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121-409: It is based on an ancient route and was known in the fifteenth century as Kingswell Street after the wells that supplied water for the village and was later called Hampstead Hill . Many nearby developments took place in the late seventeenth century and early eighteenth century when the fashionable Hampstead Wells were at their height. The top end was widened in the late nineteenth century leading to

242-522: A coup d'état in Cyprus, to unite the island with Greece . The coup ousted president Makarios III and replaced him with pro- enosis nationalist Nikos Sampson . In response to the coup, five days later, on 20 July 1974, the Turkish army invaded the island, citing a right to intervene to restore the constitutional order from the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee . This justification has been rejected by

363-444: A Turkish polity in the north. Following nationalist violence in the 1950s , Cyprus was granted independence in 1960. The crisis of 1963–64 brought further intercommunal violence between the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots into enclaves and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic. On 15 July 1974, a coup d'état was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists and elements of

484-661: A base to protect the Ottoman Empire against possible Russian aggression. The island would serve Britain as a key military base for its colonial routes. By 1906, when the Famagusta harbour was completed, Cyprus was a strategic naval outpost overlooking the Suez Canal , the crucial main route to India which was then Britain's most important overseas possession. Following the outbreak of the First World War and

605-456: A caisson vertically below the top of the aquifer and then advancing lateral collectors out of the caisson and beneath the surface water body. Pumping from within the caisson induces infiltration of water from the surface water body into the aquifer, where it is collected by the collector well laterals and conveyed into the caisson where it can be pumped to the ground surface. Two additional broad classes of well types may be distinguished, based on

726-732: A ceasefire had been agreed, Turkey had landed 30,000 troops on the island and captured Kyrenia, the corridor linking Kyrenia to Nicosia, and the Turkish Cypriot quarter of Nicosia itself. The junta in Athens , and then the Sampson regime in Cyprus fell from power. In Nicosia, Glafkos Clerides temporarily assumed the presidency. But after the peace negotiations in Geneva , the Turkish government reinforced their Kyrenia bridgehead and started

847-531: A century starting in 708 BC, before a brief spell under Egyptian rule and eventually Achaemenid rule in 545 BC. The Cypriots, led by Onesilus , king of Salamis, joined their fellow Greeks in the Ionian cities during the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt in 499 BC against the Achaemenids. The revolt was suppressed, but Cyprus managed to maintain a high degree of autonomy and remained inclined towards

968-470: A circulation fluid to displace cuttings and cool bits during the drilling. Another form of rotary-style drilling, termed mud rotary , makes use of a specially made mud, or drilling fluid, which is constantly being altered during the drill so that it can consistently create enough hydraulic pressure to hold the side walls of the bore hole open, regardless of the presence of a casing in the well. Typically, boreholes drilled into solid rock are not cased until after

1089-435: A confined space, it displaces oxygen, reducing oxygen concentration to a level low enough to pose a threat to humans and other aerobic organisms but still high enough for a risk of spontaneous or externally caused explosion. This potential for explosion is what poses such a danger in regards to the drilling and placement of water wells. Low levels of methane in drinking water are not considered toxic. When methane seeps into

1210-497: A dependent territory of the United Kingdom . The northeast portion of the island is de facto governed by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus . Cyprus was first settled by hunter-gatherers around 13,000 years ago, with farming settlements emerging a few thousand years later. During the late Bronze Age , Cyprus, known in contemporary sources as Alashiya , developed an urbanised society closely connected to

1331-993: A depth of 13 metres (43 ft). Other slightly younger wells are known from this site and from neighbouring Parekklisha-Shillourokambos. A first stone lined well of 5.5 metres (18 ft) depth is documented from a drowned final PPN (c. 7000 BC) site at ‘Atlit-Yam off the coast near modern Haifa in Israel . Wood-lined wells are known from the early Neolithic Linear Pottery culture , for example in Ostrov, Czech Republic, dated 5265 BC, Kückhoven (an outlying centre of Erkelenz ), dated 5300 BC, and Eythra in Schletz (an outlying centre of Asparn an der Zaya ) in Austria , dated 5200 BC. The neolithic Chinese discovered and made extensive use of deep drilled groundwater for drinking. The Chinese text The Book of Changes , originally

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1452-686: A divination text of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 -771 BC), contains an entry describing how the ancient Chinese maintained their wells and protected their sources of water. A well excavated at the Hemedu excavation site was believed to have been built during the neolithic era. The well was cased by four rows of logs with a square frame attached to them at the top of the well. 60 additional tile wells southwest of Beijing are also believed to have been built around 600 BC for drinking and irrigation. In Egypt , shadoofs and sakias are used. The sakia

1573-550: A drilling action. Unlike rotary drilling, cable tool drilling requires the drilling action to be stopped so that the bore hole can be bailed or emptied of drilled cuttings. Cable tool drilling rigs are rare as they tend to be 10x slower to drill through materials compared to similar diameter rotary air or rotary mud equipped rigs. Drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe, typically steel (in air rotary or cable tool drilling) or plastic / PVC (in mud rotary wells, also present in wells drilled into solid rock). The casing

1694-743: A group of synthetic organofluorine chemical compounds that have multiple fluorine atoms attached to an alkyl chain. PFAS are a group of "forever chemicals" that spread very quickly and very far in ground water polluting it permanently. Water wells near certain airports where any form fire fighting or training activities occurred up to 2010 are likely to be contaminated by PFAS. A study concluded that of ~39 million groundwater wells 6-20% are at high risk of running dry if local groundwater levels decline by less than five meters, or – as with many areas and possibly more than half of major aquifers – continue to decline. Springs and wells have had cultural significance since prehistoric times, leading to

