Philosophers
184-446: Works An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by a monarch who is elected , in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, and the electors vary from case to case. Historically, it was common for elective monarchies to transform into hereditary ones (whether legally or de facto ) by repeated election of
368-550: A paramount power existed, such as the princely states under the British Raj . In Botswana , South Africa , Ghana and Uganda , the ancient kingdoms and chiefdoms that were met by the colonialists when they first arrived on the continent are now constitutionally protected as regional or sectional entities. Furthermore, in Nigeria , though the hundreds of sub-regional polities that exist there are not provided for in
552-423: A personal union , separate independent states share the same person as monarch, but each realm retains separate laws and government. The fifteen separate Commonwealth realms are sometimes described as being in a personal union with King Charles III as monarch; however, they can also be described as being in a shared monarchy. A regent may rule when the monarch is a minor , absent, or debilitated. A pretender
736-574: A supermajority for election. The Regency of Algiers (from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth century) was an elective monarchy, whose dey was elected, depending on the period, by the Divan of Algiers or by the Taïfa of the raïs (Assembly of the corsairs). The elected deys also bore the title of governor-sultan of Algiers or sultan of Algiers. In Africa, the Mali Empire functioned as both
920-814: A European acting on their behalf. He later proclaimed himself as the King of Araucanía and Patagonia . Monarchy Philosophers Works A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch , reigns as head of state for life or until abdication . The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic ( constitutional monarchy ), to fully autocratic ( absolute monarchy ), and may have representational , executive , legislative , and judicial functions. The succession of monarchs has mostly been hereditary , often building dynasties . However, monarchies can also be elective and self-proclaimed . Aristocrats , though not inherent to monarchies, often function as
1104-716: A King at their discretion, despite having already elected Ferdinand II as king, and bestowed the Bohemian Crown on Frederick V, Elector Palatine – "The Winter King". However, the Habsburgs regarded this as an act of rebellion, re-imposed their rule over Bohemia in the Battle of the White Mountain and in the aftermath abolished the Bohemian Elective Monarchy and made exclusive Habsburg rule
1288-620: A Knight Templar, Richard sailed from Corfu with four attendants, but his ship was wrecked near Aquileia , forcing Richard and his party into taking a dangerous land route through central Europe. On his way to the territory of his brother-in-law Henry the Lion , Richard was captured shortly before Christmas 1192 near Vienna by Leopold of Austria, who accused Richard of arranging the murder of his cousin Conrad of Montferrat. Moreover, Richard had personally offended Leopold by casting down his standard from
1472-581: A co-principality. Located in the Pyrenees between Spain and France , it has two co-princes: the bishop of Urgell in Spain (a prince-bishop ) and the president of France (derived ex officio from the French kings, who themselves inherited the title from the counts of Foix). It is the only case in which an independent country's (co-)monarch is democratically elected by the citizens of another country. In
1656-505: A conference of tribal and village elders in 57 BC. Unified Silla 's kings were elected by the aristocracy whose powers were on par with the king. In the kingdom of Goguryeo, the ruler was originally chosen from among the heads of the five tribes, most often the Sono tribe. There were several occasions that the Kingdom of Siam and Thailand turned to a semi-elective monarchy system to settle
1840-538: A constitution. Many are so-called crowned republics , surviving particularly in small states. In some nations, however, such as Morocco , Qatar , Liechtenstein , and Thailand , the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the state, even if it is by a constitutional mandate. According to a 2020 study, monarchy arose as a system of governance because of an efficiency in governing large populations and expansive territories during periods when coordinating such populations
2024-549: A constitutional and elective monarchy. The mansa , or emperor, had to be approved by the Great Assembly known as the Gbara , despite hereditary claims. The Kingdom of Kongo was a purer example of an elective monarchy, where blood claims had even less influence. Nobles elected a king's successor, and it was common for the successor to be of a different family than his predecessor. This form of elective monarchy existed in
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#17327725996842208-769: A different king than Denmark and Norway upon succession. The election was usually contested through a Danish invasion of Sweden until Christian II of Denmark after his reconquest of Sweden had many of those voting against him executed in the Stockholm Bloodbath (1520), which ended much of the support for the Danish king on the Swedish throne. In 1810, the Swedish Riksdag elected the French Marshall and Prince of Pontecorvo Jean Bernadotte to be
2392-554: A field in Wola , today a district in Warsaw . Since in Poland, all sons of a noble were nobles, and not only the eldest, every one of an estimated 500,000 nobles could potentially have participated in such elections in person – by far the most extensive franchise of any European country at the time. During the election period, the function of the king was performed by an interrex (usually in
2576-439: A historical dynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession. Primogeniture , in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically "agnatic primogeniture" or "patrilineal primogeniture"
2760-610: A larger federal , composite or unitary monarchy, realm and state. Monarchs can have various titles . Common European titles of monarchs (in that hierarchical order of nobility) are emperor or empress (from Latin : imperator or imperatrix ), king or queen , grand duke or grand duchess, prince or princess , duke or duchess. Some early modern European titles (especially in German states) included elector (German: Kurfürst , Prince-Elector, literally "electing prince"), margrave (German: Markgraf , equivalent to
2944-833: A leader of the entire Muslim community), padishah (emperor), sultan or sultana , shâhanshâh (emperor), shah , malik (king) or malikah (queen), emir (commander, prince) or emira (princess), sheikh or sheikha , imam (used in Oman ). East Asian titles of monarchs include huángdì (emperor) or nǚhuáng (empress regnant), tiānzǐ (son of heaven), tennō (emperor) or josei tennō (empress regnant), wang (king) or yeowang (queen regnant), hwangje (emperor) or yeoje (empress regnant). South Asian and South East Asian titles included mahārāja (high king) or maharani (high queen), raja (king) and rana (king) or rani (queen) and ratu (South East Asian queen). Historically, Mongolic and Turkic monarchs have used
3128-491: A major revolt there in 1179. Hoping to dethrone Richard, the rebels sought the help of his brothers Henry and Geoffrey. The turning point came in the Charente Valley in the spring of 1179. The well-defended fortress of Taillebourg seemed impregnable. The castle was surrounded by a cliff on three sides and a town on the fourth side with a three-layer wall. Richard first destroyed and looted the farms and lands surrounding
3312-531: A monarchy is deposed, often former monarchs and their descendants are given alternative titles (the King of Portugal was given the hereditary title Duke of Braganza ). A non-sovereign monarchy is one where the monarch is subject to a temporal authority higher than their own. Some are dependent on other powers (see vassals , suzerainty , puppet state , hegemony ). In the British colonial era, indirect rule under
3496-427: A morally based, balanced monarchy was stressed as the ideal form of government, and little attention was paid to modern-day ideals of egalitarian democracy: e.g. Saint Thomas Aquinas unapologetically declared: "Tyranny is wont to occur not less but more frequently on the basis of polyarchy [rule by many, i.e. oligarchy or democracy] than on the basis of monarchy." ( On Kingship ). However, Thomas Aquinas also stated that
3680-575: A non-binding referendum was held, in which William Charles Lunalilo won; he was subsequently elected king by the legislature in 1873. King Kalākaua was elected by the legislature in 1874, after Lunalilo's death. However, when Kalākaua died in 1891, the crown demised to the collateral line of his sister, Queen Liliʻuokalani . Prior to 1864, the Hawaiian King-in-Council appointed the heir to the Hawaiian throne. The Tlatoanimeh of
3864-575: A peace treaty and ended the campaign without retaking Jerusalem . Richard probably spoke both French and Occitan . He was born in England , where he spent his childhood; before becoming king, however, he lived most of his adult life in the Duchy of Aquitaine , in the southwest of France. Following his accession, he spent very little time, perhaps as little as six months, in England. Most of his reign
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#17327725996844048-574: A pertaining territory. Since medieval times, the King of Bohemia was elected by the Estates of Lands of the Bohemian Crown . Since 1526, when Ferdinand I assumed the Bohemian Crown, it was always held by the Habsburg branch who later became Holy Roman Emperor and who expected this situation to go on indefinitely. In 1618 the Bohemians chose to exercise in practice their legal right to choose
4232-657: A rebellion in Suffolk. The alliance with Louis was initially successful, and by July 1173 the rebels were besieging Aumale , Neuf-Marché , and Verneuil , and Hugh de Kevelioc had captured Dol in Brittany. Richard went to Poitou and raised the barons who were loyal to himself and his mother in rebellion against his father. Eleanor was captured, so Richard was left to lead his campaign against Henry II's supporters in Aquitaine on his own. He marched to take La Rochelle but
