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101-463: During the period of the development of Christian doctrine and refinement of Christian theological language which ran from AD 360 to 380, the controversy between Arianism and what would eventually come to be defined as catholic orthodoxy provoked an enormous burgeoning of new movements, sects and doctrines which came into existence in the attempt to stabilize and consolidate a unique and universal position on complex and subtle theological questions. One of

202-672: A present participle of the verb 'to be' , two main corresponding variants occurred. Since the Aristotelian term ousia was commonly translated in Latin as essentia ( essence ) or substantia ( substance ), the Greek term homoousios was consequently translated into Latin as coessentialis or consubstantialis , hence the English terms coessential and consubstantial . Some modern scholars say that homoousios

303-686: A Sabellian tendency." This was because Sabellius also considered the Father and the Son to be "one substance", meaning that, to Sabellius, the Father and the Son were "one essential Person", though operating in different faces, roles, or modes. This notion, however, was also rejected at the Council of Nicaea, in favor of the Nicene Creed , which holds the Father and Son to be distinct yet also coequal, coeternal, and consubstantial divine persons. The use of

404-500: A compromise was not the purpose. More recently, Lewis Ayres proposed that Homoiousianism was not merely a compromise but "a significant and persistent strand in earlier eastern theology." There are indications that this theology was a restatement or development of the theology of Eusebius of Caesarea, as stated in the letter he wrote to his home church after the Nicene Council, to explain why he accepted that Creed: Eusebius

505-472: A council in 358 at Sirmium , at the height of the movement's influence, the claim was made that the Son is "like [the Father] in all [respects]" ( ὅμοιον κατὰ πάντα , hómoion katà pánta ), while the use of οὐσία ( ousía ) or any of its compounds in theological discussion was strongly criticized but not abandoned, and the heteroousians were anathematized. This compromise solution, which was satisfying to both

606-406: A designation which is more accurate.” “The statement which emerged from this council … marks the emergence of a new and coherent theological point of view. This is the theology of those whom Epiphanius, quite undeservedly, calls 'Semi-Arians', but who are usually today thought of as Homoiousians, a designation which is more accurate.” This statement was written by Basil of Ancyra himself and “is of

707-663: A dogma of the still-united Western and Eastern churches for the next two millennia when its use was confirmed by the First Council of Constantinople (381). The struggle over the understanding of Christ's divinity was not solely a matter for the Church. The Roman Emperor Theodosius had published an edict, prior to the Council of Constantinople, declaring that the Nicene Creed was the legitimate doctrine and that those opposed to it were heretics. It has also been said that

808-518: A fundamentally Homoiousian way.” “It is only in the next few years that Basil will move towards the distinctions with which he is often identified.” Furthermore, both Hilary, the "standard-bearer for the pro-Nicene cause” in the west and Athanasius defended Homoiousianism: “In ... the De synodis, Athanasius” claims that he and the Homoiousians “fundamentally teach the same doctrine.” He “reaches out to

909-504: A partisan for a distinct Homoiousian party.” However: “In the early and mid-360s we still find Basil discussing theological topics with those whom we can broadly term ‘Homoiousian’. We may even think of Basil's major dogmatic work, the Contra Eunomium, as the logical conclusion of one strand of Homoiousian theology.” “Around 360,” “Basil lets us know his preference for the phrase (‘invariably like according to essence’) to describe

1010-604: A public order, that if someone should be discovered to have hidden a writing composed by Arius, and not to have immediately brought it forward and destroyed it by fire, his penalty shall be death. As soon as he is discovered in this offence, he shall be submitted for capital punishment. ... Ten years after the Council of Nicaea, Constantine the Great , who was himself later baptized by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia in 337 AD, convened another gathering of church leaders at

1111-555: A two-sided battle between the Homoousians and the Homoians. Proponents of this view included Eustathius of Sebaste and George of Laodicea . It is, however, not quite true to say that Homoiousianism died with Basil of Ancyra's fall from grace. Basil of Caesarea is regarded by some as "the architect of the pro-Nicene triumph" and “it has been traditional to speak of Basil as initially a Homoiousian.” “We never encounter Basil as

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1212-567: Is a Christian theological term, most notably used in the Nicene Creed for describing Jesus ( God the Son ) as "same in being" or "same in essence" with God the Father ( ὁμοούσιον τῷ Πατρί ). The same term was later also applied to the Holy Spirit in order to designate him as being "same in essence" with the Father and the Son. Those notions became cornerstones of theology in Nicene Christianity , and also represent one of

1313-487: Is called Logos only because of resemblance with the inner Logos of God. A verse from Proverbs was used for the creation of the Son: "The Lord created me at the beginning of his work." Therefore, the Son was rather the very first and the most perfect of God's creatures, and he was called "God" only by the Father's permission and power. The definition of "Son" is ambiguous as Arians have applied an adoptionist theology to defend

