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88-824: This glacier was named by Robert Peary after geologist, paleontologist and naturalist Angelo Heilprin (1853 – 1907), curator of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences , who took part in the Peary expedition to Greenland of 1891–92 . The Heilprin Glacier discharges from the Greenland Ice Sheet into the head of the Inglefield Fjord just east of the Harvard Islands and northeast of Quajaqqisaarsuaq . Its terminus lies between

176-424: A black man working as a sales clerk. Learning that Henson had six years of seagoing experience as a cabin boy , Peary immediately hired him as a personal valet . On assignment in the jungles of Nicaragua, Peary told Henson of his dream of Arctic exploration. Henson accompanied Peary on every one of his subsequent Arctic expeditions, becoming his field assistant and "first man", a critical member of his team. In

264-583: A century. This Greenland location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Robert Peary Robert Edwin Peary Sr. ( / ˈ p ɪər i / ; May 6, 1856 – February 20, 1920) was an American explorer and officer in the United States Navy who made several expeditions to the Arctic in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He was long credited as being

352-464: A draftsman. He enlisted in the navy in 1881 as a civil engineer. In 1885, he was made chief of surveying for the Nicaragua Canal , which was never built. He visited the Arctic for the first time in 1886, making an unsuccessful attempt to cross Greenland by dogsled . In the Peary expedition to Greenland of 1891–1892 , he was much better prepared, and by reaching Independence Fjord in what

440-444: A half-day return to Camp Bartlett – at which point his speed slowed drastically. Peary's account of a beeline journey to the pole and back—which would have assisted his claim of such speed—is contradicted by his companion Henson's account of tortured detours to avoid "pressure ridges" (ice floes' rough edges, often a few meters high) and "leads" (open water between those floes). In his official report, Peary claimed to have traveled

528-598: A list of officers it recommends for promotion to flag rank. This list is then sent to the service secretary and the joint chiefs for review before it can be sent to the President , through the defense secretary, for consideration. The president nominates officers to be promoted from this list with the advice of the Secretary of Defense , the service secretary, and if applicable, the service's chief of staff or commandant. The President may nominate any eligible officer who

616-445: A man named Qisuk and his child Minik , to travel to America with him by promising they would be able to return with tools, weapons and gifts within the year. Peary left the people at the museum when he returned with the meteorite in 1897, where they were kept in damp, humid conditions unlike their homeland. Within a few months, four died of tuberculosis ; their remains were dissected and the bones of Qisuk were put on display after Minik

704-689: A monument. It was cast in bronze and set atop a granite cylinder and erected to his memory by the Peary family in 1938. After college, Peary worked as a draftsman making technical drawings at the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey office in Washington, D.C. He joined the United States Navy and on October 26, 1881, was commissioned in the Civil Engineer Corps , with the relative rank of lieutenant. From 1884 to 1885, he

792-626: A one-off medal (created by sculptor Kathleen Scott , later widow of Robert Falcon Scott ), in 1910, despite internal council splits which only became known in the 1970s. The RGS based their decision on the belief that the NGS had performed a serious scrutiny of the "proofs", which was not the case. Neither the American Geographical Society nor any of the geographical societies of semi-Arctic Scandinavia has recognized Peary's North Pole claim. The party that accompanied Peary on

880-415: A personal blue and white command pennant containing the initials, acronym abbreviation or numerical designation of their command. In 1981, Pub. L.   97–86 expanded commodore from a title to an official permanent grade by creating the one-star rank of commodore admiral . After only 11 months, the rank was reverted to just commodore but kept the one-star insignia. However, this caused issues with

968-739: A relationship with Aleqasina ( Alakahsingwah ) when she was about 14 years old. They had at least two children, including a son called Kaala, Karree, or Kali. French explorer and ethnologist Jean Malaurie was the first to report on Peary's descendants after spending a year in Greenland in 1951–52. S. Allen Counter , a Harvard neuroscience professor interested in Henson's role in the Arctic expeditions, went to Greenland in 1986. He found Peary's son Kali and Henson's son Anaukaq, then octogenarians, and some of their descendants. Counter arranged to bring

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1056-496: A result of Peary's 1898–1902 expedition, he claimed an 1899 visual discovery of "Jesup Land" west of Ellesmere Island . He claimed that this sighting of Axel Heiberg Island was prior to its discovery by Norwegian explorer Otto Sverdrup 's expedition around the same time. This contention has been universally rejected by exploration societies and historians. However, the American Geographical Society and