4416-407: A relieving force, led to the decision to retreat back to the coast. Richard attempted to negotiate with Saladin, but this was unsuccessful. In the first half of 1192, he and his troops refortified Ascalon . An election forced Richard to accept Conrad of Montferrat as King of Jerusalem, and he sold Cyprus to his defeated protégé, Guy. Only days later, on 28 April 1192, Conrad was stabbed to death by
4600-628: A responsibility requiring his presence as ruler. This "Little England" view of Richard has come under increasing scrutiny by modern historians, who view it as anachronistic. Richard I remains one of the few kings of England remembered more commonly by his epithet than his regnal number , and is an enduring iconic figure both in England and in France. Richard was born on 8 September 1157, probably at Beaumont Palace , in Oxford , England , son of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine . He
4784-516: A revolt over the succession to the county of Angoulême . His opponents turned to Philip II of France for support, and the fighting spread through the Limousin and Périgord . The excessive cruelty of Richard's punitive campaigns aroused even more hostility. After Richard had subdued his rebellious barons he again challenged his father. From 1180 to 1183 the tension between Henry and Richard grew, as King Henry commanded Richard to pay homage to Henry
4968-408: A ruling monarch, while " queen consort " refers to the wife of a reigning king. Rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy: there have been some family dictatorships (and also political families ) in many democracies . The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of leadership (as evidenced in the classic phrase " The King is dead. Long live
5152-476: A settlement on 2 September 1192. The terms provided for the destruction of Ascalon's fortifications, allowed Christian pilgrims and merchants access to Jerusalem, and initiated a three-year truce. Richard, being ill with arnaldia , left for England on 9 October 1192. Bad weather forced Richard's ship to put in at Corfu , in the lands of Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos , who objected to Richard's annexation of Cyprus, formerly Byzantine territory. Disguised as
5336-518: A simple soldier; he refused to lead the army. Without a united command the army had little choice but to retreat back to the coast. A period of minor skirmishes with Saladin's forces commenced, punctuated by another defeat in the field for the Ayyubid army at the Battle of Jaffa . Baha' al-Din, a contemporary Muslim soldier and biographer of Saladin, recorded a tribute to Richard's martial prowess at this battle: "I have been assured ... that on that day
5520-403: A single at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word monarchy usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule, as elective monarchies are quite rare. The similar form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such as Mesopotamia , Ancient Egypt and
5704-429: A situation known as diarchy . Historically this was the case in the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta . There are examples of joint sovereignty of spouses, parent and child or other relatives (such as William III and Mary II in the kingdoms of England and Scotland , Tsars Peter I and Ivan V of Russia , and Charles I and Joanna of Castile ). Andorra currently is the world's only constitutional diarchy,
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5888-537: A symbol of unity between the two countries, the kings of England and France had slept overnight in the same bed. Gillingham has characterized this as "an accepted political act, nothing sexual about it;... a bit like a modern-day photo opportunity". With news arriving of the Battle of Hattin , he took the cross at Tours in the company of other French nobles. In exchange for Philip's help against his father, Richard paid homage to Philip in November 1188. On 4 July 1189,
6072-463: A time there would be two kings in coregency —a senior king and a junior king. Examples were Henry the Young King of England and the early Direct Capetians in France. Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line. Richard I Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199), known as Richard Cœur de Lion ( Old Norman French : Quor de Lion ) or Richard
6256-556: A tournament held in her native Navarre . The wedding was held in Lemesos on 12 May 1191 at the Chapel of St George and was attended by Richard's sister Joan, whom he had brought from Sicily. The marriage was celebrated with great pomp and splendour, many feasts and entertainments, and public parades and celebrations followed, commemorating the event. When Richard married Berengaria he was still officially betrothed to Alys, and he pushed for
6440-417: A truce on 8 September 1174, its terms specifically excluded Richard. Abandoned by Louis and wary of facing his father's army in battle, Richard went to Henry II's court at Poitiers on 23 September and begged for forgiveness, weeping and falling at the feet of Henry, who gave Richard the kiss of peace . Several days later, Richard's brothers joined him in seeking reconciliation with their father. The terms
6624-466: A while, but this resulted in increasing tensions between them and their men, with Philip plotting with Tancred against Richard. The two kings eventually met to clear the air and reached an agreement, including the end of Richard's betrothal to Philip's sister Alys. In 1190 King Richard, before leaving for the Holy Land for the crusade, met Joachim of Fiore , who spoke to him of a prophecy contained in
6808-401: Is a claimant to an abolished throne or a throne already occupied by somebody else. Abdication is the act of formally giving up one's monarchical power and status. Monarchs may mark the ceremonial beginning of their reigns with a coronation or enthronement . Monarchy, especially absolute monarchy, is sometimes linked to religious aspects; many monarchs once claimed the right to rule by
6992-407: Is a range of sub-national monarchical entities . Most of the modern monarchies are constitutional monarchies, retaining under a constitution unique legal and ceremonial roles for monarchs exercising limited or no political power, similar to heads of state in a parliamentary republic . Some countries have preserved the title of (say) "kingdom" while dispensing with an official serving monarch (note
7176-506: Is first recorded in Ambroise 's L'Estoire de la Guerre Sainte in the context of the Accon campaign of 1191. Henry seemed unwilling to entrust any of his sons with resources that could be used against him. It was suspected that the King had appropriated Alys of France, Richard's betrothed, as his mistress . This made a marriage between Richard and Alys technically impossible in the eyes of
7360-462: Is known about Richard's education. Although he was born in Oxford and brought up in England up to his eighth year, it is not known to what extent he used or understood English; he was an educated man who composed poetry and wrote in Limousin ( lenga d'òc ) and also in French. During his captivity, English prejudice against foreigners was used in a calculated way by his brother John to help destroy
7544-574: Is often depicted as having been the favourite son of his mother. His father was Angevin-Norman and great-grandson of William the Conqueror . Contemporary historian Ralph de Diceto traced his family's lineage through Matilda of Scotland to the Anglo-Saxon kings of England and Alfred the Great , and from there legend linked them to Noah and Woden . According to Angevin family tradition, there
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7728-489: Is perhaps the best-known example of an elective monarchy. However, from 1440 to 1740, a Habsburg was always elected emperor , the throne becoming unofficially hereditary. During that period, the emperor was elected from within the House of Habsburg by a small council of nobles called prince-electors . The secular electoral seats were hereditary. However, spiritual electors (and other prince-(arch)bishops) were usually elected by
7912-462: Is wielded by free citizens and their assemblies. The 4th-century BCE Hindu text Arthasastra laid out the ethics of monarchism. In antiquity, some monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome ( Roman Republic , 509 BCE), and Athens ( Athenian democracy , 500 BCE). By the 17th century, monarchy was challenged by evolving parliamentarism e.g. through regional assemblies (such as
8096-553: The simite . Sabhā was a sort of rural council. In India they are referred to as Samiti and Sabha . The Parthian Empire (248 BC–224 AD), also known as the Arsacid Empire, is considered to be the oldest elective monarchy in Asia. The King of Kings has been required to undergo an assembly of the nobles called Mahestān , as a vote of approval before being allowed to ascend to the imperial throne or to be removed from
8280-400: The 1575/1576 Polish–Lithuanian royal election as the most significant for several reasons. First, 'the citizens of the commonwealth were forced to de facto depose their first elected king – thus applying the right of disobedience they had inscribed in their public records only two years before.' Second, it resulted in two candidates being proclaimed the winner, and in subsequent events
8464-624: The Act of Succession , whose effect was to disinherit the Stuarts and replace them by the Hanoverians , whose dynastic claim was far more remote. William III and Mary II were chosen by Parliament to replace James II . (Mary was James' daughter, William was James' nephew, and William and Mary were succeeded by Mary's younger sister Anne .) Parliament passed laws in the late 17th and early 18th centuries which explicitly excluded Catholics (and thus
8648-628: The Assassins before he could be crowned. Eight days later Richard's own nephew Henry II of Champagne was married to the widowed Isabella, although she was carrying Conrad's child. The murder was never conclusively solved, and Richard's contemporaries widely suspected his involvement. The crusader army made another advance on Jerusalem, and, in June 1192, it came within sight of the city before being forced to retreat once again, this time because of dissension amongst its leaders. In particular, Richard and