1414-447: Is called, 'like-in-essence,' there ought to be no mention of any of these at all, nor exposition of them in the Church, for this reason and for this consideration, that in divine Scripture nothing is written about them, and that they are above men's knowledge and above men's understanding; As debates raged in an attempt to come up with a new formula, three camps evolved among the opponents of the Nicene Creed. The first group mainly opposed

1515-497: Is evident in his writings that he considered the Son's divinity lesser than the Father's, since he even calls the Son "a creature". It was by Athanasius of Alexandria and the Nicene Council that the Son was taken to have exactly the same essence with the Father, and in the Nicene Creed the Son was declared to be as immutable as his Father. While it is common to find statements that Origen and other early apologist Church fathers held subordinationist views, Ilaria Ramelli discussed

1616-512: Is first attributed to Arius ( c.  AD 256–336 ), a Christian presbyter who preached and studied in Alexandria , Egypt . Arian theology holds that Jesus Christ is the Son of God , who was begotten by God the Father with the difference that the Son of God did not always exist but was begotten/made before time by God the Father; therefore, Jesus was not coeternal with God

1717-591: Is no certainty about what theological and philosophical traditions formed his thought. The influence from the One of Neo-Platonism was widespread throughout the Eastern Roman Empire and this influenced Arius. Arius's basic premise is that only God is independent for his existence. Since the Son is dependent he must therefore be called a creature. Arians put forward a question for their belief: "Has God birthed Jesus willingly or unwillingly?" This question

1818-652: Is often claimed that Homoiousianism arose as an attempt to reconcile two opposing teachings, namely, Homoousianism and Homoianism : It is then proposed that Homoiousian (similar substance) theology was an attempt to reconcile the Homoousian (same substance) theology with the Homoian notion of similarity. However, Homoiousianism was “most prominently associated with … Basil of Ancyra” and "the term homoiousios plays no role in Basil's surviving texts," implying that such

1919-420: Is one God (Gk. theos – θεός), the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we exist, and one Lord/Master ( kyrios – κύριος), Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we exist. The creed of Arian Ulfilas (c. 311–383), which concludes the above-mentioned letter by Auxentius, distinguishes God the Father ("unbegotten"), who is the only true God, from the Son of God ("only-begotten"); and

2020-469: Is one God of all, who is also God of our God; and in one Holy Spirit, the illuminating and sanctifying power, as Christ said after his resurrection to his apostles: "And behold, I send the promise of my Father upon you; but tarry ye in the city of Jerusalem, until ye be clothed with power from on high" and again "But ye shall receive power, when the Holy Ghost is come upon you"; Neither God nor Lord, but

2121-455: Is properly translated as coessential , while consubstantial has a much wider spectrum of meanings. The Book of Common Prayer renders the term as "being of one substance with the Father." From ὁμοούσιος (coessential), the theological term ὁμοουσιότης (coessentiality) was also derived. It was used by Greek-speaking authors, like Didymus of Alexandria and other theologians. The term ὁμοούσιος had been used before its adoption by

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2222-561: The Arian bishop, Demophilus of Constantinople , and surrendered the churches of that city to Gregory of Nazianzus , the Homoiousian leader of the rather small Nicene community there, an act which provoked rioting. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop Acholius of Thessalonica, during a severe illness, as was common in the early Christian world. In February he and Gratian had published an edict that all their subjects should profess

2323-602: The First Council of Constantinople in AD 381, three distinct and infinite hypostases , or divine persons, the Father , the Son , and the Holy Spirit , fully possess the very same divine ousia . This doctrine was formulated in the 4th century, during the Arian controversy over Christology between Arius and Athanasius. The several distinct branches of Arianism which sometimes conflicted with each other as well as with

2424-695: The First Synod of Tyre in AD 335, they brought accusations against Athanasius , now bishop of Alexandria, the primary opponent of Arius. After this, Constantine had Athanasius banished since he considered him an impediment to reconciliation. In the same year, the Synod of Jerusalem under Constantine's direction readmitted Arius to communion in 336. Arius died on the way to this event in Constantinople. Some scholars suggest that Arius may have been poisoned by his opponents. Eusebius and Theognis remained in

2525-642: The Godhead ". Another consideration may have been the association of the latter term with Paul of Samosata and with Gnosticism 's Platonic chain of being. “In AD 359 Constantius decided to emulate his father's action in calling Nicaea and summon a general council. … A small group of bishops met at Sirmium to draw up a draft creed for discussion. Those present included not only Basil, but also some who were far more suspicious of ousia language. The creed on which they finally agreed … asserts that all ousia language should be avoided. … … Thus, although Basil of Ancyra