1815-450: A hardened drive point and a screen of perforated pipe, after which a pump is installed to collect the water. Deeper wells can be excavated by hand drilling methods or machine drilling, using a bit in a borehole . Drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe composed of steel or plastic. Drilled wells can access water at much greater depths than dug wells. Two broad classes of well are shallow or unconfined wells completed within

1936-596: A major supply base that was relatively safe from the Saracens . A year later Richard sold the island to the Knights Templar , who, following a bloody revolt, in turn sold it to Guy of Lusignan . His brother and successor Aimery was recognised as King of Cyprus by Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor . Following the death in 1473 of James II , the last Lusignan king, the Republic of Venice assumed control of

2057-691: A member of the European Union . After the restoration of constitutional order and the return of Archbishop Makarios III to Cyprus in December 1974, Turkish troops remained, occupying the northeastern portion of the island. In 1983, the Turkish Cypriot parliament , led by the Turkish Cypriot leader Rauf Denktaş , proclaimed the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which is recognised only by Turkey. The events of

2178-451: A precedent to be avoided, and they took a pro-partition stance in response to the militant activity of EOKA. The Turkish Cypriots also viewed themselves as a distinct ethnic group of the island and believed in their having a separate right to self-determination from Greek Cypriots. Meanwhile, in the 1950s, Turkish leader Menderes considered Cyprus an "extension of Anatolia", rejected the partition of Cyprus along ethnic lines and favoured

2299-430: A pump. The water often comes from an aquifer or groundwater, and can be easily deepened, which may be necessary if the ground water level drops, by telescoping the lining further down into the aquifer. The yield of existing hand dug wells may be improved by deepening or introducing vertical tunnels or perforated pipes. Drawbacks to hand-dug wells are numerous. It can be impractical to hand dig wells in areas where hard rock

2420-433: A screening device, filter pack, slotted casing, or open bore hole is left to allow the flow of water into the well. Constructed screens are typically used in unconsolidated formations (sands, gravels, etc.), allowing water and a percentage of the formation to pass through the screen. Allowing some material to pass through creates a large area filter out of the rest of the formation, as the amount of material present to pass into

2541-575: A second invasion on 14 August. The invasion resulted in Morphou , Karpass , Famagusta and the Mesaoria coming under Turkish control. International pressure led to a ceasefire, and by then 36% of the island had been taken over by the Turks and 180,000 Greek Cypriots had been evicted from their homes in the north. At the same time, around 50,000 Turkish Cypriots were displaced to the north and settled in

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2662-406: A segmented steel drilling string, typically made up of 3m (10ft), 6 m (20 ft) to 8m (26ft) sections of steel tubing that are threaded together, with a bit or other drilling device at the bottom end. Some rotary drilling machines are designed to install (by driving or drilling) a steel casing into the well in conjunction with the drilling of the actual bore hole. Air and/or water is used as

2783-681: A semi-autonomous status, but they were still considered vassal subjects of the Great King. The island was conquered by Alexander the Great in 333 BC and Cypriot navy helped Alexander during the siege of Tyre (332 BC) . The Cypriot fleet was also sent to help Amphoterus . In addition, Alexander had two Cypriot generals Stasander and Stasanor both from the Soli and later both became satraps in Alexander's empire. Following Alexander's death,

2904-703: A short period, the French Lusignan dynasty and the Venetians was followed by over three centuries of Ottoman rule between 1571 and 1878 ( de jure until 1914). Cyprus was placed under the United Kingdom 's administration based on the Cyprus Convention in 1878 and was formally annexed by the UK in 1914. The future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots . From

3025-420: A variety of tools including electro-seismic surveying, any available information from nearby wells, geologic maps, and sometimes geophysical imaging . These professionals provide advice that is almost as accurate a driller who has experience and knowledge of nearby wells/bores and the most suitable drilling technique based on the expected target depth. Shallow pumping wells can often supply drinking water at

3146-571: A very important source of potable water in some rural developing areas, where they are routinely dug and used today. Their indispensability has produced a number of literary references, literal and figurative, including the reference to the incident of Jesus meeting a woman at Jacob 's well ( John 4:6) in the Bible and the " Ding Dong Bell " nursery rhyme about a cat in a well. Hand-dug wells are excavations with diameters large enough to accommodate one or more people with shovels digging down to below

3267-615: A very low cost. However, impurities from the surface easily reach shallow sources, which leads to a greater risk of contamination for these wells compared to deeper wells. Contaminated wells can lead to the spread of various waterborne diseases . Dug and driven wells are relatively easy to contaminate; for instance, most dug wells are unreliable in the majority of the United States. Some research has found that, in cold regions, changes in river flow and flooding caused by extreme rainfall or snowmelt can degrade well water quality. Most of

3388-648: A water supply, it is commonly referred to as "methane migration". This can be caused by old natural gas wells near water well systems becoming abandoned and no longer monitored. Lately, however, the described wells/pumps are no longer very efficient and can be replaced by either handpumps or treadle pumps . Another alternative is the use of self-dug wells, electrical deep-well pumps (for higher depths). Appropriate technology organizations as Practical Action are now supplying information on how to build/set-up ( DIY ) handpumps and treadle pumps in practice. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances ( PFAS or PFASs ) are

3509-582: Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site , dating to approximately 6800 BC. During the Late Bronze Age , from around 1650 BC Cyprus (identified in whole or part as Alashiya in contemporary texts) became more connected to the wider Mediterranean world driven by the trade in copper extracted from the Troodos Mountains, which stimulated the development of urbanised settlements across the island, with records suggesting that Cyprus at this time