8832-681: The Aztec Empire were chosen by a council of elders, nobles, and priests. He would be selected from a pool of four candidates. The mánkeme (king) of the Kingdom of Nicoya was elected by a council of elders known as the monéxico . French explorer Orélie-Antoine de Tounens claimed to be elected by the Mapuche to be the Great Toqui , Supreme Chieftain of the Mapuches, possibly in the belief that their cause might be better served with
9016-514: The Battle of Mohács . Visigothic Hispania elected the king from the relatives of past kings, in accordance with the Germanic traditions. In practice, the Visigoth kings appointed their eldest sons to manage the kingdom's affairs, so that when the king died the eldest son was politically skilled enough to secure the throne. In the 5th century, hereditary succession was increasingly stable until
9200-453: The Book of Revelation . In April 1191, Richard left Messina for Acre with an army of 17,000 men, but a storm dispersed his large fleet. After some searching, it was discovered that the ship carrying his sister Joan and his new fiancée, Berengaria of Navarre , was anchored on the south coast of Cyprus , along with the wrecks of several other vessels, including the treasure ship. Survivors of
9384-693: The Central African Republic declared himself Emperor of the Central African Empire in 1976. Yuan Shikai , the first formal President of the Republic of China , crowned himself Emperor of the short-lived " Empire of China " a few years after the Republic of China was founded. Most monarchies only have a single person acting as monarch at any given time, although two monarchs have ruled simultaneously in some countries,
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#17327725996849568-490: The Church , but Henry prevaricated: he regarded Alys's dowry , Vexin in the Île-de-France , as valuable. Richard was discouraged from renouncing Alys because she was the sister of King Philip II of France , a close ally. After his failure to overthrow his father, Richard concentrated on putting down internal revolts by the nobles of Aquitaine, especially in the territory of Gascony . The increasing cruelty of his rule led to
9752-664: The Ecclesia of the Demos , the assembly of all free Athenian citizens. Military service often was linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house. In the ancient Roman Kingdom the kings were elected by the Roman assemblies . When a king died, the senate would appoint an interrex to oversee the election for a new king. Once the Roman kings were overthrown, there remained an absolute prohibition for royal establishment in
9936-511: The Egyptian , Chinese , Indian , Mesopotamian , Sudanic , reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion , and others, the monarch held sacral functions directly connected to sacrifice and was sometimes identified with having divine ancestry , possibly establishing a notion of the divine right of kings . Polybius identified monarchy as one of three "benign" basic forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy , and democracy ), opposed to
10120-820: The First French Republic . The Order is ruled by the Prince and Grand Master , who is elected for life by the Council Complete of State. The Prince and Grand Master holds the rank of Prince, bestowed by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1607 and holds the precedence of a cardinal of the Church since 1630. The Council that elects the prince includes members of the Sovereign Council and other high-ranking office-holders and representatives of
10304-583: The Hospitallers broke ranks to charge the right wing of Saladin's forces. Richard then ordered a general counterattack, which won the battle. Arsuf was an important victory. The Muslim army was not destroyed, despite the considerable casualties it suffered, but it did rout ; this was considered shameful by the Muslims and boosted the morale of the Crusaders. In November 1191, following the fall of Jaffa,
10488-867: The Icelandic Commonwealth , the Swiss Landsgemeinde and later Tagsatzung , and the High Medieval communal movement linked to the rise of medieval town privileges ) and by modern anti-monarchism e.g. of the temporary overthrow of the English monarchy by the Parliament of England in 1649, the American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789. One of many opponents of that trend
10672-408: The Indus Valley civilization . In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies. Some of the oldest recorded and evidenced monarchies were Narmer , Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt c. 3100 BCE , and Enmebaragesi , a Sumerian King of Kish c. 2600 BCE . From earliest records, monarchs could be directly hereditary, while others were elected from among eligible members. With
10856-417: The Saladin tithe ), raised taxes, and even agreed to free King William I of Scotland from his oath of subservience to Richard in exchange for 10,000 marks (£6,500). To raise still more revenue he sold the right to hold official positions, lands, and other privileges to those interested in them. Those already appointed were forced to pay huge sums to retain their posts. William Longchamp , Bishop of Ely and
11040-421: The cathedral chapters as religious leaders, but simultaneously ruled as monarch (prince) of a territory of imperial immediacy (which usually comprised a part of their diocesan territory). Thus the prince-bishoprics were elective monarchies too. The same holds true for prince-abbacies, whose princess-abbesses or prince-abbots were elected by a college of clerics and imperially appointed as princely rulers in
11224-421: The "rich men" barons. Later this right was limited to the Cortes confirming the succession of the heir. During the 19th century, more precisely between 1870 and 1873, an attempt of such a system took place in Spain. After the Glorious Revolution and Isabella II 's subsequent deposition in 1868 a new parliament was constituted through direct male suffrage. It was then decided that a democratically elected monarch
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#173277259968411408-449: The "royal religion of Melchizedek " is emphasised against the priestly claims of the rival papal ideology. In Saudi Arabia , the king is a head of state who is both the absolute monarch of the country and the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques of Islam (خادم الحرمين الشريفين). The roles of monarchs can overlap with other monarchies through personal union or dynastic union , with maybe becoming institutional real union and possibly
11592-438: The 10th century Western Frankish royal elections switched between different lineages before settling on the Capetians. Medieval France was an elective monarchy at the time of the first Capetian kings; the kings however took the habit of, during their reign, having their son elected as co-king and successor during their reigns. The election soon became a mere formality and vanished after the reign of Philip II . After declaring
11776-415: The 18th century) and finally to transform it into a full-fledged monarchy – as it was in 1815. The Gallic tribes were each ruled by a rix , which can be translated as king, who were elected for terms of one year or longer. Candidates were drawn from relatives of past kings. The Frankish kingdom was at least partly elective. Merovingian kings were elected, while Carolingian kings were elected at times. In
11960-497: The Crown to create a state identity, which is to be carried and occupied by the monarch, but represents the monarchy even in absence and succession of the monarch. Nevertheless, monarchies can also be bound to territories (e.g., the King of Norway ) and peoples (e.g., the King of the Belgians ). In a hereditary monarchy , the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession , usually within one royal family tracing its origin through
12144-436: The Crusader army advanced inland towards Jerusalem. The army then marched to Beit Nuba , only 12 miles (19 km) from Jerusalem. Muslim morale in Jerusalem was so low that the arrival of the Crusaders would probably have caused the city to fall quickly. However, the weather was appallingly bad, cold with heavy rain and hailstorms; this, combined with the fear that the Crusader army, if it besieged Jerusalem, might be trapped by
12328-535: The Emperor and declared to him, " I am born of a rank which recognises no superior but God ". The King was at first shown a certain measure of respect, but later, at the prompting of Philip of Dreux , Bishop of Beauvais and Philip of France's cousin, the conditions of Richard's captivity worsened, and he was kept in chains, "so heavy," Richard declared, "that a horse or ass would have struggled to move under them." The Emperor demanded that 150,000 marks (100,000 pounds of silver) be delivered to him before he would release
12512-474: The Estates designated the heirs of King Gustav Vasa as the heirs to the throne. The Danish monarchy was also officially elective, although the eldest son of the reigning monarch was usually elected. This continued until 1660, when a hereditary and absolute monarchy was instituted by Frederick III . Though the monarchy of Norway was originally hereditary, it too became elective in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Candidates had to be of royal blood, but
12696-465: The Faithful"), Hünkar-i Khanedan-i Âl-i Osman , "Sovereign of the Sublime House of Osman"), Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda ("Majesty"), Jeonha ("Majesty"), Tennō Heika (literally "His Majesty the heavenly sovereign"), Bìxià ("Bottom of the Steps"). Sometimes titles are used to express claims to territories that are not held in fact (for example, English claims to the French throne ), or titles not recognised ( antipopes ). Also, after
12880-418: The Frankish invasions against the Visigoths led to a period of crisis in which the Visigoths reverted to elections. After the crisis was over in the 6th century, the family of Leovigild attempted to revive hereditary succession until Swintila was overthrown and the Fourth Council of Toledo formally declared elective succession as the principle of succession in 633. The Kingship of Aragon was initially elected by