2626-581: The Jews . The apparent resurgence of Arianism after Nicaea was more an anti-Nicene reaction exploited by Arian sympathizers than a pro-Arian development. By the end of the 4th century it had surrendered its remaining ground to Trinitarianism . In Western Europe, Arianism, which had been taught by Ulfilas , the Arian missionary to the Germanic tribes, was dominant among the Goths , Langobards and Vandals . By

2727-636: The Nicene Creed of 381 , which was supplemented in regard to the Holy Spirit , as well as some other changes: see Comparison of Nicene Creeds of 325 and 381 . This is generally considered the end of the dispute about the Trinity and the end of Arianism among the Roman, non-Germanic peoples. During the time of Arianism's flowering in Constantinople , the Gothic convert and Arian bishop Ulfilas (later

2828-541: The fall of the Western Roman Empire . The antipopes Felix II and Ursinus were Arian, and Pope Liberius was forced to sign the Arian Creed of Sirmium of 357 although the letter says he willingly agreed with Arianism. Such a deep controversy within the early Church during this period of its development could not have materialized without significant historical influences providing a basis for

2929-462: The "Homoian" party, exiling bishops and often using force. During this persecution many bishops were exiled to the other ends of the Roman Empire (e.g., Saint Hilary of Poitiers to the eastern provinces). These contacts and the common plight subsequently led to a rapprochement between the western supporters of the Nicene Creed and the homoousios and the eastern Semi-Arians. It was not until

3030-717: The "anti-subordinationism" of Origen. Both the Nicene and Athanasian creeds affirm the Son as both begotten of, and equal to his Father. If so, many concepts of the Holy Trinity would appear to have already existed relatively early while the specific language used to affirm the doctrine continued to develop. Some theologians preferred the use of the term ὁμοιούσιος ( homoioúsios or alternative uncontracted form ὁμοιοούσιος homoiοoúsios ; from ὅμοιος , hómoios , "similar", rather than ὁμός , homós , "same, common") in order to emphasize distinctions among

3131-470: The 2nd-century Gnostics, and through their works it became known to the orthodox heresiologists , though this Gnostic use of the term had no reference to the specific relationship between Father and Son, as is the case in the Nicene Creed . The Nicene Creed is the official doctrine of most Christian churches—the Catholic Church , Eastern Orthodox Church , Oriental Orthodox Churches, Church of

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3232-732: The 8th century, it had ceased to be the tribes' mainstream belief as the tribal rulers gradually came to adopt Nicene orthodoxy. This trend began in 496 with Clovis I of the Franks, then Reccared I of the Visigoths in 587 and Aripert I of the Lombards in 653. Homoousian Homoousion ( / ˌ h ɒ m oʊ ˈ uː s i ɒ n , ˌ h oʊ m -/ HO(H)M -oh- OO -see-on ; Ancient Greek : ὁμοούσιον , lit.   'same in being, same in essence', from ὁμός , homós , "same" and οὐσία , ousía , "being" or "essence")

3333-525: The Arian German kingdoms established in the collapsing Western Empire in the 5th century were entirely separate Arian and Nicene Churches with parallel hierarchies, each serving different sets of believers. The Germanic elites were Arians, and the Romance majority population was Nicene. The Arian Germanic tribes were generally tolerant towards Nicene Christians and other religious minorities, including

3434-502: The Arian doctrines. Arius had been a pupil of Lucian of Antioch at Lucian's private academy in Antioch and inherited from him a modified form of the teachings of Paul of Samosata . Arius taught that God the Father and the Son of God did not always exist together eternally. Emperor Constantine the Great summoned the First Council of Nicaea , which defined the dogmatic fundaments of Christianity; these definitions served to rebut

3535-400: The Church, since Arius's theology received widespread sympathy (or at least was not considered to be overly controversial) and could not be dismissed outright as individual heresy. Arianism had several different variants, including Eunomianism and Homoian Arianism . Homoian Arianism is associated with Acacius and Eudoxius . Homoian Arianism avoided the use of the word ousia to describe

3636-509: The Council of Nicaea been the head of the Arian party, who also was made the bishop of Constantinople. Constantius used his power to exile bishops adhering to the Nicene Creed, especially St Athanasius of Alexandria , who fled to Rome. In 355 Constantius became the sole Roman emperor and extended his pro-Arian policy toward the western provinces, frequently using force to push through his creed, even exiling Pope Liberius and installing Antipope Felix II . The Third Council of Sirmium in 357

3737-534: The East , Lutheran Churches , Moravian Church , Anglican Communion , and Reformed Churches as well as other mainline Protestant and evangelical churches with regard to the ontological status of the three persons or hypostases of the Trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Origen seems to have been the first ecclesiastical writer to use the word homoousios in a nontrinitarian context, but it