1144-466: A system of eight airmail routes, which became the genesis of the U.S. Postal Service's airmail system. In 1914, Peary bought the house at 1831 Wyoming Avenue NW in the Adams Morgan neighborhood of Washington, D.C. , where he lived until his death on February 20, 1920. He began renovating the house in 1920, shortly before his death, after which the renovation was taken over by Josephine. She sold

1232-433: A total of 304 nautical miles between April 2, 1909, (when he left Bartlett's last camp) and April 9 (when he returned there), 133 nmi (246 km; 153 mi) to the pole, the same distance back, and 38 nmi (70 km; 44 mi) in the vicinity of the pole. These distances are counted without detours due to drift, leads and difficult ice, i.e. the distance traveled must have been significantly higher to make good

1320-509: A two-star flag officer. The two ranks are only utilized by the United States Navy , U.S. Coast Guard , U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps , and the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps . In contrast, in most other nations' rank-bearing services, the term " rear admiral " refers exclusively to two-star flag officer rank. Rear admiral (lower half) (abbreviated as RDML )

1408-554: A two-star major general. However, both categories of rear admiral wore two-star insignia, an issue that was a source of consternation to the other services. At the same time, the Navy also bestowed the title of commodore on selected U.S. Navy captains who commanded multiple subordinate units, such as destroyer squadrons , submarine squadrons and air wings and air groups not designated as carrier air wings or carrier air groups. Although not flag officers , these officers were entitled to

1496-688: Is a one-star flag officer , with the pay grade of O-7 in the United States Navy , the United States Coast Guard , the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps , and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps . Rear admiral (lower half) ranks above captain and below rear admiral . Rear admiral (lower half) is equivalent to the rank of brigadier general in

1584-555: Is later, unless appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer. Otherwise all flag officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday. However, the Secretary of Defense can defer a flag officer's retirement until the officer's 66th birthday and the President can defer it until the officer's 68th birthday. Flag officers typically retire well in advance of the statutory age and service limits, so as not to impede

1672-461: Is not on the recommended list if it serves in the interest of the nation, but this is uncommon. The Senate must then confirm the nominee by a majority vote before the officer can be promoted. Once confirmed, a nominee is promoted by assuming an office that requires or allows an officer to hold that rank. For one-star or two-star positions of office that are reserved by statute, the President nominates an officer for appointment to fill that position. For

1760-640: Is now known as Peary Land , he proved conclusively that Greenland was an island. He was one of the first Arctic explorers to study Inuit survival techniques. During an expedition in 1894, he was the first Western explorer to reach the Cape York meteorite and its fragments, which were then taken from the native Inuit population who had relied on it for creating tools. During that expedition, Peary deceived six indigenous individuals, including Minik Wallace , into traveling to America with him by promising they would be able to return with tools, weapons and gifts within

1848-513: Is speculated that this was to avoid any bad press surrounding his anticipated celebratory return after reaching the North Pole. In 1986, Kenn Harper wrote a book about Minik, entitled Give Me My Father's Body . Convinced that the remains of Qisuk and the three adult Inuit should be returned to Greenland, he tried to persuade the Museum of Natural History to do this, as well as working through

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1936-475: Is the highest permanent rank during peacetime in the uniformed services. All higher ranks are temporary ranks and linked to their specific commands or office and expire with the expiration of their term of command or office. Before the American Civil War , the U.S. Navy had resisted creating the rank of admiral. Instead, they preferred the term " flag officer ", in order to distinguish the rank from

2024-551: The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences . Members of this expedition included Peary's aide Henson, Frederick A. Cook , who served as the group's surgeon; the expedition's ethnologist, Norwegian skier Eivind Astrup ; bird expert and marksman Langdon Gibson, and John M. Verhoeff, who was a weatherman and mineralogist. Peary also took his wife along as dietitian, though she had no formal training. Newspaper reports criticized Peary for bringing his wife. On June 6, 1891,