13064-566: The French court that they would not make terms with Henry II without the consent of Louis VII and the French barons. With the support of Louis, Henry the Young King attracted many barons to his cause through promises of land and money; one such baron was Philip I, Count of Flanders , who was promised £1,000 and several castles. The brothers also had supporters ready to rise up in England. Robert de Beaumont, 3rd Earl of Leicester , joined forces with Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk , Hugh de Kevelioc, 5th Earl of Chester , and William I of Scotland for
13248-538: The French title marquis , literally "count of the borderland"), and burgrave (German: Burggraf , literally "count of the castle"). Lesser titles include count and princely count . Slavic titles include knyaz and tsar (ц︢рь) or tsaritsa (царица), a word derived from the Roman imperial title Caesar . In the Muslim world , titles of monarchs include caliph (successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and
13432-478: The King! "). Some monarchies are not hereditary. In an elective monarchy , monarchs are elected or appointed by some body (an electoral college ) for life or a defined period. Four elective monarchies exist today: Cambodia , Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates are 20th-century creations, while one (the papacy ) is ancient. A self-proclaimed monarchy is established when a person claims
13616-632: The King's chancellor, made a show of bidding £3,000 to remain as Chancellor. He was apparently outbid by a certain Reginald the Italian, but that bid was refused. Richard made some final arrangements on the continent. He reconfirmed his father's appointment of William Fitz Ralph to the important post of seneschal of Normandy. In Anjou, Stephen of Tours was replaced as seneschal and temporarily imprisoned for fiscal mismanagement. Payn de Rochefort, an Angevin knight, became seneschal of Anjou . In Poitou
13800-538: The King, the same amount raised by the Saladin tithe only a few years earlier, and two to three times the annual income of the English Crown under Richard. Meanwhile, Eleanor worked tirelessly to raise the ransom for her son's release. Leopold also requested Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany , niece of Richard, marry his heir Frederick . Both clergy and laymen were taxed for a quarter of the value of their property,
13984-493: The Lionheart because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior, was King of England from 1189 until his death in 1199. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy , Aquitaine , and Gascony ; Lord of Cyprus ; Count of Poitiers , Anjou , Maine , and Nantes ; and was overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. He was the third of five sons of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine and
14168-776: The Order's worldwide entities. The Sovereign Council, including the Grand Commander, the Grand Chancellor, the Grand Hospitaller, and the Receiver of the Common Treasure, aid the prince in governing the order. The Republic of Venice was ruled from 697 to 1797 by a doge , who normally ruled for life, though a few were forced from office. His powers were never those of an absolute monarch, but he
14352-469: The Roman constitution, a prohibition which formally remained in place during imperial times, both classical Roman and Byzantine . In practice, however, Imperial Rome was a monarchy. During the Principate (27 BC to 284 AD), which was the foundational stage of Roman imperialism, Roman monarchs would often take care to disguise their de facto position with the de jure apparatus of republicanism. This
14536-439: The Young King abandoned his father and left for the French court, seeking the protection of Louis VII; his brothers Richard and Geoffrey soon followed him, while the five-year-old John remained in England. Louis gave his support to the three brothers and even knighted Richard, tying them together through vassalage. Jordan Fantosme , a contemporary poet, described the rebellion as a "war without love". The brothers made an oath at
14720-406: The Young King, but Richard refused. Finally, in 1183 Henry the Young King and Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany, invaded Aquitaine in an attempt to subdue Richard. Richard's barons joined in the fray and turned against their duke. However, Richard and his army succeeded in holding back the invading armies, and they executed any prisoners. The conflict paused briefly in June 1183 when the Young King died. With
14904-716: The advice of Louis the offer was refused. Henry II's forces took Saintes by surprise and captured much of its garrison, although Richard was able to escape with a small group of soldiers. He took refuge in Château de Taillebourg for the rest of the war. Henry the Young King and the Count of Flanders planned to land in England to assist the rebellion led by the Earl of Leicester. Anticipating this, Henry II returned to England with 500 soldiers and his prisoners (including Eleanor and his sons' wives and fiancées), but on his arrival found out that
15088-534: The advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism . As such republics have become the opposing and alternative form of government to monarchy, despite some having seen infringements through lifelong or even hereditary heads of state, such as in North Korea . With the rise of republicanism, a diverse division between republicanism developed in the 19th-century politics (such as anti-monarchist radicalism ) and conservative or even reactionary monarchism . In
15272-734: The aftermath of 1383–1385 Crisis , the Council of the Kingdom elected John I , then Master of the Order of Aviz , as King of Portugal . His half-brother Ferdinand I had died without a male heir in October 1383, and different factions made strenuous efforts to secure the throne for Princess Beatrice , Ferdinand's only daughter and Queen consort of Castile and León , or for either of her uncles Infante John, Duke of Valencia de Campos and Infante Denis, Lord of Cifuentes . The Council elected instead
15456-456: The assent of the Cortes and acclamation before acceding to the throne. Portugal's first king Afonso I followed Visigothic precedent by appointing his son as co-ruler to establish a hereditary line of succession, but whenever there was doubt on succession, the elective principle would resume. The Cortes affirmed the crown as elective when it elevated King John in 1385. In Portugal, on 6 April 1385 in
15640-418: The authority of Richard's chancellor, William Longchamp , who was a Norman . One of the specific charges laid against Longchamp, by John's supporter Hugh Nonant , was that he could not speak English. This indicates that by the late 12th century a knowledge of English was expected of those in positions of authority in England. Richard was said to be very attractive; his hair was between red and blond, and he
15824-481: The castle was "notoriously strong", Richard's siege engines battered the defenders into submission. On this campaign, Richard acquired the name "the Lion" or "the Lionheart" due to his noble, brave and fierce leadership. He is referred to as "this our lion" ( hic leo noster ) as early as 1187 in the Topographia Hibernica of Giraldus Cambrensis , while the byname "lionheart" ( le quor de lion )
16008-464: The ceremony where Richard's betrothal was confirmed, he paid homage to the king of France for Aquitaine, thus securing ties of vassalage between the two. After Henry II fell seriously ill in 1170, he enacted his plan to divide his territories, although he would retain overall authority over his sons and their territories. His son Henry was crowned as heir apparent in June 1170, and in 1171 Richard left for Aquitaine with his mother, and Henry II gave him
16192-412: The chronicle, most of the castles belonging to rebels were to be returned to the state they were in 15 days before the outbreak of war, while others were to be razed. Given that by this time it was common for castles to be built in stone, and that many barons had expanded or refortified their castles, this was not an easy task. Roger of Howden records the two-month siege of Castillon-sur-Agen ; while
16376-435: The conclusion of the war, the process of pacifying the provinces that had rebelled against Henry II began. The King travelled to Anjou for this purpose, and Geoffrey dealt with Brittany. In January 1175 Richard was dispatched to Aquitaine to punish the barons who had fought for him. The historian John Gillingham notes that the chronicle of Roger of Howden is the main source for Richard's activities in this period. According to
16560-429: The crusade, and offering his daughter in marriage to the person named by Richard. Isaac changed his mind, however, and tried to escape. Richard's troops, led by Guy de Lusignan, conquered the whole island by 1 June. Isaac surrendered and was confined with silver chains because Richard had promised that he would not place him in irons. Richard named Richard de Camville and Robert of Thornham as governors. He later sold
16744-596: The current constitution, they are nevertheless legally recognised aspects of the structure of governance that operates in the nation. For example, the Yoruba city-state of Akure in south-western Nigeria is something of an elective monarchy: its reigning Oba Deji has to be chosen by an electoral college of nobles from amongst a finite collection of royal princes of the realm upon the death or removal of an incumbent. In addition to these five countries, non-sovereign monarchies of varied sizes and complexities exist all over
16928-680: The de jure as well as de facto situation. The attempt to make Frederick V King of Bohemia is regarded as a catalyst for the Thirty Years War . Hungary was an elective monarchy until 1687. This elective right carried on for another two more decades in the Principality of Transylvania which de jure continued to belong to the Lands of the Hungarian Crown but had split from Hungary when the childless King Louis II died after