3630-693: Is a common problem with groundwater. Nitrates from sewage , sewage sludge or fertilizer are a particular problem for babies and young children. Pollutant chemicals include pesticides and volatile organic compounds from gasoline , dry-cleaning , the fuel additive methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), and perchlorate from rocket fuel, airbag inflators, and other artificial and natural sources. Several minerals are also contaminants, including lead leached from brass fittings or old lead pipes, chromium VI from electroplating and other sources, naturally occurring arsenic , radon , and uranium —all of which can cause cancer—and naturally occurring fluoride , which

3751-401: Is an excavation or structure created on the earth by digging , driving, or drilling to access liquid resources, usually water . The oldest and most common kind of well is a water well, to access groundwater in underground aquifers . The well water is drawn up by a pump , or using containers, such as buckets that are raised mechanically or by hand. Water can also be injected back into

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3872-546: Is believed to have taken place following the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece from 1100 to 1050 BC, with the island's predominantly Greek character dating from this period. Cyprus occupies an important role in Greek mythology , being the birthplace of Aphrodite and Adonis , and home to King Cinyras , Teucer and Pygmalion . Literary evidence suggests an early Phoenician presence at Kition , which

3993-399: Is caused when the water table of the soil drops over time and salt begins to accumulate. In turn, the increased amount of salt begins to dry the soil out. The increased level of salt in the soil can result in the degradation of soil and can be very harmful to vegetation. Methane , an asphyxiant, is a chemical compound that is the main component of natural gas. When methane is introduced into

4114-437: Is constructed by welding, either chemically or thermally, segments of casing together. If the casing is installed during the drilling, most drills will drive the casing into the ground as the bore hole advances, while some newer machines will actually allow for the casing to be rotated and drilled into the formation in a similar manner as the bit advancing just below. PVC or plastic is typically solvent welded and then lowered into

4235-455: Is desirable in low quantities to prevent tooth decay , but can cause dental fluorosis in higher concentrations. Some chemicals are commonly present in water wells at levels that are not toxic, but can cause other problems. Calcium and magnesium cause what is known as hard water , which can precipitate and clog pipes or burn out water heaters. Iron and manganese can appear as dark flecks that stain clothing and plumbing, and can promote

4356-473: Is drilled to a predetermined depth or to a confining formation (clay or bedrock, for example), and then a smaller hole for the well is completed from that point forward. The well is typically cased from the surface down into the smaller hole with a casing that is the same diameter as that hole. The annular space between the large bore hole and the smaller casing is filled with bentonite clay , concrete, or other sealant material. This creates an impermeable seal from

4477-468: Is geographically a part of West Asia , but its cultural ties and geopolitics are overwhelmingly Southeast European . Cyprus is the third largest and third-most populous island in the Mediterranean. It is east of Greece , north of Egypt , south of Turkey , and west of Lebanon and Syria . Its capital and largest city is Nicosia . Cyprus also shares land borders with Akrotiri and Dhekelia ,

4598-618: Is much more efficient, as it can bring up water from a depth of 10 metres (versus the 3 metres of the shadoof). The sakia is the Egyptian version of the noria . Some of the world's oldest known wells, located in Cyprus, date to 7000–8,500 BC. Two wells from the Neolithic period, around 6500 BC, have been discovered in Israel. One is in Atlit, on the northern coast of Israel, and the other is in

4719-451: Is not used officially; "Republic of Cyprus" is used instead. Hunter-gatherers first arrived on Cyprus around 13–12,000 years ago (11,000 to 10,000 BC), based on dating of sites like Aetokremnos on the south coast and the inland site of Vretsia Roudias. The arrival of the first humans coincides with the extinction of the 75 cm (2.46 ft) high Cypriot pygmy hippopotamus and 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) tall Cyprus dwarf elephant ,

4840-600: Is present, and they can be time-consuming to dig and line even in favourable areas. Because they exploit shallow aquifers, the well may be susceptible to yield fluctuations and possible contamination from surface water, including sewage. Hand dug well construction generally requires the use of a well trained construction team, and the capital investment for equipment such as concrete ring moulds, heavy lifting equipment, well shaft formwork, motorized de-watering pumps, and fuel can be large for people in developing countries. Construction of hand dug wells can be dangerous due to collapse of

4961-477: Is simply hammered into the ground, usually with a tripod and driver , with pipe sections added as needed. A driver is a weighted pipe that slides over the pipe being driven and is repeatedly dropped on it. When groundwater is encountered, the well is washed of sediment and a pump installed. Drilled wells are constructed using various types of drilling machines, such as top-head rotary, table rotary, or cable tool, which all use drilling stems that rotate to cut into

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5082-432: Is still the case in rural areas of the developing world. These wells are inexpensive and low-tech as they use mostly manual labour, and the structure can be lined with brick or stone as the excavation proceeds. A more modern method called caissoning uses pre-cast reinforced concrete well rings that are lowered into the hole. Driven wells can be created in unconsolidated material with a well hole structure, which consists of

5203-576: The Cairo Citadel at 280 feet (85 m) deep and the Pozzo di San Patrizio (St. Patrick's Well) built in 1527 in Orvieto, Italy , at 61 metres (200 ft) deep by 13 metres (43 ft) wide are both larger by volume. Driven wells may be very simply created in unconsolidated material with a well hole structure , which consists of a hardened drive point and a screen (perforated pipe). The point

5324-540: The Classical Latin word for copper through the phrase aes Cyprium , "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to Cuprum . The standard demonym relating to Cyprus or its people or culture is Cypriot . The terms Cypriote and Cyprian (later a personal name ) are also used, though less frequently. The state's official name in Greek literally translates to "Cypriot Republic" in English, but this translation