3838-542: The Emperor's favor, and when Constantine, who had been a catechumen much of his adult life, accepted baptism on his deathbed, it was from Eusebius of Nicomedia. The First Council of Nicaea did not end the controversy, as many bishops of the Eastern provinces disputed the homoousios , the central term of the Nicene Creed, as it had been used by Paul of Samosata , who had advocated a monarchianist Christology . Both

3939-526: The Father and God the Son and God the Holy Spirit all being uncreated. According to the teaching of Arius, the preexistent Logos and thus the incarnate Jesus Christ was a begotten being; only the Son was directly begotten by God the Father, before ages, but was of a distinct, though similar, essence or substance from the Creator. His opponents argued that this would make Jesus less than God and that this

4040-532: The Father is a deity and is divine and the Son of God is not a deity but divine (I, the LORD, am Deity alone.) God the Father sent Jesus to earth for salvation of mankind. Ousia is essence or being, in Eastern Christianity , and is the aspect of God that is completely incomprehensible to mankind and human perception. It is all that subsists by itself and which has not its being in another, God

4141-496: The Father … This is manifestly directed against N (the Nicene Creed).” In Sabellianism, the Son is not a distinct Person. Rather, the Father and Son are parts of one Person. Basil responded: “This argument that God must be both Father and creator and that the likeness in ousia is necessary … as a safeguard against Sabellianism: that which is like can never be the same as that to which it is like'.” The anathemas also attack

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4242-407: The Father, but nonetheless Jesus began to exist outside time. Arius' trinitarian theology, later given an extreme form by Aetius and his disciple Eunomius and called anomoean ('dissimilar'), asserts a total dissimilarity between the Son and the Father. Arianism holds that the Son is distinct from the Father and therefore subordinate to him. The term Arian is derived from the name Arius; it

4343-436: The Father, ("unbegotten" God; Almighty God) always existing and who is the only true God. The Son of God, Jesus Christ, ("only-begotten god" ), was begotten before time began. The Holy Spirit is the illuminating and sanctifying power of God. 1 Corinthians 8:5–6 was cited as proof text : Indeed, even though there may be so-called gods in heaven or on earth—as in fact there are many gods and many lords/masters—yet for us there

4444-466: The First Council of Nicaea. The Gnostics were the first to use the word ὁμοούσιος , while before the Gnostics there is no trace at all of its existence. The early church theologians were probably made aware of this concept, and thus of the doctrine of emanation , taught by the Gnostics. In Gnostic texts, the word ὁμοούσιος is used with the following meanings: For example, Basilides ,

4545-626: The Goths to Arianism was strengthened by later events; the conversion of Goths led to a widespread diffusion of Arianism among other Germanic tribes as well ( Vandals , Langobards , Svevi , and Burgundians ). When the Germanic peoples entered the provinces of the Western Roman Empire and began founding their own kingdoms there, most of them were Arian Christians. The conflict in the 4th century had seen Arian and Nicene factions struggling for control of Western Europe. In contrast, among

4646-515: The Holy Spirit, the illuminating and sanctifying power, which is neither God the Father nor the Lord Jesus Christ: I, Ulfila, bishop and confessor, have always so believed, and in this, the one true faith, I make the journey to my Lord; I believe in only one God the Father, the unbegotten and invisible, and in his only-begotten Son, our Lord/Master and God, the designer and maker of all creation, having none other like him. Therefore, there

4747-471: The Homoians and the Homoiousians, deliberately set out to alienate the more extreme Neo-Arians (heteroousians). It was successful in this intent but it remained as illegitimate in the eyes of the pro-Nicenes as ever and Basil of Ancyra declared that "that which is like can never be the same as that to which it is like". The term "homoiousios" was also preferred by many Origenists over the term "homoousios" because they felt it left "more room for distinctions in

4848-449: The Homoiousians by attempting to refute their objections to Nicaea's two uses of ousia language, ‘of the Father's ousia ’ and homoousios.” “Just as Athanasius saw grounds for a rapprochement between himself and the Homoiousians, Hilary saw the same.” Arianism Arianism ( Koinē Greek : Ἀρειανισμός , Areianismós ) is a Christological doctrine considered heretical by all modern mainstream branches of Christianity. It

4949-597: The Homoousianism of the Nicene Creed, the Son's substance is identical with the Father's, meaning two substances that are identical. This is based on a material interpretation of the terms “Father,” Son,” and “only-begotten,” as if God has a body and bodily gave existence to the Son, comparable to how human sons are brought forth. Consequently, the Son’s substance is identical to the Father’s. For example: “Anathema 13 links

5050-638: The Nicaean Creed—Arius himself, the deacon Euzoios, and the Libyan bishops Theonas of Marmarica and Secundus of Ptolemais —and also the bishops who signed the creed but refused to join in condemnation of Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nicaea . The emperor also ordered all copies of the Thalia , the book in which Arius had expressed his teachings, to be burned . However, there is no evidence that his son and ultimate successor, Constantius II , who

