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46-700: Helmert was born in Freiberg , Kingdom of Saxony . After schooling in Freiberg and Dresden , he entered the Polytechnische Schule, now Technische Universität, in Dresden to study engineering science in 1859. Finding him especially enthusiastic about geodesy, one of his teachers, Christian August Nagel , hired him while still a student to work on the triangulation of the Ore Mountains and

92-467: A notable cathedral containing two famous Gottfried Silbermann organs. There are two other organs made by Gottfried Silbermann in the town – one at the St. Peter's Church ( Petrikirche ) and the other one at the St. James' Church ( Jakobikirche ). The Renaissance part of Freiberg, built after a fire destroyed the town in 1484, stands under heritage protection. In 1913, silver mining was discontinued due to

138-600: A boundary between two variants of the Upper Saxon dialect : the Southeast Meissen dialect ( Südostmeißnisch ) to the east and the South Meissen dialect ( Südmeißnisch ) to the west of the town, both belonging to the five Meissen dialects, as well as just north of the border of the dialect region of East Erzgebirgisch . The nucleus of the town, the former forest village of Christiansdorf lies in

184-703: A burial place for the Albertines , and the Golden Gate ( Goldene Pforte ), of which exist three replicas in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Moscow and Budapest. Freiberg's christmas market Freiberger Christmarkt is typical for christmas markets in the Ore Mountain region, which are characterized by a strong connection to mining and the typical christmas decorations of this region like Raachermannel , Schwibbögen and Christmas pyramids . The town lies on

230-541: A second edition in 1907) in this tradition, which became a standard text. In 1876 he discovered the chi-squared distribution as the distribution of the sample variance for a normal distribution . This discovery and other of his work was described in German textbooks, including his own, but was unknown in English, and hence later rediscovered by English statisticians – the chi-squared distribution by Karl Pearson (1900), and

276-721: A tributary of the Mulde River. It is a Große Kreisstadt (large district town), and the administrative seat of Landkreis Mittelsachsen (district Central Saxony). Freiberg is connected to Dresden by the S3 line of the Dresden S-Bahn . The entire historic center of the Silver City is under monument protection, and together with local monuments of mining history such as the Reiche Zeche ore mine, it has been part of

322-623: Is a university and former mining town in Saxony , Germany, with around 41,000 inhabitants. The city lies in the foreland of the Ore Mountains , in the Saxon urbanization axis, which runs along the northern edge of the Elster and Ore Mountains , stretching from Plauen in the southwest via Zwickau , Chemnitz and Freiberg to Dresden in the northeast. It sits on the Freiberger Mulde ,

368-690: Is a plan to rename the Oberer (Upper) station into Plauen Hauptbahnhof (Main Station). Vogtlandbahn (Vogtland Railway), a regional train company, operates services from Plauen to Hof , Werdau, Chemnitz , Zwickau , Falkenstein and Adorf within Germany and Cheb in the Czech Republic . At these stations, there are other Vogtlandbahn services to Munich , Regensburg , Marktredwitz, Dresden and Leipzig within Germany and Karlovy Vary and Prague in

414-631: Is available at the GDZ site A partial scan of Die mathematischen und physikalischen Theorieen der höheren Geodäsie (Part I) is available on the site English translations (by the Aeronautical Chart and Information Center, St. Louis) of Parts I and II of Die mathematischen und physikalischen Theorieen der höheren Geodäsie are available at There is an account of Helmert's work on the theory of errors in section 10.6 of For eponymous terms in statistics see Freiberg, Saxony Freiberg

460-458: Is formed by the towns of Nossen , Roßwein , Großschirma , Freiberg and Brand-Erbisdorf . It currently has about 75,000 inhabitants. Freiberg is located about 31 kilometres (19 miles) west-southwest of Dresden , about 31 kilometres east-northeast of Chemnitz , about 82 kilometres (51 miles) southeast of Leipzig , about 179 kilometres (111 miles) south of Berlin , and about 120 kilometres (75 miles) northwest of Prague . Freiberg lies on