5445-795: The Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821, several Greek Cypriots left for Greece to join the Greek forces. In response, the Ottoman governor of Cyprus arrested and executed 486 prominent Greek Cypriots, including the Archbishop of Cyprus, Kyprianos , and four other bishops. In 1828, modern Greece's first president Ioannis Kapodistrias called for union of Cyprus with Greece, and numerous minor uprisings took place. Reaction to Ottoman misrule led to uprisings by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots, although none were successful. After centuries of neglect by

5566-454: The Greek military junta . This action precipitated the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 20 July, which led to the capture of the present-day territory of Northern Cyprus and the displacement of over 150,000 Greek Cypriots and 50,000 Turkish Cypriots. A separate Turkish Cypriot state in the north was established by unilateral declaration in 1983; the move was widely condemned by the international community , with Turkey alone recognising

5687-532: The United Nations and the international community. The Turkish air force began bombing Greek positions in Cyprus, and hundreds of paratroopers were dropped in the area between Nicosia and Kyrenia, where well-armed Turkish Cypriot enclaves had been long-established; while off the Kyrenia coast, Turkish troop ships landed 6,000 men as well as tanks, trucks and armoured vehicles. Three days later, when

5808-508: The bacteria , viruses , parasites , and fungi that contaminate well water comes from fecal material from humans and other animals. Common bacterial contaminants include E. coli , Salmonella , Shigella , and Campylobacter jejuni . Common viral contaminants include norovirus , sapovirus , rotavirus , enteroviruses , and hepatitis A and E . Parasites include Giardia lamblia , Cryptosporidium , Cyclospora cayetanensis , and microsporidia . Chemical contamination

5929-639: The division of his empire , and the subsequent Wars of the Diadochi , Cyprus became part of the Hellenistic empire of Ptolemaic Egypt . It was during this period that the island was fully Hellenised . In 58 BC Cyprus was acquired by the Roman Republic and became Roman Cyprus in 22 BC. When the Roman Empire was divided into Eastern and Western parts in 286, Cyprus became part of

6050-456: The eurozone . The earliest attested reference to Cyprus is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek 𐀓𐀠𐀪𐀍 , ku-pi-ri-jo , meaning "Cypriot" (Greek: Κύπριος ), written in Linear B syllabic script. The classical Greek form of the name is Κύπρος ( Kýpros ). The etymology of the name is unknown. Suggestions include: Through overseas trade, the island has given its name to

6171-710: The filtration of the contaminants of concern, and additional protection may be garnered by installing well-casing screens only at depths where contamination is not present. Wellwater for personal use is often filtered with reverse osmosis water processors; this process can remove very small particles. A simple, effective way of killing microorganisms is to bring the water to a full boil for one to three minutes, depending on location. A household well contaminated by microorganisms can initially be treated by shock chlorination using bleach, generating concentrations hundreds of times greater than found in community water systems; however, this will not fix any structural problems that led to

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6292-444: The water table . The excavation is braced horizontally to avoid landslide or erosion endangering the people digging. They can be lined with stone or brick; extending this lining upwards above the ground surface to form a wall around the well serves to reduce both contamination and accidental falls into the well. A more modern method called caissoning uses reinforced concrete or plain concrete pre-cast well rings that are lowered into

6413-529: The 19th century onwards, the Greek Cypriot population pursued enosis , union with Greece , which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s. The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy of taksim , the partition of Cyprus and the creation of

6534-601: The British and went to Serbia ’s assistance, in order to fulfill her Treaty obligations under the Serbo-Greek pact of May 1913. It gave Greece a golden “opportunity” in achieving enosis with Cyprus. Alternatively it was a “lost opportunity” when the Zaimis administration declined the British proposal. In 1923, under the Treaty of Lausanne , the nascent Turkish republic relinquished any claim to Cyprus, and in 1925 it

6655-556: The Church of Cyprus was in a position to end the constant encroachments of the Roman Catholic Church. Ottoman rule of Cyprus was at times indifferent, at times oppressive, depending on the temperaments of the sultans and local officials. The ratio of Muslims to Christians fluctuated throughout the period of Ottoman domination. In 1777–78, 47,000 Muslims constituted a majority over the island's 37,000 Christians. By 1872,

6776-674: The EOKA organisation was founded, seeking union with Greece through armed struggle. At the same time the Turkish Resistance Organisation (TMT), calling for Taksim, or partition, was established by the Turkish Cypriots as a counterweight. British officials also tolerated the creation of the Turkish underground organisation TMT The Secretary of State for the Colonies in a letter dated 15 July 1958 had advised

6897-689: The East Roman Empire (also called the Byzantine Empire ), and would remain so for some 900 years. Under Byzantine rule, the Greek orientation that had been prominent since antiquity developed the strong Hellenistic-Christian character that continues to be a hallmark of the Greek Cypriot community. Beginning in 649, Cyprus endured repeated attacks and raids launched by Umayyad Caliphate . Many were quick raids, but others were large-scale attacks in which many Cypriots were killed and great wealth carried off or destroyed. The city of Salamis

7018-469: The Empire. There are no Byzantine churches which survive from this period, and the island entered a period of impoverishment. Full Byzantine rule was restored in 965, when Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas scored decisive victories on land and sea. In 1156 Raynald of Châtillon and Thoros II of Armenia brutally sacked Cyprus over a period of three weeks, stealing so much plunder and capturing so many of