5151-509: The Nicene terminology and preferred the term homoiousios (alike in substance) to the Nicene homoousios , while they rejected Arius and his teaching and accepted the equality and co-eternality of the persons of the Trinity. Because of this centrist position, and despite their rejection of Arius, they were called "Semi-Arians" by their opponents. The second group also avoided invoking the name of Arius, but in large part followed Arius's teachings and, in another attempted compromise wording, described

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5252-420: The Son as being like ( homoios ) the Father. A third group explicitly called upon Arius and described the Son as unlike ( anhomoios ) the Father. Constantius wavered in his support between the first and the second party, while harshly persecuting the third. Epiphanius of Salamis labeled the party of Basil of Ancyra in 358 " Semi-Arianism ". This is considered unfair by Kelly who states that some members of

5353-473: The Son's likeness to the Father consists in power but not in ousia.” Homoiousianism was somewhere between the Homoousian (identical substance) view and the Neo-Arian (different substance) view. The 55 years of Controversy after the Nicene Creed of 325 revolved specifically around the word homoousios. Since, in the Nicene Creed, this term was an interpretation of the term "begotten," the differences between

5454-459: The Son) was "same in being" or "same in essence" with God the Father. Arius stated: "If the Father begat the Son, then he who was begotten had a beginning in existence, and from this it follows there was a time when the Son was not." The ecumenical First Council of Nicaea of 325 declared Arianism to be a heresy. According to Everett Ferguson , "The great majority of Christians had no clear views about

5555-568: The apparent Sabellianism of Marcellus of Ancyra. In Neo-Arianism, which was “a new and radical” (RH, 348) adaptation of Arius’ theology, the terms “Father,” Son,” and “only-begotten” symbolize that the Son is the very image of the Father, but not in a corporeal (material) sense. For that reason, in this view, "the Son is ' unlike ' (anhomoios) in ousia to the Father” Ayres refers to this as "Heterousian (different substance) theology." (LA, 149) For example, “Anathema 12 strikes him who declares that

5656-484: The central questions concerned the nature of God and the fundamental character of his relationship with his Son Jesus Christ as the preexistent Logos . This controversy was called the "trinitarian controversy" because it involved solving the riddle of how it was possible that God the Father, His Son Jesus the Word, and the Holy Spirit could be one God. The dominant position among Christian theologians at this point in history

5757-450: The closeness of the Father and Son expressed by the concepts “Father/Son” and “begotten.” He wrote: It is often claimed that the term homo-ousios in the Nicene Creed means " one substance," namely, that the substance of the Son is one and the same as the Father's substance. It is on this basis alone that we can argue that the Son is co-eternal and co-equal with the Father. However: The idea of "one substance," therefore, developed later. In

5858-577: The co-reigns of Gratian and Theodosius that Arianism was effectively wiped out among the ruling class and elite of the Eastern Empire. Valens died in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 and was succeeded by Theodosius I , who adhered to the Nicene Creed. This allowed for settling the dispute. Theodosius's wife St Flacilla was instrumental in his campaign to end Arianism. Two days after Theodosius arrived in Constantinople, 24 November 380, he expelled

5959-461: The creation ex nihilo of Jesus from God. Arians do not believe in the traditional doctrine of the Trinity . The letter of the Arian bishop Auxentius of Durostorum regarding the Arian missionary Ulfilas gives a picture of Arian beliefs. The Arian Ulfilas, who was ordained a bishop by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia and returned to his people to work as a missionary, believed: God,

6060-412: The deaths of both Arius and Constantine. Though Arianism had spread, Athanasius and other Nicene Christian church leaders crusaded against Arian theology, and Arius was anathemised and condemned as a heretic once more at the ecumenical First Council of Constantinople of 381 (attended by 150 bishops). The Roman Emperors Constantius II (337–361) and Valens (364–378) were Arians or Semi-Arians , as

6161-518: The eastern Mediterranean. By 325, the controversy had become significant enough that the Emperor Constantine called an assembly of bishops, the First Council of Nicaea , which condemned Arius's doctrine and formulated the original Nicene Creed of 325 . The Nicene Creed's central term, used to describe the relationship between the Father and the Son, is Homoousios ( Ancient Greek : ὁμοούσιος ), or Consubstantiality , meaning "of

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6262-464: The error of thinking of the Father/Son relationship in corporeal terms with that of making the Son identical with the Father.” Homo-i-ousianism did not accept this notion. In Homo-i-ousianism, the Son is subordinate to the Father. If this is true, then the Son's substance cannot be identical to the Father's. Basil explained: Anathema 13 “damns him who declares ... that the Son is identical with

6363-519: The faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith), or be handed over for punishment for not doing so. Although much of the church hierarchy in the East had opposed the Nicene Creed in the decades leading up to Theodosius's accession, he managed to achieve unity on the basis of the Nicene Creed. In 381, at the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople, a group of mainly Eastern bishops assembled and accepted