17112-644: The death of Henry the Young King, Richard became the eldest surviving son and therefore heir to the English crown. King Henry demanded that Richard give up Aquitaine (which he planned to give to his youngest son John as his inheritance). Richard refused, and conflict continued between them. This refusal is what finally made Henry II bring Queen Eleanor out of prison. He sent her to Aquitaine and demanded that Richard give up his lands to his mother, who would once again rule over those lands. In 1187, to strengthen his position, Richard allied himself with 22-year-old Philip II,
17296-483: The descendants of a previous king, which was connected to descent from gods. There could also be joint rule between multiple kings. Disputed succession was common because of a large number of sons sired by kings. However, when single rule appeared in the 9th century, civil wars grew in frequency throughout the region. Later, Christianisation led to the promulgation of primogeniture in Norway in 1163 and Denmark in 1170, but
17480-546: The duchy of Aquitaine at the request of Eleanor. Richard and his mother embarked on a tour of Aquitaine in 1171 in an attempt to pacify the locals. Together, they laid the foundation stone of St Augustine's Monastery in Limoges . In June 1172, at age 14, Richard was formally recognised as duke of Aquitaine and count of Poitou when he was granted the lance and banner emblems of his office; the ceremony took place in Poitiers and
17664-628: The election procedure never strictly defined, but generally understood to be a matter for the Senate). For instance, whilst the first five Emperors were all descended from Julius Caesar , in each case their position was proclaimed, not inherited as of right. Claudius , the fourth Emperor, in particular stands out, being "elected" to office once the Praetorian Guard had made it clear he was their candidate. Accordingly, heredity never was, and could never be, formally established in law. And whilst
17848-563: The elective idea still persisted in the requirement to be certified by a local assembly and subsequently the magnates would still elect the new king, albeit while the incumbent king was still alive. This demonstrated the enduring power of the nobles. Originally, the Kings of Sweden were elected by all free men at the Mora Thing . Elective monarchy continued until 1544, when the Riksdag of
18032-477: The event of the extinction of the royal line, the Legislature would elect a "native aliʻi " as the new monarch and stirps of a new dynasty. In practice, however, during the entire time from 1864 until the abolition of the monarchy, the throne was never passed from parent to child, as every Hawaiian monarch who reigned during that period died without leaving issue. Following the 1872 death of King Kamehameha V ,
18216-572: The ex-provost of Benon, Peter Bertin, was made seneschal, and finally, the household official Helie de La Celle was picked for the seneschalship in Gascony. After repositioning the part of his army he left behind to guard his French possessions, Richard finally set out on the crusade in summer 1190. (His delay was criticised by troubadours such as Bertran de Born .) He appointed as regents Hugh de Puiset , Bishop of Durham , and William de Mandeville, 3rd Earl of Essex – who soon died and
18400-549: The example of Francoist Spain from 1947 to 1975) or while relying on a long-term regency (as in the case of Hungary in the Horthy era from 1920 to 1944). The word "monarch" (Late Latin: monarchia ) comes from the Ancient Greek word μονάρχης ( monárkhēs ), derived from μόνος ( mónos , "one, single") and ἄρχω ( árkhō , "to rule"): compare ἄρχων ( árkhōn , "ruler, chief"). It referred to
18584-556: The execution of those responsible for the most heinous murders and persecutions, including rioters who had accidentally burned down Christian homes. He distributed a royal writ demanding that the Jews be left alone. The edict was only loosely enforced, however, and the following March further violence occurred, including a massacre at York . Richard had already taken the cross as Count of Poitou in 1187. His father and Philip II had done so at Gisors on 21 January 1188 after receiving news of
18768-484: The fall of Jerusalem to Saladin . After Richard became king, he and Philip agreed to go on the Third Crusade, since each feared that during his absence the other might usurp his territories. Richard swore an oath to renounce his past wickedness in order to show himself worthy to take the cross. He started to raise and equip a new crusader army. He spent most of his father's treasury (filled with money raised by
18952-448: The following 20th century many countries abolished the monarchy and became republics, especially in the wake of World War I and World War II . Today forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch , including fifteen Commonwealth realms that have Charles III as the head of state. Most modern monarchs are constitutional monarchs , who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role but exercise limited or no political power under
19136-511: The forces of Richard and Philip defeated Henry's army at Ballans . Henry agreed to name Richard his heir apparent. Two days later Henry died in Chinon, and Richard succeeded him as King of England, Duke of Normandy, and Count of Anjou. Roger of Howden claimed that Henry's corpse bled from the nose in Richard's presence, which was assumed to be a sign that Richard had caused his death. Richard I
19320-427: The fortress, leaving its defenders no reinforcements or lines of retreat. The garrison sallied out of the castle and attacked Richard; he was able to subdue the army and then followed the defenders inside the open gates, where he easily took over the castle in two days. Richard's victory at Taillebourg deterred many barons from thinking of rebelling and forced them to declare their loyalty to him. In 1181–82, Richard faced
19504-459: The gold and silver treasures of the churches were confiscated, and money was raised from the scutage and the carucage taxes. At the same time, Richard's brother John and King Philip of France offered 80,000 marks for Henry VI to hold Richard prisoner until Michaelmas 1194. Henry turned down the offer. The money to release the King was transferred to Germany by the Emperor's ambassadors, but "at
19688-423: The ideal monarchical system would also have at lower levels of government both an aristocracy and elements of democracy in order to create a balance of power. The monarch would also be subject to both natural and divine law, and to the Church in matters of religion. In Dante Alighieri 's De Monarchia , a spiritualised, imperial Catholic monarchy is strongly promoted according to a Ghibelline world-view in which
19872-521: The intercession of Pope Alexander III was necessary to secure a truce between them. Henry II had conquered Brittany and taken control of Gisors and the Vexin , which had been part of Margaret's dowry. Early in the 1160s there had been suggestions Richard should marry Alys, Countess of the Vexin , fourth daughter of Louis VII; because of the rivalry between the kings of England and France, Louis obstructed
20056-458: The island to the master of Knights Templar , Robert de Sablé , and it was subsequently acquired, in 1192, by Guy of Lusignan and became a stable feudal kingdom. The rapid conquest of the island by Richard was of strategic importance. The island occupies a key strategic position on the maritime lanes to the Holy Land, whose occupation by the Christians could not continue without support from
20240-493: The king of England, lance in hand, rode along the whole length of our army from right to left, and not one of our soldiers left the ranks to attack him. The Sultan was wroth thereat and left the battlefield in anger...". Both sides realised that their respective positions were growing untenable. Richard knew that both Philip and his own brother John were starting to plot against him, and the morale of Saladin's army had been badly eroded by repeated defeats. However, Saladin insisted on
20424-449: The king was considered a primus inter pares (first among equals), and in his absence his duties were performed by his seneschal . The tradition of electing the country's ruler, which occurred when there was no clear heir to the throne, dates to the very beginning of Polish statehood. The election privilege, exercised during the gatherings known as wiec , was usually limited to the most powerful nobles ( magnates ) or officials, and
20608-538: The kingdom from its inception around 1400 until its complete disintegration in the early 20th century. In the pre-colonial period, a number of West African rulers, such as the kings and chieftains of the Ashanti Empire and those of Ife and the Oyo Empire , were elected from amongst the various royal families of their polities by colleges of noblemen known as kingmakers . This practice has continued to
20792-476: The kingship was elected by a council of noblemen, rather than automatically passing to the eldest son. In 1905 Prince Carl was elected King of the newly independent Norway by the Storting after a referendum resolved in favor of monarchy. The Scandinavian kingdoms were united under the Danish crown by Margaret I of Denmark in 1389, but many of her successors had the united kingdoms split up as Sweden elected
20976-457: The later, more overtly authoritarian Dominate period further stripped the republican veneer from the constitution, Emperors succeeded by a mixture of proclamation by the Legions or Senate as much as by blood (though sons did succeed fathers). In order to bypass the prohibition on heredity and ensure dynastic continuity, many reigning Byzantine emperors had their heirs crowned co-emperor so that
21160-593: The leaders of the Dutch Republican faction, such as Oldenbarnevelt and De Witt , repeatedly tried to abolish the office of Stadtholder or leave it vacant – which it was for several decades of Dutch history. Conversely, the House of Orange and its adherents tried to increase the powers of the Stadtholder to approximate those of a monarch, to make it officially hereditary (which it became in the later part of