7139-473: The Governor of Cyprus not to act against TMT despite its illegal actions so as not to harm British relations with the Turkish government. During British rule, the future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots , who made up 77% of the population in 1960, and Turkish Cypriots , who made up 18% of the population. From the 19th century onwards,

7260-568: The Greek Cypriot police. The violence resulted in the death of 364 Turkish and 174 Greek Cypriots, destruction of 109 Turkish Cypriot or mixed villages and displacement of 25,000–30,000 Turkish Cypriots. The crisis resulted in the end of the Turkish Cypriot involvement in the administration and their claiming that it had lost its legitimacy; the nature of this event is still controversial. In some areas, Greek Cypriots prevented Turkish Cypriots from travelling and entering government buildings, while some Turkish Cypriots willingly withdrew due to

7381-405: The Greek Cypriot population pursued enosis , union with Greece , which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s. The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy of taksim , the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in

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7502-577: The Greek world. During the whole period of the Persian rule, there is a continuity in the reign of the Cypriot kings and during their rebellions they were crushed by Persian rulers from Asia Minor, which is an indication that the Cypriots were ruling the island with directly regulated relations with the Great King and there was not a Persian satrap . The Kingdoms of Cyprus enjoyed special privileges and

7623-728: The Jezreel Valley. Wells for other purposes came along much later, historically. The first recorded salt well was dug in the Sichuan province of China around 2,250 years ago. This was the first time that ancient water well technology was applied successfully for the exploitation of salt, and marked the beginning of Sichuan's salt drilling industry. The earliest known oil wells were also drilled in China, in 347 CE. These wells had depths of up to about 240 metres (790 ft) and were drilled using bits attached to bamboo poles. The oil

7744-399: The Ottoman Empire, the poverty of most of the people and the ever-present tax collectors fueled Greek nationalism, and by the 20th century the idea of union with newly independent Greece was firmly rooted among Greek Cypriots. Under Ottoman rule, numeracy, school enrolment and literacy rates were all low. They persisted some time after Ottoman rule ended, and then increased rapidly during

7865-524: The US President Lyndon B. Johnson on 5 June, warning that the US would not stand beside Turkey in case of a consequential Soviet invasion of Turkish territory. Meanwhile, by 1964, enosis was a Greek policy and would not be abandoned; Makarios and the Greek prime minister Georgios Papandreou agreed that enosis should be the ultimate aim and King Constantine wished Cyprus "a speedy union with

7986-426: The annexation of the whole island to Turkey. Nationalistic slogans centred on the idea that "Cyprus is Turkish" and the ruling party declared Cyprus to be a part of the Turkish homeland that was vital to its security. Upon realising that the fact that the Turkish Cypriot population was only 20% of the islanders made annexation unfeasible, the national policy was changed to favour partition. The slogan "Partition or Death"

8107-489: The aquifer through the well. Wells were first constructed at least eight thousand years ago and historically vary in construction from a sediment of a dry watercourse to the qanats of Iran, and the stepwells and sakiehs of India. Placing a lining in the well shaft helps create stability, and linings of wood or wickerwork date back at least as far as the Iron Age . Wells have traditionally been sunk by hand digging, as

8228-474: The calls of the Turkish Cypriot administration. Turkish Cypriots started living in enclaves . The republic's structure was changed, unilaterally, by Makarios, and Nicosia was divided by the Green Line , with the deployment of UNFICYP troops. In 1964, Turkey threatened to invade Cyprus in response to the continuing Cypriot intercommunal violence , but this was stopped by a strongly worded telegram from

8349-461: The casing during construction and filling the casing annulus with an appropriate sealing material. The sealing material (grout) should be placed from immediately above the production zone back to surface, because, in the absence of a correctly constructed casing seal, contaminated fluid can travel into the well through the casing annulus. Centering devices are important (usually one per length of casing or at maximum intervals of 9 m) to ensure that

8470-483: The contamination and generally requires some expertise and testing for effective application. After the filtration process, it is common to implement an ultraviolet (UV) system to kill pathogens in the water. UV light affects the DNA of the pathogen by UV-C photons breaking through the cell wall. UV disinfection has been gaining popularity in the past decades as it is a chemical-free method of water treatment. A risk with

8591-599: The decision of the Ottoman Empire to join the war on the side of the Central Powers , on 5 November 1914 the British Empire formally annexed Cyprus and declared the Ottoman Khedivate of Egypt and Sudan a Sultanate and British protectorate . In October 1915, Britain offered Cyprus to Greece, ruled by King Constantine I of Greece , on the condition that Greece join the war on the side of

8712-642: The demolition of many alleyways and courtyards. In 1907 the Northern Line Edgware extension built its surface station on the former Minerva Court site. In 1835 the old King's Head pub was renamed the William IV after the reigning monarch William IV rode up Haverstock Hill to visit Ken Wood on the Heath . This London road or road transport-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Well A well

8833-522: The design and installation of private and municipal septic systems take all these factors into account so that nearby drinking water sources are protected. Education of the general population in society also plays an important role in protecting drinking water. Cleanup of contaminated groundwater tends to be very costly. Effective remediation of groundwater is generally very difficult. Contamination of groundwater from surface and subsurface sources can usually be dramatically reduced by correctly centering

8954-424: The drilled well, vertically stacked with their ends nested and either glued or splined together. The sections of casing are usually 6 metres (20 ft) or more in length, and 4 to 12 in (10 to 30 cm) in diameter, depending on the intended use of the well and local groundwater conditions. Surface contamination of wells in the United States is typically controlled by the use of a surface seal . A large hole