2112-785: The Hubbard Medal . No major professional geographical society followed suit. In 1914, Donald Baxter MacMillan and Fitzhugh Green's expedition found that Crocker Land did not exist. On July 6, 1908, the Roosevelt departed New York City with Peary's eighth Arctic expedition of 22 men. Besides Peary as expedition commander, it included master of the Roosevelt Robert Bartlett , surgeon Dr. J.W. Goodsell, along with Ross Gilmore Marvin , Donald Baxter MacMillan , George Borup, and Matthew Henson . After recruiting several Inuit and their families at Cape York (Greenland) ,

2200-621: The Peary expedition to Greenland of 1891–1892 , Peary took the second, more difficult route that he laid out in 1886: traveling farther north to find out whether Greenland was a larger landmass extending to the North Pole. He was financed by several groups, including the American Geographic Society , the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences (now the Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University ), and

2288-502: The Peary expedition to Greenland of 1891–1892 , had experience of naval-type observations. On April 6, 1909, Peary established Camp Jesup within 3 mi (5 km) of the pole, according to his own readings. Peary estimated the latitude as 89°57', after making an observation at approximate local noon using the Columbia meridian. Peary used a sextant, with a mercury trough and glass roof for an artificial horizon, to make measurements of

2376-627: The Roosevelt departed for home. Upon returning, Peary learned that Dr. Frederick A. Cook , a surgeon and ethnographer on the Peary expedition to Greenland of 1891–1892 , claimed to have reached the North pole in 1908. Despite remaining doubts, a committee of the National Geographic Society, as well as the Naval Affairs Subcommittee of the U.S. House of Representatives , credited Peary with reaching

2464-500: The Royal Geographical Society of London honored Peary for tenacity, mapping of previously uncharted areas, and his discovery in 1900 of Cape Morris Jesup at the north tip of Greenland. Peary also achieved a "farthest north" for the western hemisphere in 1902 north of Canada's Ellesmere Island . Peary was promoted to lieutenant commander in the Navy in 1901 and to commander in 1902. Peary's next expedition

2552-757: The Smithson Range nunatak that separates it from the Tracy Glacier to the north, and Nunatarsuaq , a plateau dotted with lakes to the south. Both neighboring glaciers drain roughly 12,000 km (4,600 sq mi) of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Although the Heilprin Glacier is contiguous to the Tracy Glacier, both glaciers have a different nature, a fact which has been a source of puzzlement for scientists for over

2640-601: The South Pole , which—like Robert Falcon Scott 's a month later in 1912—was supported by the sextant, theodolite , and compass observations of several other navigators. Rear admiral (United States) A rear admiral in four of the uniformed services of the United States is one of two distinct ranks of commissioned officers ; " rear admiral (lower half) ," a one-star flag officer , and " rear admiral " (sometimes referred to as " rear admiral (upper half) "),

2728-519: The Thanks of Congress and was promoted to rear admiral . He served two terms as president of The Explorers Club before retiring in 1911. Peary's claim to have reached the North Pole was widely debated along with a competing claim made by Frederick Cook , but eventually won widespread acceptance. In 1989, British explorer Wally Herbert concluded Peary did not reach the pole, although he may have come within 60 mi (97 km). Robert Edwin Peary

Heilprin Glacier - Misplaced Pages Continue

2816-554: The U.S. Code of law . However, the four uniformed services will sometimes list the rank as rear admiral (upper half) to help the general public distinguish between the two grades. Although it exists largely as a maritime training organization, the United States Maritime Service does use the ranks of rear admiral (upper half) and rear admiral (lower half). By law, the Service has the same rank structure as

2904-490: The United States Army , Air Force , Marine Corps , and Space Force and equivalent to the rank of commodore in most other navies. In the United States uniformed services, rear admiral (lower half) replaced the rank of commodore in 1985. Rear admiral (abbreviated as RADM ), also sometimes referred to informally as " rear admiral (upper half) ", is a two-star flag officer, with the pay grade of O-8 in

2992-512: The "red tape" of the US and Canadian governments. In 1993, Harper succeeded in having the Inuit remains returned. In Qaanaaq , he witnessed the Inuit funeral ceremony for the remains of Qisuk and the three tribesmen [Shaman Atangana (ca. 1840–1898) with her husband, renowned hunter Nuktaq (ca. 1848–1898), their adoptive daughter Aviaq (ca. 1885–1898)] that had been taken to New York. Peary had employed