21344-518: The leadership through transitioning to a democratic constitutional monarchy . The prospect of retaining the ruler appeals to opposition groups who value both democracy and stability, but it also has implications for their ability to organize and sustain mass protest." Monarchies are associated with hereditary reign , in which monarchs reign for life and the responsibilities and power of the position pass to their child or another member of their family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in
21528-499: The legal heir was William's aunt Constance , wife of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor . Tancred had imprisoned William's widow, Queen Joan, who was Richard's sister, and did not give her the money she had inherited in William's will. When Richard arrived he demanded that his sister be released and given her inheritance; she was freed on 28 September, but without the inheritance. The presence of foreign troops also caused unrest: in October,
21712-521: The majority of the army council wanted to force Saladin to relinquish Jerusalem by attacking the basis of his power through an invasion of Egypt . The leader of the French contingent, Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy , however, was adamant that a direct attack on Jerusalem should be made. This split the Crusader army into two factions, and neither was strong enough to achieve its objective. Richard stated that he would accompany any attack on Jerusalem but only as
21896-533: The male descendants of James II) from the order of succession . The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 , replaced male-preference primogeniture with absolute primogeniture and ended disqualification of a person who married a Roman Catholic from succession. In Scotland, the Declaration of Arbroath of 1320 asserted the rights of the nobles to choose a king if required, which implied elective monarchy. Tanistry
22080-515: The marriage. A peace treaty was secured in January 1169 and Richard's betrothal to Alys was confirmed. Henry II planned to divide his and Eleanor's territories among their three eldest surviving sons: Henry would become King of England and have control of Anjou, Maine, and Normandy; Richard would inherit Aquitaine and Poitiers from his mother; and Geoffrey would become Duke of Brittany through marriage with Constance , heir presumptive of Conan IV . At
22264-560: The match in order to obtain the Kingdom of Navarre as a fief, as Aquitaine had been for his father. Further, Eleanor championed the match, as Navarre bordered Aquitaine, thereby securing the southern border of her ancestral lands. Richard took his new wife on crusade with him briefly, though they returned separately. Berengaria had almost as much difficulty in making the journey home as her husband did, and she did not see England until after his death. After his release from German captivity, Richard showed some regret for his earlier conduct, but he
22448-580: The modern-day, have been born and brought up within a royal family , the centre of the royal household and court . Growing up in a royal family (called a dynasty when it continues for several generations ), future monarchs are often trained for their expected future responsibilities as monarch. Different systems of hereditary succession have been used, such as proximity of blood , primogeniture , and agnatic seniority ( Salic law ). While most monarchs in history have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned. The term " queen regnant " refers to
22632-425: The monarch, which is a common reason for monarchs carrying several titles. Monarchies were the most common form of government until the 20th century, when republics replaced many monarchies , notably at the end of World War I . As of 2024 , forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch, including fifteen Commonwealth realms that share King Charles III as their head of state. Other than that, there
22816-552: The monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty. There are examples of republican leaders who have proclaimed themselves monarchs: Napoleon I of France declared himself Emperor of the French and ruled the First French Empire after having held the title of First Consul of the French Republic for five years from his seizing power in the coup of 18 Brumaire . President Jean-Bédel Bokassa of
23000-676: The most remote of dynastic claims to the Swedish throne – his being chosen derived solely from urgent political and military considerations of the crisis time of the Napoleonic Wars . The Sovereign Military Order of Malta , formerly known as the Knights Hospitaller or the Knights of Malta, remains a sovereign subject of international law since it was exiled to Rome from Malta during the French occupation of Malta under
23184-453: The new Crown Prince , since it was apparent that the Swedish branch of the House of Holstein-Gottorp would die with the childless King Charles XIII . Bernadotte eventually ascended the throne as Charles XIV John of Sweden and founded the still current House of Bernadotte . In this case the elective aspect in the choice of Monarch was especially prominent, since Bernadotte had been a French commoner with no previous connection to Sweden and not
23368-556: The nobility was able to confirm their majority choice for Stephen Báthory and have it recognised, while avoiding war with Maximilian II of Habsburg . Scandinavian kingship, according to the Germanic tradition, was elected upon the death of the previous king. The selection was not always limited to the heirs of the previous king (e.g. in Sweden when the royal house was changing between the houses of Eric and Sverker between generations). Originally, kings were supposed to be elected from among
23552-502: The people of Messina revolted, demanding that the foreigners leave. Richard attacked Messina, capturing it on 4 October 1190. After looting and burning the city Richard established his base there, but this created tension between Richard and Philip. He remained there until Tancred finally agreed to sign a treaty on 4 March 1191. The treaty was signed by Richard, Philip, and Tancred. Its main terms were: The two kings stayed in Sicily for
23736-507: The people of London attacked the Jewish population. Many Jewish homes were destroyed by arsonists , and several Jews were forcibly converted . Some sought sanctuary in the Tower of London , and others managed to escape. Among those killed was Jacob of Orléans , a respected Jewish scholar. Roger of Howden, in his Gesta Regis Ricardi , claimed that the jealous and bigoted citizens started
23920-626: The person of the primate of Poland ). This unique Polish election was termed the free election ( wolna elekcja ). Although the elective principle was already established in Polish political culture in the late Middle Ages, the rules changed significantly in the 1570s, and the principles developed in that period lasted until the Partitions of Poland . There have been thirteen royal elections in Poland–Lithuania from 1573 to 1764. Roșu (2017) marked
24104-517: The person who had the custody thereof, carried off the greater part of his father's treasures, and fortified his castles in Poitou with the same, refusing to go to his father. Overall, Howden is chiefly concerned with the politics of the relationship between Richard and Philip. Gillingham has addressed theories suggesting that this political relationship was also sexually intimate, which he posits probably stemmed from an official record announcing that, as
24288-615: The pool of persons from which the monarch is chosen, and to fill the constituting institutions (e.g. diet and court ), giving many monarchies oligarchic elements. The political legitimacy of the inherited, elected or proclaimed monarchy has most often been based on claims of representation of people and land through some form of relation (e.g. kinship ) and divine right or other achieved status . Monarchs can carry various titles such as emperor , empress , king , and queen . Monarchies can form federations , personal unions and realms with vassals through personal association with
24472-495: The position is not hereditary, in practice every Māori monarch thus far has been a child of the previous monarch. The Hawaiian Kingdom could be considered a de facto example. From 1864 until the monarchy was overthrown in 1893, it was constitutionally a hereditary monarchy utilizing male-preference primogeniture . However, the Constitutions of 1864 and 1887 , and the draft constitution of 1893, all provided that, in
24656-583: The power. Other monarchs, such as the former Shahs of Iran , have been required to undergo a parliamentary vote of approval before being allowed to ascend to the throne. In the Mongol Empire , the Great Khan was chosen by the Kurultai . This was often convened in the capital. Other critical leadership positions were also assigned. The ancient Korean kingdom of Silla elected its first king by
24840-604: The present day. In Afghanistan , loya jirgas have been reportedly organized since at least the early 18th century when the Hotaki and Durrani dynasties rose to power. The ancient Aryan tribes, who are hypothesized to have spoken Proto-Indo-Iranian , came down in intermittent waves from Central Asia and Afghanistan which is a common myth. They practiced a sort of jirga system with two types of councils – simite and sabhā . The simite (summit) comprised elders and tribal chiefs. The king also joined sessions of
25024-425: The previous rulers' children, or for hereditary monarchies to acquire elective or semi-elective succession laws, particularly following dynastic crises. Many kingdoms were officially elective historically, though the candidates were typically only from the family of the deceased monarch. Eventually, however, most elected monarchies introduced hereditary succession , guaranteeing that the title and office stayed within
25208-430: The razing of Ascalon's fortifications, which Richard's men had rebuilt, and a few other points. Richard made one last attempt to strengthen his bargaining position by attempting to invade Egypt – Saladin's chief supply-base – but failed. In the end, time ran out for Richard. He realised that his return could be postponed no longer, since both Philip and John were taking advantage of his absence. He and Saladin finally came to