9075-434: The drilling process is completed, regardless of the machinery used. The oldest form of drilling machinery is the cable tool , still used today. Specifically designed to raise and lower a bit into the bore hole, the spudding of the drill causes the bit to be raised and dropped onto the bottom of the hole, and the design of the cable causes the bit to twist at approximately 1 ⁄ 4 revolution per drop, thereby creating

9196-593: The ensuing occupation and the declaration of independence by the TRNC have been condemned by United Nations resolutions, which are reaffirmed by the Security Council every year. Attempts to resolve the Cyprus dispute have continued. In 2004, the Annan Plan , drafted by then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan , was put to a referendum in both Cypriot administrations. 65% of Turkish Cypriots voted in support of

9317-605: The entire island, including its territorial waters and exclusive economic zone , with the exception of the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia , which remain under the UK's control according to the London and Zürich Agreements . However, the Republic of Cyprus is de facto partitioned into two main parts: the area under the effective control of the Republic, in the south and west and comprising about 59% of

9438-420: The first significant demographic change since antiquity took place with the formation of a Muslim community. Soldiers who fought in the conquest settled on the island and Turkish peasants and craftsmen were brought to the island from Anatolia . This new community also included banished Anatolian tribes, "undesirable" persons and members of various "troublesome" Muslim sects, as well as a number of new converts on

9559-513: The formation, thus the term "drilling." Drilled wells can be excavated by simple hand drilling methods (augering, sludging, jetting, driving, hand percussion) or machine drilling (auger, rotary, percussion, down the hole hammer). Deep rock rotary drilling method is most common. Rotary can be used in 90% of formation types (consolidated). Drilled wells can get water from a much deeper level than dug wells can − often down to several hundred metres. Drilled wells with electric pumps are used throughout

9680-743: The former Ottoman Empire, including Cyprus and Asia Minor with a capital in Constantinople , and was actively pursued by the Cypriot Orthodox Church , which had its members educated in Greece. These religious officials, together with Greek military officers and professionals, some of whom still pursued the Megali Idea , would later found the guerrilla organisation EOKA (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston or National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters). The Greek Cypriots viewed

9801-468: The foundation of towns such as Wells and Bath in Somerset . Interest in health benefits led to the growth of spa towns including many with wells in their name, examples being Llandrindod Wells and Royal Tunbridge Wells . Cyprus Cyprus ( / ˈ s aɪ p r ə s / ), officially the Republic of Cyprus , is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea . It

9922-427: The grouted annular space is of even thickness. Upon the construction of a new test well, it is considered best practice to invest in a complete battery of chemical and biological tests on the well water in question. Point-of-use treatment is available for individual properties and treatment plants are often constructed for municipal water supplies that suffer from contamination. Most of these treatment methods involve

10043-694: The growth of iron and manganese bacteria that can form slimy black colonies that clog pipes. The quality of the well water can be significantly increased by lining the well, sealing the well head, fitting a self-priming hand pump, constructing an apron, ensuring the area is kept clean and free from stagnant water and animals, moving sources of contamination ( pit latrines , garbage pits, on-site sewer systems ) and carrying out hygiene education. The well should be cleaned with 1% chlorine solution after construction and periodically every 6 months. Well holes should be covered to prevent loose debris, animals, animal excrement, and wind-blown foreign matter from falling into

10164-416: The hole and decomposing. The cover should be able to be in place at all times, including when drawing water from the well. A suspended roof over an open hole helps to some degree, but ideally the cover should be tight fitting and fully enclosing, with only a screened air vent. Minimum distances and soil percolation requirements between sewage disposal sites and water wells need to be observed. Rules regarding

10285-635: The hole. A well-digging team digs under a cutting ring and the well column slowly sinks into the aquifer , whilst protecting the team from collapse of the well bore . Hand-dug wells are inexpensive and low tech (compared to drilling) and they use mostly manual labour to access groundwater in rural locations of developing countries. They may be built with a high degree of community participation, or by local entrepreneurs who specialize in hand-dug wells. They have been successfully excavated to 60 metres (200 ft). They have low operational and maintenance costs, in part because water can be extracted by hand, without

10406-415: The island as historically Greek and believed that union with Greece was a natural right. In the 1950s, the pursuit of enosis became a part of the Greek national policy. Initially, the Turkish Cypriots favoured the continuation of the British rule. However, they were alarmed by the Greek Cypriot calls for enosis , as they saw the union of Crete with Greece, which led to the exodus of Cretan Turks , as

10527-541: The island's area, and the north, administered by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, covering about 36% of the island's area. Another nearly 4% of the island's area is covered by the UN buffer zone . The international community considers the northern part of the island to be territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces. The occupation is viewed as illegal under international law and amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became

10648-664: The island, while the late king's Venetian widow, Queen Catherine Cornaro , reigned as figurehead. Venice formally annexed the Kingdom of Cyprus in 1489, following the abdication of Catherine. The Venetians fortified Nicosia by building the Walls of Nicosia , and used it as an important commercial hub. Throughout Venetian rule, the Ottoman Empire frequently raided Cyprus. In 1539 the Ottomans destroyed Limassol and so fearing

10769-495: The island. The Ottomans abolished the feudal system previously in place and applied the millet system to Cyprus, under which non-Muslim peoples were governed by their own religious authorities. In a reversal from the days of Latin rule, the head of the Church of Cyprus was invested as leader of the Greek Cypriot population and acted as mediator between Christian Greek Cypriots and the Ottoman authorities. This status ensured that

10890-524: The leading citizens and their families for ransom, that the island took generations to recover. Several Greek priests were mutilated and sent away to Constantinople. In 1185 Isaac Komnenos , a member of the Byzantine imperial family, took over Cyprus and declared it independent of the Empire. In 1191, during the Third Crusade , Richard I of England captured the island from Isaac. He used it as