3080-601: The April 1906 record is the only missing diary of Peary's exploration career. He claimed the next day to have achieved a Farthest North world record at 87°06' and returned to 86°30' without camping. This implied a trip of at least 72 nautical miles (133 km; 83 mi) between sleeping, even assuming direct travel with no detours. After returning to Roosevelt in May, Peary began weeks of difficult travel in June heading west along

3168-794: The Assistant Surgeons General are one-star rear admirals and no more than half are two-star rear admirals. The Coast Guard's chief medical officer is also a commissioned corps two-star rear admiral, on assignment to the Coast Guard. Officers serving in certain intelligence positions are not counted against the statutory limit. For the Navy and the Coast Guard, to be promoted to the permanent grade of rear admiral (lower half) or rear admiral, officers who are eligible for promotion to these ranks are screened by an in-service promotion board composed of other flag officers from their branch of service. This promotion board then generates

3256-583: The Greenlanders had been obtaining the iron they needed from whalers, the Cape York meteorite was the only source of iron for tools. Peary sold it for $ 40,000 in 1897. Working at the American Museum of Natural History , anthropologist Franz Boas had requested that Peary bring back an Inuit for study. During his expedition to retrieve the meteorite, Peary convinced six people, including

3344-586: The Inughuit in his expeditions for more than a decade, paying them in firearms, ammunition and other Western goods on which they had come to rely, and leaving them in a dire situation in 1909. The demands of the American expeditions had also resulted in the caribou of North Greenland being hunted to near extinction. Peary's claim to have reached the North Pole has long been subject to doubt. Some polar historians believe that Peary honestly thought he had reached

3432-419: The Inuit, including fathering children with Aleqasina. Renée Hulan and Lyle Dick have both reported that Peary and his crew sexually exploited Inuit women on his 1908–1909 expedition. Peary has also been harshly criticized for bringing back a group of Inughuit Greenlandic Inuit to the United States along with the Cape York meteorite . The meteorite was of significant local economic importance: Although

3520-571: The National Aerial Coast Patrol Commission, a private organization created by the Aero Club of America . It advocated the use of aircraft to detect warships and submarines off the U.S. coast. Peary used his celebrity to promote the use of military and naval aviation, which led directly to the formation of United States Navy Reserve aerial coastal patrol units during World War I . After the war, Peary proposed

3608-643: The Navy and the Coast Guard, because the one-star and two-star grades are permanent ranks, the nominee may still be screened by an in-service promotion board to add their input on the nominee before the nomination can be sent to the Senate for approval. For the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps and the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, one-star and two-star rank are achieved by appointment from

Heilprin Glacier - Misplaced Pages Continue

3696-560: The Navy due to the difficulty in differentiating those commodores who were flag officers from commodores who were senior captains in certain command positions. Then in 1985, Pub. L.   99–145 renamed commodore to the current grade of rear admiral (lower half) effective on November 8, 1985. Up until 1981 all rear admirals wore two stars on their shoulder boards and rank insignia. Since then, rear admirals (lower half) wear one star while rear admirals wear two; verbal address remains "rear admiral" for both ranks. On correspondence, where

3784-488: The North Pole. A reassessment of Peary's notebook in 1988 by polar explorer Wally Herbert found it "lacking in essential data", thus renewing doubts about Peary's discovery. Peary was promoted to the rank of captain in the Navy in October 1910. By his lobbying, Peary headed off a move among some U.S. Congressmen to have his claim to the pole evaluated by other explorers. Eventually recognized by Congress for "reaching"

3872-751: The President, or from their department secretary, and do not require senatorial approval. The standard tour length for most rear admiral positions is three years, but some are set at four or more years by statute. For the Navy, Coast Guard, and NOAA Corps, both grades of rear admiral are permanent ranks and do not expire when the officer vacates a one-star or two-star position. The Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, however, employs permanent promotions in both grades of rear admiral as well as position-linked temporary appointments in both grades (e.g., Assistant Surgeons General). Their temporary ranks expires when those officers vacate certain temporary positions of office designated to bear those ranks. By tradition in

3960-644: The RDML abbreviation for the O-7 pay grade in 2022. As flag officers, the flags flown for rear admirals of the unrestricted line of the U.S. Navy have one or two white, single-point-up stars on blue fields for the lower half or upper half, respectively. The flags of restricted line officers and staff corps officers have blue stars on a white field. All services officially list the two-star grade as rear admiral and not rear admiral (upper half) as stated by 10 U.S.C.   § 8111 and 37 U.S.C.   § 201 of

