and a surgeon saved Edward by excising the diseased flesh after Eleanor was led away from his bed "weeping and wailing". Eleanor and Edward left Acre in September 1272. In Sicily that December, they learnt of Henry III's death on 16 November. Following
32732-507: Was able to have the proposed bride sent to Paris. Between 1297 and 1298, Edward was left as regent in charge of England while the King campaigned in Flanders against Philip IV, who had occupied part of the English king's lands in Gascony. On his return, Edward I signed a peace treaty , under which he took Philip's sister Margaret as his wife and agreed that Prince Edward would in due course marry Philip's daughter, Isabella, who
32928-512: Was able to seek lands because of the intelligence gathered by her advisors, and had tremendous advantages and wealth in being able to choose such strategies. She was also able to compromise with those whose lands were being purchased. It was not necessarily important to her strategy whether lands were immediately handed to her, or for the lowest possible price, for instance, which distinguished her from other courtiers, whose acquisitions tended to be more straightforwardly immediately profitable. There
33124-512: Was added to the British monarch's titles between 1876 and 1948. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 recognised the evolution of the Dominions of the Empire into separate, self-governing countries within a Commonwealth of Nations . Also in this period, the monarchy in Ireland eventually became limited to Northern Ireland . In the years after World War II , the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, effectively bringing
33320-479: Was allowed no overt political role, Eleanor found other satisfying outlets. She was an active patron of literature, maintaining the only royal scriptorium known to have existed at the time in Northern Europe, with scribes and at least one illuminator to copy books for her. Some of the works produced were vernacular romances and saints' lives but Eleanor's tastes were wider than that and were not limited to
33516-592: Was an unusual thing to do. By 1270, England was at peace, and Edward and Eleanor left to join Edward's uncle Louis IX of France on the Eighth Crusade . Louis died at Carthage before they arrived; the couple spent the winter in Sicily then proceeded to Acre in the Holy Land , where they arrived in May 1271. Eleanor gave birth to a daughter, who is known as Joan of Acre for her birthplace. The crusade
33712-535: Was assigned one of his grandmother's followers, Guy Ferre , as his magister , who was responsible for his discipline, training him in riding and military skills. It is uncertain how well educated Edward was; there is little evidence for his ability to read and write, although his mother was keen that her other children be well educated, and Ferre was himself a relatively learned man for the period. Edward likely mainly spoke Anglo-Norman French in his daily life, in addition to some English and possibly Latin . Edward had
33908-488: Was born possibly as early as 1307. Edward and Isabella's first son, the future Edward III , was born in 1312 amid great celebrations, and three more children followed: John in 1316, Eleanor in 1318 and Joan in 1321. Gaveston's return from exile in 1307 was initially accepted by the barons, but opposition quickly grew. He appeared to have an excessive influence on royal policy, leading to complaints from one chronicler that there were "two kings reigning in one kingdom,
34104-495: Was born, and Alphonso , who died in August 1284, leaving Edward as the heir to the throne. Although Edward was a relatively healthy child, there were enduring concerns throughout his early years that he too might die and leave his father without a male heir. After his birth, Edward was looked after by a wet nurse called Mariota or Mary Maunsel for a few months until she fell ill, when Alice de Leygrave became his foster mother. He would have barely known his natural mother, Eleanor, who
34300-428: Was cautious to choose which cousins to support. Rather than marry her male cousins to English heiresses, which would put English wealth in foreign hands, Eleanor arranged marriages to English barons for her female cousins. Edward strongly supported Eleanor in these endeavours, which provided him and his family – alongside Eleanor in her potential widowhood – with an expanded network of potential supporters. In
34496-536: Was considered an important quality of a queen. The lack of material may be due to Eleanor's distance from the English Bishops, who represented traditional hierarchy, and her preference for the Dominican Order of Friars, to whom she was a patron, founding several priories in England and supporting their work at Oxford and Cambridge Universities. Eleanor's piety was intellectual and reinforced the idea
34692-592: Was desperate in the early 1280s, Edward did not send English knights to Castile but sent knights from Gascony , which was closer to Castile. Eleanor played a role in Edward's counsels but she did not overtly exercise power except on occasions when she was appointed to mediate disputes between nobles in England and Gascony. Eleanor directed Edward's attention to Vegetius when she commissioned an Old French translation of De Re Militari while on Crusade in Acre in 1272. She also intervened in disputes, for instance to limit
34888-494: Was developed during Eleanor's ownership; she also introduced fishponds, aviaries with song birds, and Spanish flora to her gardens and grounds. Her household food supplies appear to have reflected her Spanish upbringing; they include olive oil, French cheese and fresh fruit. She also kept a connection with Acre and her time in the Crusades, ordering foodstuffs and other items from Acre throughout her time in England. Eleanor had
35084-401: Was expelled from England, their houses, debts and other property was forfeit to the Crown. Around £2,000 was raised for the Crown from sales but much was given away in about 85 grants to courtiers, friends and family; Eleanor gave the synagogue at Canterbury to her tailor. Eleanor was given little overt political role; even in diplomatic matters her role was minor. Edward heeded her advice on
35280-468: Was facing increasing financial problems, owing £22,000 to his Frescobaldi Italian bankers, and facing protests about how he was using his right of prises to acquire supplies for the war in Scotland. His attempts to raise an army for Scotland collapsed and the earls suspended the collection of the new taxes. The king and parliament met again in February 1310, and the proposed discussions of Scottish policy were replaced by debate of domestic problems. Edward