25392-521: The rebellion had already collapsed. William I of Scotland and Hugh Bigod were captured on 13 and 25 July respectively. Henry II returned to France and raised the siege of Rouen , where Louis VII had been joined by Henry the Young King after abandoning his plan to invade England. Louis was defeated and a peace treaty was signed in September 1174, the Treaty of Montlouis. When Henry II and Louis VII made
25576-404: The rest of the continent of Africa . Monarchies pre-date polities like nation states and even territorial states . A nation or constitution is not necessary in a monarchy since a person, the monarch, binds the separate territories and political legitimacy (e.g. in personal union) together. Monarchies, though, have applied state symbols like insignia or abstracts like the concept of
25760-411: The rioting, and that Richard punished the perpetrators, allowing a forcibly converted Jew to return to his native religion. Baldwin of Forde , Archbishop of Canterbury , reacted by remarking, "If the King is not God's man, he had better be the devil 's". Offended that he was not being obeyed, and aware that the attacks could destabilise his realm on the eve of his departure on crusade, Richard ordered
25944-417: The royal family and specifying, more or less precisely, the order of succession. Today, almost all monarchies are hereditary monarchies in which the monarchs come from one royal family with the office of sovereign being passed from one family member to another upon the death or abdication of the incumbent. The kings of Macedon and of Epirus were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to
26128-513: The sea. Cyprus remained a Christian stronghold until the Ottoman invasion in 1570. Richard's exploit was well publicised and contributed to his reputation, and he also derived significant financial gains from the conquest of the island. Richard left Cyprus for Acre on 5 June with his allies. Before leaving Cyprus on crusade, Richard married Berengaria, the first-born daughter of King Sancho VI of Navarre . Richard had first grown close to her at
26312-441: The son of Eleanor's ex-husband Louis VII by Adela of Champagne . Roger of Howden wrote: The King of England was struck with great astonishment, and wondered what [this alliance] could mean, and, taking precautions for the future, frequently sent messengers into France for the purpose of recalling his son Richard; who, pretending that he was peaceably inclined and ready to come to his father, made his way to Chinon , and, in spite of
26496-467: The song, in French and Occitan versions, to express his feelings of abandonment by his people and his sister. The detention of a crusader was contrary to public law, and on these grounds Pope Celestine III excommunicated Leopold. On 28 March 1193, Richard was brought to Speyer and handed over to Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI, who imprisoned him in Trifels Castle . The Emperor was aggrieved by
26680-459: The succession of the crown among disputed heirs: Several Māori tribes of the central North Island of New Zealand elected Pōtatau Te Wherowhero as their monarch in 1858. The Māori King movement or Kiingitanga has continued to the present. The current Māori monarch (i.e. monarch of the Kiingitanga movement, not of all Māori) is Kuīni (Queen) Ngā Wai Hono i te Pō . While in principle
26864-514: The support the Plantagenets had given to the family of Henry the Lion and by Richard's recognition of Tancred in Sicily. Henry VI needed money to raise an army and assert his rights over southern Italy and continued to hold Richard for ransom. Nevertheless, to Richard's irritation, Pope Celestine hesitated to excommunicate Henry VI, as he had Duke Leopold, for the continued wrongful imprisonment of Richard. He famously refused to show deference to
27048-408: The surrender negotiations with Saladin's forces inside Acre and raised the banners of the kings in the city. Richard quarrelled with Leopold over the deposition of Isaac Komnenos (related to Leopold's Byzantine mother) and his position within the crusade. Leopold's banner had been raised alongside the English and French standards. This was interpreted as arrogance by both Richard and Philip, as Leopold
27232-698: The terms of the surrender of the lands around Acre. Philip, before leaving, had entrusted his prisoners to Conrad, but Richard forced him to hand them over to him. Richard feared his forces being bottled up in Acre as he believed his campaign could not advance with the prisoners in train. He, therefore, ordered all the prisoners executed . He then moved south, defeating Saladin's forces at the Battle of Arsuf 30 miles (50 km) north of Jaffa on 7 September 1191. Saladin attempted to harass Richard's army into breaking its formation in order to defeat it in detail. Richard maintained his army's defensive formation, however, until
27416-479: The three "malignant" basic forms of government ( tyranny , oligarchy , and ochlocracy ). The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as " king " or "ruler" (translating archon , basileus , rex , tyrannos , etc.) or as " queen " ( basilinna , basilissa , basileia or basilis ; regina ). Polybius originally understood monarchy as a component of republics, but since antiquity monarchy has contrasted with forms of republic, where executive power
27600-553: The three brothers accepted were less generous than those they had been offered earlier in the conflict (when Richard was offered four castles in Aquitaine and half of the income from the duchy): Richard was given control of two castles in Poitou and half the income of Aquitaine; Henry the Young King was given two castles in Normandy; and Geoffrey was permitted half of Brittany . Eleanor remained Henry II's prisoner until his death, partly as insurance for Richard's good behaviour. After
27784-484: The throne could not be considered vacant at their own death and thus the need for succession by election would not arise. A system of elective monarchy existed in Anglo-Saxon England (see Witenagemot ). John of England was chosen as King of England by a council of nobles and royal advisors at the death of his brother, Richard I , in 1199 because the heir by strict primogeniture, Arthur of Brittany ,
27968-553: The throne vacant, the French Chamber of Deputies voted 229–33 to declare Louis-Philippe of France as King of the French during the July Revolution of 1830, creating an elective monarchy. France briefly had again a kind of elective monarchy when Napoleon III was first elected President of France and then transformed himself into an Emperor. The Holy Roman Empire , beginning with its predecessor Eastern Francia,
28152-495: The title khan and khagan (emperor) or khatun and khanum ; Ancient Egyptian monarchs have used the title pharaoh for men and women. In Ethiopian Empire , monarchs used title nəgusä nägäst (king of kings) or nəgəstä nägäst (queen of kings). Many monarchs are addressed with particular styles or manners of address, like " Majesty ", " Royal Highness ", " By the Grace of God ", Amīr al-Mu'minīn ("Leader of
28336-484: The walls of Acre. Leopold kept Richard prisoner at Dürnstein Castle under the care of Leopold's ministerialis Hadmar of Kuenring. This mishap was soon known in England, but the regents were for some weeks uncertain of his whereabouts. While in prison, Richard wrote the musical piece Ja nus hons pris or Ja nuls om pres ("No man who is imprisoned"), which is addressed to his half-sister Marie. He wrote
28520-535: The will of a deity ( Divine Right of Kings , Mandate of Heaven ), or a special connection to a deity ( sacred king ), or even purported to be divine kings, or incarnations of deities themselves ( imperial cult ). Many European monarchs have been styled Fidei defensor (Defender of the Faith); some hold official positions relating to the state religion or established church. In the Western political tradition,
28704-584: The wrecks had been taken prisoner by the island's ruler, Isaac Komnenos . On 1 May 1191, Richard's fleet arrived in the port of Lemesos on Cyprus. He ordered Isaac to release the prisoners and treasure. Isaac refused, so Richard landed his troops and took Lemesos. Various princes of the Holy Land arrived in Lemesos at the same time, in particular Guy of Lusignan . All declared their support for Richard provided that he support Guy against his rival, Conrad of Montferrat . The local magnates abandoned Isaac, who considered making peace with Richard, joining him on
28888-533: The younger (and illegitimate) son of Peter I , thus avoiding a jure uxoris Castilian king. In the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem , the kingship was partially elected and partially hereditary. During the height of the kingdom in the mid-12th century there was a royal family and a relatively clear line of succession. Nevertheless, the king was elected, or at least recognized, by the Haute Cour . Here
29072-453: Was Elizabeth Dawbarn , whose anonymous Dialogue between Clara Neville and Louisa Mills, on Loyalty (1794) features "silly Louisa, who admires liberty, Tom Paine and the US, [who is] lectured by Clara on God's approval of monarchy" and on the influence women can exert on men. Since then advocacy of the abolition of a monarchy or respectively of republics has been called republicanism , while
29256-434: Was a child at that time. This affirmed the principle of elective monarchy. In 14th, 15th, late 17th and early 18th century England, the evolving relations between the Crown and Parliament resulted in a monarchy with both hereditary and quasi-elective elements – at least as between various contenders with some dynastic claim for the throne. Henry IV of England was chosen by Parliament in 1399 to replace Richard II . Richard
29440-542: Was a vassal of the Holy Roman Emperor (although he was the highest-ranking surviving leader of the imperial forces). Richard's men tore the flag down and threw it in the moat of Acre. Leopold left the crusade immediately. Philip also left soon afterwards, in poor health and after further disputes with Richard over the status of Cyprus (Philip demanded half the island) and the kingship of Jerusalem. Richard, suddenly, found himself without allies. Richard had kept 2,700 Muslim prisoners as hostages against Saladin fulfilling all