4048-676: The Reserve Active Status List as part-time drilling reservists. Some of these billets are reserved or set by statute. For example, the Deputy Judge Advocate General of the Navy is a two-star rear admiral in the Navy. A newer statute enacted in 2016 lowers the cap on the total number of active duty flag officers in the Department of Defense to 151, effective December 31, 2022. In the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, at least half of

4136-557: The Sun. Peary claims, "I had now taken in all thirteen single, or six and one-half double, altitudes of the sun, at two different stations, in three different directions, at four different times." Peary states some of these observations were "beyond the Pole," and "...at some moment during these marches and counter-marches, I had passed over or very near the point where north and south and east and west blend into one." Henson scouted ahead to what

4224-721: The United States Coast Guard, but its uniforms are more similar to the United States Navy. By statute, Congress has expressly limited the total number of flag officers that may be on active duty at any given time. The total number of active duty flag officers is capped at 162 for the Regular Navy, augmented by a smaller number of additional flag officers in the Navy Reserve who are either on full-time active duty, temporary active duty, or on

4312-708: The United States Navy, the United States Coast Guard, the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps and the United States Maritime Service . Rear admiral ranks above rear admiral (lower half) and below vice admiral . Rear admiral is equivalent to the rank of major general in the U.S. Army, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Space Force. It

4400-584: The United States Navy, when an officer is selected or appointed to flag rank, all current Navy flag officers write the selectee a letter congratulating him or her for attaining flag officer status. Other than voluntary retirement, federal statutes set a number of mandates for retirement. All one-star officers must retire after five years in grade or 30 years of service, whichever is later, unless they are selected or appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer. All two-star officers must retire after five years in grade or 35 years of service, whichever

4488-598: The discoverer of the geographic North Pole in April 1909, having led the first expedition to have claimed this achievement, although it is now considered unlikely that he actually reached the Pole. Peary was born in Cresson, Pennsylvania , but, following his father's death at a young age, was raised in Cape Elizabeth, Maine . He attended Bowdoin College , then joined the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey as

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4576-593: The distance claimed. Peary and his party arrived back in Cape Columbia on the morning of April 23, 1909, only about two and a half days after Capt Bartlett, yet Peary claimed he had traveled a minimum of 304 nmi (563 km; 350 mi) more than Bartlett (to the Pole and vicinity). The conflicting and unverified claims of Cook and Peary prompted Roald Amundsen to take extensive precautions in navigation during Amundsen's South Pole expedition so as to leave no room for doubt concerning his 1911 attainment of

4664-510: The east coast. The second, more difficult path, was to start from Whale Sound at the top of the known portion of Baffin Bay and travel north to determine whether Greenland was an island or if it extended all the way across the Arctic. Peary was promoted to the rank of lieutenant commander on January 5, 1901, and to commander on April 6, 1902. Peary made his first expedition to the Arctic in 1886, intending to cross Greenland by dog sled , taking

4752-459: The expedition wintered near Cape Sheridan on Ellesmere Island . The expedition used the "Peary system" for the sledge journey, with Bartlett and the Inuit, Poodloonah, "Harrigan," and Ooqueah, composing the pioneer division. Borup, with three Inuit, Keshunghaw, Seegloo, and Karko, composed the advance supporting party. On February 15, Bartlett's pioneer division departed the Roosevelt for Cape Columbia , followed by 5 advance divisions. Peary, with

4840-461: The final stage of the journey did not include anyone trained in navigation who could either confirm or contradict Peary's own navigational work. This was further exacerbated by Peary's failure to produce records of observed data for steering, for the direction (" variation ") of the compass, for his longitudinal position at any time, or for zeroing-in on the pole either latitudinally or transversely beyond Bartlett Camp. The last five marches when Peary

4928-573: The first of his own suggested paths. He was given six months' leave from the Navy, and he received $ 500 from his mother to book passage north and buy supplies. He sailed on a whaler to Greenland, arriving in Godhavn on June 6, 1886. Peary wanted to make a solo trek, but Christian Maigaard, a young Danish official, convinced him he would die if he went out alone. Maigaard and Peary set off together and traveled nearly 100 mi (160 km) due east before turning back because they were short on food. This