6464-600: The faithful minister of Christ; not equal, but subject and obedient in all things to the Son. And I believe the Son to be subject and obedient in all things to God the Father. A letter from Arius (c. 250–336) to the Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia (died 341) states the core beliefs of the Arians: Some of them say that the Son is an eructation, others that he is a production, others that he is also unbegotten. These are impieties to which we cannot listen, even though

6565-402: The first known Gnostic thinker to use ὁμοούσιος in the first half of the 2nd century AD, speaks of a threefold sonship consubstantial with the god who is not. The Valentinian Gnostic Ptolemy says in his letter to Flora that it is the nature of the good God to beget and bring forth only beings similar to, and consubstantial with, himself. The term ὁμοούσιος was already in current use by

6666-522: The first time in the extant ancient records in the form of the “Second Creed of Sirmium of 357,” afterward approved by a larger synod at Antioch (probably in AD 358). 'Neo-Arianism' may be an appropriate name because it was “a development" of Arius' theology. “The statement which emerged from this council … marks the emergence of a new and coherent theological point of view. This is the theology of those whom Epiphanius, quite undeservedly, calls 'Semi-Arians', but who are usually today thought of as Homoiousians,

6767-580: The group were virtually orthodox from the start but disliked the adjective homoousios while others had moved in that direction after the out-and-out Arians had come into the open. The debates among these groups resulted in numerous synods, among them the Council of Serdica in 343, the Fourth Council of Sirmium in 358 and the double Council of Rimini and Seleucia in 359, and no fewer than fourteen further creed formulas between 340 and 360, leading

6868-444: The heretics threaten us with a thousand deaths. But we say and believe and have taught, and do teach, that the Son is not unbegotten, nor in any way part of the unbegotten; and that he does not derive his subsistence from any matter; but that by his own will and counsel he has subsisted before time and before ages as perfect as God, only begotten and unchangeable, and that before he was begotten, or created, or purposed, or established, he

6969-407: The highest importance for an understanding of Homoiousian theology.” It includes “nineteen anathemas which reveal more clearly the position which Basil is attacking." Homoianism was a dominant Christology during the mid-fourth century. It refused to use ousia (substance) language in the formulation of any statement of faith. Against them, Basil insisted that substance language is necessary to reflect

7070-597: The man and his teaching, including the term homoousios , had been condemned by the Synods of Antioch in 269. Hence, after Constantine's death in 337, open dispute resumed again. Constantine's son Constantius II , who had become emperor of the eastern part of the Roman Empire , actually encouraged the Arians and set out to reverse the Nicene Creed. His advisor in these affairs was Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had already at

7171-462: The most important theological concepts within the Trinitarian doctrinal understanding of God . The term ὁμοούσιον , the accusative case form of ὁμοούσιος ( homoousios , "consubstantial"), was adopted at the First Council of Nicaea (325) in order to clarify the ontology of Christ . From its Greek original, the term was translated into other languages. In Latin , which is lacking

7272-498: The nature of the Trinity and they did not understand what was at stake in the issues that surrounded it." Arianism is also used to refer to other nontrinitarian theological systems of the 4th century, which regarded Jesus Christ —the Son of God, the Logos —as either a begotten creature of a similar or different substance to that of the Father, but not identical (as Homoiousian and Anomoeanism ) or as neither uncreated nor created in

7373-681: The pagan observer Ammianus Marcellinus to comment sarcastically: "The highways were covered with galloping bishops." None of these attempts were acceptable to the defenders of Nicene orthodoxy; writing about the latter councils, Saint Jerome remarked that the world "awoke with a groan to find itself Arian." After Constantius's death in 361, his successor Julian , a devotee of Rome's pagan gods , declared that he would no longer attempt to favor one church faction over another, and allowed all exiled bishops to return; this resulted in further increasing dissension among Nicene Christians. The emperor Valens , however, revived Constantius's policy and supported

7474-401: The pro-Nicene homoousian creed can be roughly broken down into the following classifications: All of these positions and the almost innumerable variations on them which developed in the 4th century were strongly and tenaciously opposed by Athanasius and other pro-Nicenes, who insisted on the doctrine of homoousion or consubstantiality, eventually prevailing in the struggle to define this as

7575-439: The proto-orthodox won the previous disputes, due to the more accurate defining of orthodoxy , they were vanquished with their own weapons, ultimately being declared heretics, not because they would have fought against ideas regarded as theologically correct, but because their positions lacked the accuracy and refinement needed by the fusion of several contradictory theses accepted at the same time by later orthodox theologians. Of