11011-421: The minority Turkish Cypriots a permanent veto, 30% in parliament and administration, and granting the three mother-states guarantor rights. However, the division of power as foreseen by the constitution soon resulted in legal impasses and discontent on both sides, and nationalist militants started training again, with the military support of Greece and Turkey respectively. The Greek Cypriot leadership believed that

11132-423: The mother country". Greece dispatched 10,000 troops to Cyprus to counter a possible Turkish invasion. The crisis of 1963–64 had brought further intercommunal violence between the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots into enclaves and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic. On 15 July 1974, the Greek military junta under Dimitrios Ioannides carried out

11253-635: The new state. These events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute . Cyprus is a major tourist destination in the Mediterranean. The country has an advanced high-income economy . The Republic of Cyprus has been a member of the Commonwealth since 1961 and was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement until it joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 1 January 2008, Cyprus joined

11374-553: The north. Cyprus was granted independence in 1960, following an armed campaign spearheaded by EOKA. As per the Zürich and London Agreement , Cyprus officially attained independence on 16 August 1960, and at the time had a total population of 573,566; of whom 442,138 (77.1%) were Greeks, 104,320 (18.2%) Turks, and 27,108 (4.7%) others. The UK retained the two Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia , while government posts and public offices were allocated by ethnic quotas, giving

11495-456: The northern part of the island. In January 1950, the Church of Cyprus organised a referendum under the supervision of clerics and with no Turkish Cypriot participation, where 96% of the participating Greek Cypriots voted in favour of enosis . The Greeks were 80.2% of the total island's population at the time ( census 1946 ). Restricted autonomy under a constitution was proposed by the British administration but eventually rejected. In 1955

11616-503: The only large mammals native to the island. Neolithic farming communities emerged on the island by around 10,500 years ago (8500 BC). Remains of an eight-month-old cat were discovered buried with a human body at a separate Neolithic site in Cyprus. The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old (7500 BC), predating ancient Egyptian civilisation and pushing back the earliest known feline-human association significantly. The remarkably well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia

11737-406: The placement of water wells is soil salination which occurs when the water table of the soil begins to drop and salt begins to accumulate as the soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem that is very prevalent in water well drilling is the potential for methane to seep through. The potential for soil salination is a large risk when choosing the placement of water wells. Soil salination

11858-605: The plan and 74% Greek Cypriots voted against the plan, claiming that it disproportionately favoured Turkish Cypriots and gave unreasonable influence over the nation to Turkey. In total, 66.7% of the voters rejected the Annan Plan . On 1 May 2004 Cyprus joined the European Union , together with nine other countries. Cyprus was accepted into the EU as a whole, although the EU legislation is suspended in Northern Cyprus until

11979-533: The population of the island had risen to 144,000, comprising 44,000 Muslims and 100,000 Christians. The Muslim population included numerous crypto-Christians , including the Linobambaki , a crypto-Catholic community that arose due to religious persecution of the Catholic community by the Ottoman authorities; this community would assimilate into the Turkish Cypriot community during British rule. As soon as

12100-470: The properties of the displaced Greek Cypriots. Among a variety of sanctions against Turkey, in mid-1975 the US Congress imposed an arms embargo on Turkey for using US-supplied equipment during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974. There were 1,534 Greek Cypriots and 502 Turkish Cypriots missing as a result of the fighting from 1963 to 1974. The Republic of Cyprus has de jure sovereignty over

12221-713: The rights given to Turkish Cypriots under the 1960 constitution were too extensive and designed the Akritas plan , which was aimed at reforming the constitution in favour of Greek Cypriots, persuading the international community about the correctness of the changes and violently subjugating Turkish Cypriots in a few days should they not accept the plan. Tensions were heightened when Cypriot President Archbishop Makarios III called for constitutional changes , which were rejected by Turkey and opposed by Turkish Cypriots. Intercommunal violence erupted on 21 December 1963, when two Turkish Cypriots were killed at an incident involving

12342-478: The screen and the borehole or casing. This allows the water to be filtered of unwanted materials before entering the well and pumping zone. There are two broad classes of drilled-well types, based on the type of aquifer the well is in: A special type of water well may be constructed adjacent to freshwater lakes or streams. Commonly called a collector well but sometimes referred to by the trade name Ranney well or Ranney collector , this type of well involves sinking

12463-529: The summer of 1974 dominate the politics on the island, as well as Greco-Turkish relations . Turkish settlers have been settled in the north with the encouragement of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot states. The Republic of Cyprus considers their presence a violation of the Geneva Convention , whilst many Turkish settlers have since severed their ties to Turkey and their second generation considers Cyprus to be their homeland. The Turkish invasion,

12584-431: The surface can easily reach shallow sources and contamination of the supply by pathogens or chemical contaminants needs to be avoided. Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require treatment before being potable. Soil salination can occur as the water table falls and the surrounding soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem is the potential for methane to seep into

12705-413: The surface to the next confining layer that keeps contaminants from traveling down the outer sidewalls of the casing or borehole and into the aquifer . In addition, wells are typically capped with either an engineered well cap or seal that vents air through a screen into the well, but keeps insects, small animals, and unauthorized persons from accessing the well. At the bottom of wells, based on formation,

12826-595: The twentieth century. In the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and the Congress of Berlin , Cyprus was leased to the British Empire which de facto took over its administration in 1878 (though, in terms of sovereignty, Cyprus remained a de jure Ottoman territory until 5 November 1914, together with Egypt and Sudan ) in exchange for guarantees that Britain would use the island as