5016-556: The house in 1927, receiving a $ 12,000 promissory note. He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery . Matthew Henson was honored by being re-interred nearby on April 6, 1988. On August 11, 1888, Peary married Josephine Diebitsch , a business school valedictorian who thought that women should be more than just mothers. Diebitsch had started working at the Smithsonian Institution when she

5104-557: The ice between himself and land, he made the best possible dash and barely escaped with his life from the melting ice. On April 20, he was no farther north than 86°30' latitude. This latitude was never published by Peary. It is in a typescript of his April 1906 diary, discovered by Wally Herbert in his assessment commissioned by the National Geographic Society . The typescript suddenly stopped there, one day before Peary's April 21 purported "farthest". The original of

5192-546: The intended trek with Henson, Gibson, Cook, and Astrup. After 150 mi (240 km), Peary continued on with Astrup. They found the 3,300 ft (1,000 m) high view from Navy Cliff, saw Independence Fjord , and concluded that Greenland was an island. They trekked back to Red Cliff and arrived on August 6, having traveled a total of 1,250 mi (2,010 km). In 1896, Peary, a Master Mason , received his degrees in Kane Lodge No. 454, New York City . As

5280-511: The men and their families to the United States to meet their American relatives and see their fathers' gravesites. In 1991, Counter wrote about the episode in his book, North Pole Legacy: Black, White, and Eskimo (1991). He also gained national recognition of Henson's role in the expeditions. A documentary by the same name was also released. Wally Herbert also noted the relationship and children in his book The Noose of Laurels , published in 1989. Peary has received criticism for his treatment of

5368-429: The party left Brooklyn, New York, in the seal hunting ship SS Kite . In July, as Kite was ramming through sheets of surface ice, the ship's iron tiller suddenly spun around and broke Peary's lower leg; both bones snapped between the knee and ankle. Peary was unloaded with the rest of the supplies at a camp they called Red Cliff, at the mouth of MacCormick Fjord at the north west end of Inglefield Gulf . A dwelling

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5456-487: The people and kept a journal of her experiences. In September 1891, Peary's men and dog sled teams pushed inland onto the ice sheet to lay caches of supplies. They did not go farther than 30 mi (48 km) from Red Cliff. In 1891, Peary shattered his leg in a shipyard accident but it healed by February 1892. By April 1892, he made some short trips with Josephine and an Inuit dog sled driver to native villages to purchase supplies. On May 3, 1892, Peary finally set out on

5544-471: The pole across the rough sea ice of the Arctic Ocean started from the north tip of Ellesmere at 83° north latitude. The parties made well under 10 mi (16 km) a day until they became separated by a storm. As a result, Peary was without a companion sufficiently trained in navigation to verify his account from that point northward. With insufficient food, and uncertainty whether he could negotiate

5632-652: The pole, Peary was given the Thanks of Congress by a special act in March 1911. By the same Act of Congress, Peary was promoted to the rank of rear admiral in the Navy Civil Engineer Corps, retroactive to April 6, 1909. He retired from the Navy the same day, to Eagle Island on the coast of Maine , in the town of Harpswell. His home there has been designated a Maine State Historic Site. After retiring, Peary received many honors from scientific societies for his Arctic explorations and discoveries. He served twice as president of The Explorers Club , from 1909 to 1911, and from 1913 to 1916. In early 1916, Peary became chairman of

5720-446: The pole. Others have suggested that he was guilty of deliberately exaggerating his accomplishments. Peary's account has been newly criticized by Pierre Berton (2001) and Bruce Henderson (2005). Peary did not submit his evidence for review to neutral national or international parties or to other explorers. Peary's claim was certified by the National Geographic Society (NGS) in 1909 after a cursory examination of Peary's records, as NGS

5808-502: The rank of two-star rear admiral and the commodore rank was abolished in both services. Both the Navy and the Coast Guard divided their rear admirals into "lower half" and full rear admirals, or "upper half", the former being paid at the same rate as a one-star brigadier general in the U.S. Army , U.S. Marine Corps and the newly independent U.S. Air Force . Lower-half rear admirals were eventually advanced to full rear admirals, or upper half status, where they would receive pay equivalent to

5896-417: The rear admiral's rank is spelled out, the acronym (LH) and (UH) follows the rear admiral's rank title to distinguish between one and two stars. Beginning around 2001, the Navy, Coast Guard, and NOAA Corps started using the separate rank abbreviations RDML (one star) and RADM (two stars), while the Public Health Service continued to use the abbreviation RADM for both. The Public Health Service formally adopted