29624-412: Was also the system of royal succession until King Malcolm II in the early 11th century introduced direct inheritance. The Isle of Man also used tanistry. In Ireland, from the beginning of recorded history until the mid-16th/early 17th century, succession was determined by an elective system based on patrilineal relationship known as tanistry . In the Dutch Republic of the 17th and 18th centuries there
29808-432: Was arranged that Richard would marry one of the daughters of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona ; however, these arrangements failed, and the marriage never took place. Henry the Young King was married to Margaret , daughter of Louis VII of France, on 2 November 1160. Despite this alliance between the Plantagenets and the Capetians , the dynasty on the French throne, the two houses were sometimes in conflict. In 1168,
29992-421: Was challenged by Conrad of Montferrat, second husband of Sibylla's half-sister, Isabella : Conrad, whose defence of Tyre had saved the kingdom in 1187, was supported by Philip of France, son of his first cousin Louis VII of France, and by another cousin, Leopold V, Duke of Austria . Richard also allied with Humphrey IV of Toron , Isabella's first husband, from whom she had been forcibly divorced in 1190. Humphrey
30176-444: Was childless, and the Earl of March , the next in line to the throne, was a young child at the time, so Parliament bypassed him in favour of Henry, who had led a revolt against Richard. Parliament also confirmed depositions during the Wars of the Roses , as well as Henry VIII's settlements of the crown. During the Exclusion Crisis , King Charles II strongly opposed any such idea. Following the Glorious Revolution , Parliament enacted
30360-441: Was difficult. The authors argue that monarchy declined as an efficient regime type with innovations in communications and transportation technology, as the efficiency of monarchy relative to other regime types declined. According to a 2023 study, monarchy has persisted as a regime type because it can accommodate demands for democratization better than other forms of autocratic rule: "Monarchies can democratize without destabilizing
30544-438: Was even 'infernal blood' in their ancestry, with a claimed descent from the fairy, or female demon, Melusine . While his father visited his lands from Scotland to France, Richard probably spent his childhood in England. His first recorded visit to the European continent was in May 1165, when his mother took him to Normandy. His wet nurse was Hodierna of St Albans , whom he gave a generous pension after he became king. Little
30728-440: Was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or head of family , with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their male issue, to the total exclusion of females and descendants through females from succession. This complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the Salic law . Another variation on agnatic primogeniture
30912-441: Was heavily influenced by local traditions and strength of the ruler. In Poland , after the death of the last Piast in 1370, Polish kings were initially elected by a small council; gradually, this privilege was granted to all members of the szlachta (Polish nobility). Kings of Poland and Grand Dukes of Lithuania during the times of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) were elected by gatherings of crowds of nobles at
31096-429: Was light-eyed with a pale complexion. According to Clifford Brewer, he was 6 feet 5 inches (1.96 m), although that is unverifiable since his remains have been lost since at least the French Revolution . John, his youngest brother, was known to be 5 feet 5 inches (1.65 m). The Itinerarium peregrinorum et gesta regis Ricardi , a Latin prose narrative of the Third Crusade , states that: "He
31280-427: Was loyal to Guy and spoke Arabic fluently, so Richard used him as a translator and negotiator. Richard and his forces aided in the capture of Acre, despite Richard's serious illness. At one point, while sick from arnaldia , a disease similar to scurvy , he picked off guards on the walls with a crossbow , while being carried on a stretcher covered "in a great silken quilt". Eventually, Conrad of Montferrat concluded
31464-425: Was needed in Spain. The debates regarding Isabella's succession took place until October 1869, when Amadeo I was finally chosen. Nevertheless, his reign lasted until 11 October 1873, when he abdicated citing his inability to solve the problems Spain was going through, after which the parliament proclaimed a republic . Portugal's monarchy contained the remnants of the elective principle in requiring reciprocal oaths,
31648-418: Was not reunited with his wife. The marriage remained childless. Richard landed at Acre on 8 June 1191. He gave his support to his Poitevin vassal Guy of Lusignan, who had brought troops to help him in Cyprus. Guy was the widower of his father's cousin Sibylla of Jerusalem and was trying to retain the kingship of Jerusalem, despite his wife's death during the Siege of Acre the previous year. Guy's claim
31832-432: Was officially invested as Duke of Normandy on 20 July 1189 and crowned king in Westminster Abbey on 3 September 1189. Tradition barred all Jews and women from the investiture, but some Jewish leaders arrived to present gifts for the new king. According to Ralph of Diceto, Richard's courtiers stripped and flogged the Jews, then flung them out of court. When a rumour spread that Richard had ordered all Jews to be killed,
32016-521: Was particularly the case for Augustus , the first Emperor, who established the Principate. Whilst given many titles (including "Augustus", i.e. "majestic") he described himself as princeps senatus , or merely "first among senators". The illusion of being elected from the Senate continued. Over time the principle weakened as republican government passed into distant history, and the Empire became functionally an absolute monarchy. The office of Roman and Byzantine emperor remained vaguely elective (albeit with
32200-427: Was rejected by the inhabitants; he withdrew to the city of Saintes , which he established as a base of operations. In the meantime, Henry II had raised a very expensive army of more than 20,000 mercenaries with which to face the rebellion. He marched on Verneuil, and Louis retreated from his forces. The army proceeded to recapture Dol and subdued Brittany. At this point Henry II made an offer of peace to his sons; on
32384-493: Was repeated in Limoges, where he wore the ring of St Valerie , who was the personification of Aquitaine. According to Ralph of Coggeshall , Henry the Young King instigated rebellion against Henry II; he wanted to reign independently over at least part of the territory his father had promised him, and to break away from his dependence on Henry II, who controlled the purse strings. There were rumors that Eleanor might have encouraged her sons to revolt against their father. Henry
32568-436: Was replaced by William Longchamp. Richard's brother John was not satisfied by this decision and started scheming against William Longchamp. When Richard was raising funds for his crusade, he was said to have declared, "I would have sold London if I could find a buyer". In September 1190 Richard and Philip arrived in Sicily . After the death of King William II of Sicily in 1189 his cousin Tancred had seized power, although
32752-421: Was spent on Crusade, in captivity, or actively defending the French portions of the Angevin Empire . Though regarded as a model king during the four centuries after his death, and seen as a pious hero by his subjects, from the 17th century onward he was gradually perceived by historians as a ruler who preferred to use his kingdom merely as a source of revenue to support his armies, rather than regarding England as
32936-403: Was tall, of elegant build; the colour of his hair was between red and gold; his limbs were supple and straight. He had long arms suited to wielding a sword. His long legs matched the rest of his body". Marriage alliances were common among medieval royalty: they led to political alliances and peace treaties and allowed families to stake claims of succession on each other's lands. In March 1159, it
33120-422: Was the Republic's highest official and powerful within restrictions and levels of oversight that varied in different periods. The election process began with the Great Council of more than 2000 Venetian aristocrats and employed an elaborate system designed to prevent one family or alliance from dominating the process. It used smaller nominating groups that were reduced in number by the drawing of lots and required
33304-423: Was the office of the Stadtholder , whose powers fell short of those of a monarch, and which was elective. Each of the seven Dutch provinces could separately elect its own Stadtholder, and it did not have to be the same person in all of them. In theory anyone could be elected Stadtholder, though in practice it was restricted to members of the House of Orange . There was no obligation to elect a Stadtholder at all, and
33488-404: Was the so-called semi-Salic law, or "agnatic-cognatic primogeniture", which allowed women to succeed only at the extinction of all the male descendants in the male line of the particular legislator. Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for
33672-426: Was the younger brother of William , Henry the Young King , and Matilda ; William died before Richard's birth. As a younger son of King Henry II, Richard was not expected to ascend the throne. Four more children were born to King Henry and Queen Eleanor: Geoffrey , Eleanor , Joan , and John . Richard also had two half-sisters from his mother's first marriage to Louis VII of France : Marie and Alix . Richard
33856-452: Was therefore not expected to become king, but his two elder brothers predeceased their father. By the age of 16, Richard had taken command of his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father. Richard was an important Christian commander during the Third Crusade , leading the campaign after the departure of Philip II of France and achieving several victories against his Muslim counterpart, Saladin , although he finalised
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