12947-549: The upper classes, a growing Greek middle ranks , and the Lusignan royal household even marrying Greeks. This included King John II of Cyprus who married Helena Palaiologina . In 1570, a full-scale Ottoman assault with 60,000 troops brought the island under Ottoman control, despite stiff resistance by the inhabitants of Nicosia and Famagusta. Ottoman forces capturing Cyprus massacred many Greek and Armenian Christian inhabitants. The previous Latin elite were destroyed and

13068-407: The uppermost saturated aquifer at that location, and deep or confined wells, sunk through an impermeable stratum into an aquifer beneath. A collector well can be constructed adjacent to a freshwater lake or stream with water percolating through the intervening material. The site of a well can be selected by a hydrogeologist , or groundwater surveyor. Water may be pumped or hand drawn. Impurities from

13189-418: The use of the well: A water well constructed for pumping groundwater can be used passively as a monitoring well and a small diameter well can be pumped, but this distinction by use is common. Before excavation, information about the geology, water table depth, seasonal fluctuations, recharge area and rate should be found if possible. This work can be done by a hydrogeologist , or a groundwater surveyor using

13310-490: The water. Very early Neolithic wells are known from the Eastern Mediterranean . The oldest reliably dated well is from the pre-pottery neolithic (PPN) site of Kissonerga-Mylouthkia on Cyprus . At around 8400 BC a shaft (well 116) of circular diameter was driven through limestone to reach an aquifer at a depth of 8 metres (26 ft). Well 2070 from Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, dating to the late PPN, reaches

13431-515: The well bore, falling objects and asphyxiation, including from dewatering pump exhaust fumes. The Woodingdean Water Well , hand-dug between 1858 and 1862, is the deepest hand-dug well at 392 metres (1,285 ft). The Big Well in Greensburg, Kansas , is billed as the world's largest hand-dug well, at 109 feet (33 m) deep and 32 feet (9.8 m) in diameter. However, the Well of Joseph in

13552-400: The well slowly decreases and is removed from the well. Rock wells are typically cased with a PVC liner/casing and screen or slotted casing at the bottom, this is mostly present just to keep rocks from entering the pump assembly. Some wells utilize a filter pack method, where an undersized screen or slotted casing is placed inside the well and a filter medium is packed around the screen, between

13673-542: The wider Mediterranean world. Cyprus experienced waves of settlement by Mycenaean Greeks at the end of the 2nd millennium BC . It was subsequently occupied by several major powers , including the empires of the Assyrians , Egyptians and Persians , from whom the island was seized in 333 BC by Alexander the Great . Subsequent rule by Ptolemaic Egypt , the Classical and Eastern Roman Empire , Arab caliphates for

13794-402: The world, typically in rural or sparsely populated areas, though many urban areas are supplied partly by municipal wells. Most shallow well drilling machines are mounted on large trucks, trailers, or tracked vehicle carriages. Water wells typically range from 3 to 18 metres (10–60 ft) deep, but in some areas it can go deeper than 900 metres (3,000 ft). Rotary drilling machines use

13915-535: The worst, the Venetians also fortified Famagusta and Kyrenia . Although the Lusignan French aristocracy remained the dominant social class in Cyprus throughout the medieval period, the former assumption that Greeks were treated only as serfs on the island is no longer considered by academics to be accurate. It is now accepted that the medieval period saw increasing numbers of Greek Cypriots elevated to

14036-521: Was burned to evaporate brine and produce salt . By the 10th century, extensive bamboo pipelines connected oil wells with salt springs. The ancient records of China and Japan are said to contain many allusions to the use of natural gas for lighting and heating. Petroleum was known as Burning water in Japan in the 7th century. Until recent centuries, all artificial wells were pumpless hand-dug wells of varying degrees of sophistication, and they remain

14157-617: Was declared a British crown colony . During the Second World War , many Greek and Turkish Cypriots enlisted in the Cyprus Regiment . The Greek Cypriot population, meanwhile, had become hopeful that the British administration would lead to enosis . The idea of enosis was historically part of the Megali Idea , a greater political ambition of a Greek state encompassing the territories with large Greek populations in

14278-520: Was destroyed and never rebuilt. Byzantine control remained stronger in the northern coast, the Arabs exerted more influence in the south. In 688, Emperor Justinian II and Caliph Abd al-Malik signed a treaty whereby Cyprus would be paying an equal amount of tribute to the Caliphate and tax to the Empire, but would remain politically neutral to both while being retained as a province administered by

14399-475: Was frequently used in Turkish Cypriot and Turkish protests starting in the late 1950s and continuing throughout the 1960s. Although after the Zürich and London conferences Turkey seemed to accept the existence of the Cypriot state and to distance itself from its policy of favouring the partition of the island, the goal of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot leaders remained that of creating an independent Turkish state in

14520-710: Was ruled by "kings" who corresponded with the leaders of other Mediterranean states (like the pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt , as documented in the Amarna letters ). The first recorded name of a Cypriot king is Kushmeshusha , as appears on letters sent to Ugarit in the 13th century BC. At the end of the Bronze Age, the island experienced two waves of Greek settlement. The first wave consisted of Mycenaean Greek traders, who started visiting Cyprus around 1400 BC. A major wave of Greek settlement

14641-681: Was under Tyrian rule at the beginning of the 10th century BC. Some Phoenician merchants who were believed to come from Tyre colonised the area and expanded the political influence of Kition. After c. 850 BC, the sanctuaries [at the Kathari site] were rebuilt and reused by the Phoenicians. Cyprus is at a strategic location in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian Empire for

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