5984-505: The ship, after Bartlett estimated a latitude of 87°46'49". Peary, with two Inuit, Egingwah and Seeglo, and Henson, with two Inuit, Ootah and Ooqueah, using 5 sledges and 40 dogs, planned 5 marches over the estimated 130 nautical miles to the pole. On 2 April, Peary led the way north. On the final stage of the journey toward the North Pole, Peary told Bartlett to stay behind. He continued with five others: Henson, Ootah, Egigingwah, Seegloo, and Ooqueah. No one except Henson, who had served on

6072-407: The ship. Peary states this was at a latitude of 84°29'. On March 20, Borup's third supporting party, with three Inuit, started back to the ship. Peary states this was at a latitude of 85°23'. On March 26, Marvin, with Kudlooktoo and Harrigan, headed back to the ship, from a latitude estimated by Marvin as 86°38'. Marvin died on this return trip south. On 1 April, Bartlett's party started their return to

6160-456: The shore of Ellesmere. He discovered Cape Colgate, from whose summit he claimed in his 1907 book that he had seen a previously undiscovered far-north " Crocker Land " to the northwest on June 24, 1906. A later review of his diary for this time and place found that he had written, "No land visible." On December 15, 1906, the National Geographic Society of the United States, certified Peary's 1905–1906 expedition and "Farthest" with its highest honor,

6248-497: The strongest hunters and the wisest heads for our tribe, to go with him to America. Our people were afraid to let them go, but Peary promised them that they should have Natooka and my father back within a year, and that with them would come a great stock of guns and ammunition, and wood and metal and presents for the women and children … We were crowded into the hold of the vessel and treated like dogs. Peary seldom came near us. Peary eventually helped Minik travel home in 1909, though it

6336-565: The traditions of the European navies. During the American Civil War, the U.S. Congress honored David Farragut 's successful assault on the city of New Orleans by creating the rank of rear admiral on July 16, 1862. During World War II , the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Coast Guard both had a temporary appointment, one-star rank of commodore, that was used in limited circumstances. By the end of the war, all incumbents had been advanced to

6424-445: The two Inuit, Arco and Kudlooktoo, departed on February 22, bringing to the total effort 7 expedition members, 19 Inuit, 140 dogs, and 28 sledges. On February 28, Bartlett, with three Inuit, Ooqueah, Pooadloonah, and Harrigan, accompanied by Borup, with three Inuit, Karko, Seegloo, and Keshungwah, headed North. On March 14, the first supporting party, composed of Dr. Goodsell and the two Inuit, Arco and Wesharkoupsi, turned back towards

6512-678: The two women. Josephine told Peary that his mother should return to live in Maine. They had two children together, Marie Ahnighito (born 1893) and Robert Peary, Jr. His daughter wrote several books, including The Red Caboose (1932) a children's book about the Arctic adventures published by William Morrow and Company . As an explorer, Peary was frequently gone for years at a time. In their first 23 years of marriage, he spent only three with his wife and family. Peary and his aide, Henson, both had relationships with Inuit women outside of marriage and fathered children with them. Peary appears to have started

6600-406: The women’s crying and the men’s questioning he answered that he was taking our dead friends to a warm and pleasant land to bury them. Our sole supply of flint for lighting and iron for hunting and cooking implements was furnished by a huge meteorite. This Peary put aboard his steamer and took from my poor people, who needed it so much. After this he coaxed my father and that brave man Natooka, who were

6688-474: The year. This promise was unfulfilled and four of the six Inuit died of illnesses within a few months. On his 1898–1902 expedition, Peary set a new " Farthest North " record by reaching Greenland's northernmost point, Cape Morris Jesup . Peary made two more expeditions to the Arctic, in 1905–1906 and in 1908–1909. During the latter, he claimed to have reached the North Pole. Peary received several learned society awards during his lifetime, and, in 1911, received

6776-550: Was 19 or 20 years old, replacing her father after he became ill and filling his position as a linguist . In 1886, she resigned from the Smithsonian upon becoming engaged to Peary. The newlyweds honeymooned in Atlantic City, New Jersey , then moved to Philadelphia , where Peary was assigned. Peary's mother accompanied them on their honeymoon, and she moved into their Philadelphia apartment, which caused friction between