7676-440: The questions posed by Arians. Since Arius was not a bishop, he was not allowed to sit on the council, and it was Eusebius of Nicomedia who spoke for him and the position he represented. All the bishops who were there were in agreement with the major theological points of the proto-orthodoxy , since at that time all other forms of Christianity "had by this time already been displaced, suppressed, reformed, or destroyed". Although

7777-463: The regional First Synod of Tyre in 335 (attended by 310 bishops), to address various charges mounted against Athanasius by his detractors, such as "murder, illegal taxation, sorcery, and treason", following his refusal to readmit Arius into fellowship. Athanasius was exiled to Trier (in modern Germany ) following his conviction at Tyre of conspiracy, and Arius was, effectively, exonerated. Athanasius eventually returned to Alexandria in 346, after

7878-445: The relation of Father to Son, and described these as "like" each other. Hanson lists twelve creeds that reflect the Homoian faith: In 321, Arius was denounced by a synod at Alexandria for teaching a heterodox view of the relationship of Jesus to God the Father. Because Arius and his followers had great influence in the schools of Alexandria—counterparts to modern universities or seminaries—their theological views spread, especially in

7979-419: The relationship of Father and Son.” This is similar to the standard Homoiousian phrase “similar substance.” He has a “preference for Homoiousian-sounding language.” “In Letter 361 … he does not yet articulate his mature distinction between a unitary shared nature at one level, and the personal distinctions of Father, Son, and Spirit at another. Basil still seems to view the relationship between Father and Son in

8080-491: The roughly 300 bishops in attendance at the Council of Nicaea , two bishops did not sign the Nicene Creed that condemned Arianism. Constantine the Great also ordered a penalty of death for those who refused to surrender the Arian writings: In addition, if any writing composed by Arius should be found, it should be handed over to the flames, so that not only will the wickedness of his teaching be obliterated, but nothing will be left even to remind anyone of him. And I hereby make

8181-555: The same substance" or "of one being" (the Athanasian Creed is less often used but is a more overtly anti-Arian statement on the Trinity). The focus of the Council of Nicaea was the nature of the Son of God and his precise relationship to God the Father (see Paul of Samosata and the Synods of Antioch ). Arius taught that Jesus Christ was divine/holy and was sent to earth for the salvation of mankind but that Jesus Christ

8282-481: The sense other beings are created (as in semi-Arianism ). Some early Christians that were counted among Orthodoxy denied the eternal generation of the Son, seeing the Son as being begotten in time. These include Tertullian and Justin Martyr . Tertullian is considered a pre-Arian. Among the other church fathers, Origen was accused of Arianism for using terms like "second God", and Patriarch Dionysius of Alexandria

8383-687: The subject of the letter of Auxentius cited above) was sent as a missionary to the Gothic tribes across the Danube , a mission favored for political reasons by the Emperor Constantius II . The Homoians in the Danubian provinces played a major role in the conversion of the Goths to Arianism . Ulfilas's translation of the Bible into Gothic language and his initial success in converting

8484-501: The term homoousios , which Athanasius favored and which was ratified in the Nicene Council and Creed, was actually a term reported to also be used and favored by the Sabellians in their Christology. It was a term with which many followers of Athanasius were actually uncomfortable. The so-called Semi-Arians in particular objected to it. Their objection to this term was that it was considered to be "un-Scriptural, suspicious, and of

8585-425: The theologians of the 19th century it was already obvious that in fact Arius and Alexander/Athanasius did not have much to quarrel about, the difference between their views was very small, and that the end of the fight was by no means clear during their quarrel, both Arius and Athanasius suffering a great deal for their own views. Arius was the father of Homoiousianism and Alexander the father of Homoousianism , which

8686-467: The theological orthodoxy of the time, one trinitarian and the other also a derivative of trinitarian orthodoxy, and each of them attempted to solve its respective theological dilemmas. Homoousianism was formally affirmed by the first two ecumenical councils ; since then, Arianism has been condemned as "the heresy or sect of Arius". Trinitarian (Homoousian) doctrines were vigorously upheld by Patriarch Athanasius of Alexandria , who insisted that Jesus (God

8787-594: The three persons in the Godhead, but the term homoousion became a consistent mark of Nicene orthodoxy in both East and West . According to this doctrine, Jesus Christ is the physical manifestation of Logos (or the Word), and consequently possesses all of the inherent, ineffable perfections which religion and philosophy attribute to the Supreme Being . In the language that became universally accepted after

8888-509: The various Christological views are essentially different interpretations of the terms “Father,” "Son,” and “only-begotten.” These interpretations result in different views with respect to the substance of the Son, on the basis of which the five views may be summarized: The Homoiousians took a stance between that of the Homoousians , and heteroousians (meaning 'different substance', also called Anomoeans ) such as Aëtius and Eunomius . At