35476-463: Was held in April, where the barons once again criticised Gaveston, demanding his exile, this time supported by Isabella and the French monarchy. Edward resisted, but finally acquiesced, agreeing to send Gaveston to Aquitaine, under threat of excommunication by the Archbishop of Canterbury should he return. At the last moment, Edward changed his mind and instead sent Gaveston to Dublin , appointing him as
35672-504: Was impossible for them to spend much time in one place; when the children were very young, they could not tolerate the rigours of constant travel with their parents. The children had a household that was staffed with attendants who were carefully chosen for competence and loyalty, and with whom the parents regularly corresponded. The children lived in this comfortable establishment until they were about seven years old, after which they began to accompany their parents on important occasions. By
35868-450: Was in Gascony with his father during his earliest years. An official household, complete with staff, was created for the new baby, under the direction of a clerk, Giles of Oudenarde. Spending increased on Edward's personal household as he grew older and, in 1293, William of Blyborough took over as its administrator. Edward was probably given a religious education by the Dominican friars , whom his mother invited into his household in 1290. He
36064-482: Was just two years old when they left England in 1270, he could not have had substantial memories of them when they returned to England in August 1274, only weeks before his death. The dowager queen was a more familiar and comforting presence to her grandson than his parents would have been. Edward and Eleanor allowed her mother Joan, Countess of Ponthieu to raise their daughter Joan of Acre (1274–1278) in Ponthieu;
36260-577: Was married to Edward at the monastery of Las Huelgas , Burgos, on 1 November 1254. She is believed to have birthed a child not long after. Fuller records of Eleanor's life with Edward start from the time of the Second Barons' War onwards, when Simon de Montfort 's government imprisoned her in Westminster Palace . Eleanor took an active role in Edward's reign as he began to take control of Henry III 's post-war government. The marriage
36456-468: Was on a military campaign in Andalusia – from which he returned to the north of Spain in February 1241 – Eleanor was probably born towards the end of that year. The courts of her father and her half-brother Alfonso X of Castile were known for their literary atmosphere. Both kings encouraged extensive education of the royal children so it is likely Eleanor was educated to a standard higher than
36652-457: Was particularly close; Edward and Eleanor travelled together extensively, including the Ninth Crusade , during which Edward was wounded at Acre . Eleanor was capable of influencing politics but died too young to have much effect. In her lifetime, Eleanor was disliked for her property dealings; she bought up vast lands such as Leeds Castle from the middling landed classes after they went into arrears on loan repayments to Jewish moneylenders, and
36848-423: Was petitioned to abandon Gaveston as his counsellor and instead adopt the advice of 21 elected barons, termed Ordainers , who would carry out a widespread reform of both the government and the royal household. Under huge pressure, he agreed to the proposal and the Ordainers were elected, broadly evenly split between reformers and conservatives. While the Ordainers began their plans for reform, Edward and Gaveston took
37044-503: Was prepared to resist Eleanor's demands or to stop her if he felt she was excessive in her activities, and he expected his ministers to restrain her if her actions threatened to inconvenience important people in his realm; on one occasion, the Lord Chancellor Robert Burnell assured the Bishop of Winchester , from whom the queen was demanding the repayment of a debt the bishop owed her, that he would speak with
37240-537: Was sent back to Edward II. Revolts also broke out in Lancashire and Bristol in 1315, and in Glamorgan in Wales in 1316, but were suppressed. The famine and the Scottish policy were felt to be a punishment from God, and complaints about Edward multiplied, one contemporary poem describing the "Evil Times of Edward II". Many criticised Edward's "improper" and ignoble interest in rural pursuits. In 1318,
37436-425: Was sentenced to death; their assets were seized and forfeit to the Crown, together with fines for those who escaped hanging. Over £16,500 was collected, from which Eleanor received a significant portion. Other income from Jews came from seizures of their property at death, particularly if Eleanor had close financial relationships with them. Following the 1290 Edict of Expulsion , with which the whole Jewish population
37632-406: Was shaped by conflicting fictitious accounts – both positive and negative – portraying her as either the dedicated companion of Edward I or as a scheming Spaniard. These accounts influenced the fate of the Eleanor crosses, for which she is probably best known today. Historians have generally neglected Eleanor and her reign as a topic of serious study, but she has received more attention since
37828-511: Was the mother of Edward's brother-in-law Alexander III . The earliest of Eleanor's recorded marriage projects linked one of her Châtellerault cousins with a member of the Lusignan family, Henry III's highly favoured maternal relatives, strengthening the king's ties with that family and creating a new tie between the English king and a powerful family in Poitou, northern Gascony. Although she
38024-562: Was then only two years old. In theory, this marriage would mean that the disputed Duchy of Gascony would be inherited by a descendant of both Edward and Philip, providing a possible end to the long-running tensions. The young Edward seems to have got on well with his new stepmother, who gave birth to two sons, Thomas of Brotherton in 1300 and Edmund of Woodstock in 1301. As king, Edward later provided his half-brothers with financial support and titles. Edward I returned to Scotland once again in 1300, and this time took his son with him, making him
38220-411: Was travelling fewer than eight miles (13 km) per day. Eleanor's final stop was at the village of Harby, Nottinghamshire , less than seven miles (11 km) from Lincoln. The journey was abandoned and the queen was lodged in the house of Richard de Weston , the foundations of which can still be seen near Harby's parish church. After piously receiving the Church's last rites, Eleanor died there on
38416-416: Was worth £4,500, to which she would be entitled in the event of Edward's death. Edward initiated this process, as he wanted the queen to hold lands sufficient for her financial needs without drawing on funds needed for government, and to be independent if she was widowed. The process began after the Battle of Evesham when Eleanor received the grant of lands formerly held by rebels. Between 1270 and 1281,
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