6864-651: Was a major sponsor of his expedition. This was a few weeks before Cook's Pole claim was rejected by a Danish panel of explorers and navigational experts. The National Geographic Society limited access to Peary's records. At the time, his proofs were not made available for scrutiny by other professionals, as had been done by the Danish panel. Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor persuaded the United States National Academy of Sciences not to get involved. The Royal Geographical Society (RGS) of London gave Peary

6952-545: Was able to dispense with the extra weight of tents and sleeping bags when on the march. Peary also relied on the Inuit as hunters and dog-drivers on his expeditions. He pioneered the system of using support teams and establishing supply caches for Arctic travel, which he called the "Peary system". The Inuit were curious about the Americans and came to visit Red Cliff. Josephine was bothered by the Inuit body odor from not bathing, their flea infestations, and their food. She studied

7040-410: Was accompanied by a navigator (Capt. Bob Bartlett) averaged no better than 13 mi (21 km) marching north. But once the last support party turned back at "Camp Bartlett", where Bartlett was ordered southward, at least 133 nmi (246 km; 153 mi) from the pole, Peary's claimed speeds immediately doubled for the five marches to Camp Jesup. The recorded speeds quadrupled during the two and

7128-481: Was also part of the rowing team. He graduated in 1877 with a civil engineering degree. From 1878 to 1879, Peary lived in Fryeburg , Maine . During that time, he made a profile survey from the top of Fryeburg's Jockey Cap Rock. The 360-degree survey names the larger hills and mountains visible from the summit. After Peary's death, his boyhood friend, Alfred E. Burton, suggested that the profile survey be made into

7216-577: Was an assistant engineer on the surveys for the Nicaragua Canal and later became the engineer in charge. As reflected in a diary entry he made in 1885, during his time in the Navy, he resolved to be the first man to reach the North Pole . In April 1886, he wrote a paper for the National Academy of Sciences proposing two methods for crossing Greenland's ice cap. One was to start from the west coast and trek about 400 mi (640 km) to

7304-567: Was born on May 6, 1856, in Cresson, Pennsylvania , to Charles N. and Mary P. Peary. After his father died in 1859, Peary and his mother moved to Portland, Maine . Peary attended Portland High School (Maine) where he graduated in 1873. Peary made his way to Bowdoin College , some 36 mi (58 km) to the north, where he was a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity and the Phi Beta Kappa honor society . He

7392-489: Was built for his recuperation during the next six months. Josephine Peary stayed with Peary. Gibson, Cook, Verhoeff, and Astrup hunted game by boat and became familiar with the area and the Inuit . Unlike most previous explorers, Peary had studied Inuit survival techniques; he built igloos during the expedition and dressed in practical furs in the native fashion. By wearing furs to preserve body heat and building igloos, he

7480-475: Was shown a fake burial. Speaking as a teenager to the San Francisco Examiner about Peary, Minik said: At the start, Peary was kind enough to my people. He made them presents of ornaments, a few knives and guns for hunting and wood to build sledges. But as soon as he was ready to start home his other work began. Before our eyes he packed up the bones of our dead friends and ancestors. To

7568-479: Was supported by fundraising through the Peary Arctic Club , with gifts of $ 50,000 from George Crocker, the youngest son of banker Charles Crocker , and $ 25,000 from Morris K. Jesup , to buy Peary a new ship. The SS  Roosevelt navigated through the ice between Greenland and Ellesmere Island , establishing an American hemisphere "farthest north by ship". The 1906 "Peary System" dogsled drive for

7656-541: Was the second-farthest penetration of Greenland's ice sheet at the time. Peary returned home knowing more of what was required for long-distance ice trekking. Back in Washington attending with the US Navy, in November 1887 Peary was ordered to survey likely routes for a proposed Nicaragua Canal. To complete his tropical outfit he needed a sun hat. He went to a men's clothing store where he met 21-year-old Matthew Henson ,

7744-461: Was thought to be the North Pole site; he returned with the greeting, "I think I'm the first man to sit on top of the world," much to Peary's chagrin. On April 7, 1909, Peary's group started their return journey, reaching Cape Columbia on April 23, and the Roosevelt on April 26. MacMillan and the doctor's party had reached the ship earlier, on March 21, Borup's party on April 11, Marvin's Inuit on April 17, and Bartlett's party on April 24. On July 18,

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