8989-559: Was a Semi-Arian Christian, was exiled. Although he was committed to maintaining what the Great Church had defined at Nicaea, Constantine was also bent on pacifying the situation and eventually became more lenient toward those condemned and exiled at the council. First, he allowed Eusebius of Nicomedia, who was a protégé of his sister, and Theognis to return once they had signed an ambiguous statement of faith. The two, and other friends of Arius, worked for Arius's rehabilitation. At

9090-424: Was championed by Athanasius. For those theologians it was clear that Arius, Alexander and Athanasius were far from a true doctrine of Trinity, which developed later, historically speaking. Guido M. Berndt and Roland Steinacher state clearly that the beliefs of Arius were acceptable ("not especially unusual") to a huge number of orthodox clergy; this is the reason why such a major conflict was able to develop inside

9191-784: Was denounced at Rome for saying that Son is a work and creature of God. However, the Subordinationism of Origen is not identical to Arianism, and it has been generally viewed as closer to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan view. Controversy over Arianism arose in the late 3rd century and persisted throughout most of the 4th century. It involved most church members—from simple believers, priests, and monks to bishops, emperors, and members of Rome's imperial family. Two Roman emperors, Constantius II and Valens , became Arians or Semi-Arians , as did prominent Gothic , Vandal , and Lombard warlords both before and after

9292-512: Was heretical. Much of the distinction between the differing factions was over the phrasing that Christ expressed in the New Testament to express submission to God the Father. The theological term for this submission is kenosis . This ecumenical council declared that Jesus Christ was true God, co-eternal and consubstantial (i.e., of the same substance) with God the Father. Constantine is believed to have exiled those who refused to accept

9393-435: Was influential with the imperial authorities at one point during 358–9, it was not for long, and he never seems fully to have overcome long-standing Homoian influence at court." Constantius was becoming somewhat hostile to the influence of all of the new movements which had sprung up after the Nicene council. The result was that the Homoiousians disappeared from the stage of history and the struggle to define Church dogma became

9494-408: Was not equal to God the Father (infinite, primordial origin) in rank and that God the Father and the Son of God were not equal to the Holy Spirit. Under Arianism, Christ was instead not consubstantial with God the Father since both the Father and the Son under Arius were made of "like" essence or being (see homoiousia ) but not of the same essence or being (see homoousia ). In the Arian view, God

9595-411: Was not what the followers of Arius' teachings called themselves, but rather a term used by outsiders . The nature of Arius's and his supporters' teachings were opposed to the theological doctrines held by Homoousian Christians regarding the nature of the Trinity and the nature of Christ. There was a controversy between two interpretations of Jesus's divinity (Homoousianism and Arianism) based upon

9696-459: Was not. For he was not unbegotten. We are persecuted because we say that the Son has a beginning but that God is without beginning. Principally, the dispute between Trinitarianism and Arianism was about: For Constantine, these were minor theological points that stood in the way of uniting the Empire, but for the theologians, it was of huge importance; for them, it was a matter of salvation. For

9797-430: Was the doctrine of homoousianism , articulated and fiercely defended by Athanasius of Alexandria , according to which Father and Son were identical in essence, divine identity, attributes and energies, and that any deviations from this orthodoxy were to be considered heretical departures from apostolic faith and worship. The Homoians, however, had a powerful ally on their side in the person of Emperor Constantius II . It

9898-496: Was the first King of Italy , Odoacer (433?–493), and the Lombards were also Arians or Semi-Arians until the 7th century. The ruling elite of Visigothic Spain was Arian until 589. Many Goths adopted Arian beliefs upon their conversion to Christianity. The Vandals actively spread Arianism in North Africa. Little of Arius's own work survives except in quotations selected for polemical purposes by his opponents, and there

9999-556: Was the high point of Arianism. The Seventh Arian Confession (Second Sirmium Confession) held that both homoousios (of one substance) and homoiousios (of similar substance) were unbiblical and that the Father is greater than the Son. (This confession was later known as the Blasphemy of Sirmium.) But since many persons are disturbed by questions concerning what is called in Latin substantia , but in Greek ousia , that is, to make it understood more exactly, as to 'coessential,' or what

10100-464: Was used to argue that Jesus is dependent for his existence since Jesus exists only because God wants him to be. Arianism taught that the Logos was a divine being begotten by God the Father before the creation of the world, made him a medium through whom everything else was created, and that the Son of God is subordinate to God the Father. The Logos is an inner attribute of God that is wisdom, while Jesus

10201-486: Was “universally acknowledged to be the most scholarly bishop of his day.” Both Lewis Ayres and R.P.C. Hanson stated that the formulation of Homoiousian theology in 358 by a council of bishops called by Basil of Ancyra was a response to, what Ayres calls, "the emerging shape of Heterousian theology" in the form of the creed of “Sirmium 357,” which was based on the teachings of Aetius. Hanson refers to this as "Neo-Arianism" and as “a new and radical theology” that appears for

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