506-407: Is on an old mining tip at 491 m above NHN . Freiberg lies within a region of old forest clearances , subsequently used by the mining industry which left its mark on the landscape. The town is surrounded to the north, southeast and southwest by woods, and in the other directions by fields and meadows. Since the beginning of the 21st century an urbanised area has gradually developed which

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552-475: The Czech Republic . A Vogtlandbahn Express Bus service runs between Plauen and Berlin Schönefeld Airport and Zoological Garden. The Plauen Straßenbahn is a tram system with 6 lines connecting the center of city, the central Plauen-Tunnel stop, to the surrounding areas and the upper railway station (Oberer Bahnhof). Plauen is home to a University of Applied Sciences with about 300 students and

598-674: The Freiberg Germany Temple here because of the large number of members in the region. The building of this temple is considered quite historic by church members given the political climate in Eastern Europe at the time. The Freiberg Germany Temple serves members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints from all over Eastern Germany and a majority of Eastern Europe. On 6 July 2019, the Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region including Freiberg

644-585: The German Empire . In the late-19th century, Plauen became a centre of textile manufacturing, specializing in Chemical lace , called Plauen lace . Around 1910, Plauen, as an industrial 'boomtown' of the region, reached its population peak (1910 census: 121,000, 1912: 128,000). Plauen's population, however, has shrunk dramatically since the Second World War (1939: 111,000 inhabitants). In

690-656: The Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin , was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1905, and recipient of some 25 German and foreign decorations. The lunar crater Helmert was named in his honor, approved by the IAU in 1973. There is an obituary at There is a photograph of Helmert at and three more at See also The first edition of Helmert's textbook on least squares

736-779: The Vogtland after Gera , as well as the largest city in the Saxon Vogtland ( Sächsisches Vogtland ). The city lies on the upper reaches of the White Elster , a tributary of the Saale , in the Central Vogtlandian Hill Country. Plauen is the southwesternmost city of a string of cities sitting in the densely populated foreland of the Elster and Ore Mountains , stretching from Plauen in the southwest via Zwickau, Chemnitz and Freiberg to Dresden in

782-468: The mining and smelting industries. Since then it has restructured into a high technology site in the fields of semiconductor manufacture and solar technology , part of Silicon Saxony . Freiberg Cathedral is one of the most richly furnished houses of worship in Saxony and contains important works of art such as the tulip pulpit, two Gottfried Silbermann organs, the choir, which was converted into

828-586: The 1930s, Plauen hosted the first chapter of the Nazi Party outside of Bavaria . During the war, the Nazis operated a prison in the town, and three subcamps of the Flossenbürg concentration camp . 500 women, mostly Polish, but also Russian, Italian, French, Yugoslavian and Croatian, were imprisoned and used as forced labour in the first two subcamps, and 50 men from various countries were imprisoned in

874-694: The B 101 south of Freiberg is the Große Kreisstadt of Brand-Erbisdorf and to the east is the municipality of Oberschöna . [REDACTED] Margraviate of Meissen 1186–1423 [REDACTED]   Electorate of Saxony 1423–1806 [REDACTED]   Kingdom of Saxony 1806–1871 [REDACTED]   German Empire 1871–1918 [REDACTED]   Weimar Republic 1918–1933 [REDACTED]   Nazi Germany 1933–1945 [REDACTED]   Allied-occupied Germany 1945–1949 [REDACTED]   German Democratic Republic 1949–1990 [REDACTED]   Germany 1990– present The town

920-587: The Freiberg Art Award and the election of the Mining Town Queen ( Bergstadt-Königin ). The Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg (Freiberg University of Mining and Technology or Freiberg Mining Academy, University of Technology) was established in 1765 by Prince Franz Xaver, regent of Saxony, based on plans by Friedrich Wilhelm von Oppel and Friedrich Anton von Heynitz , and is the oldest extant university of mining and metallurgy in

966-743: The SAXONIA Miners Music Corps. This includes a traditional Sermon on the Mount in St. Peter's Church and waiting by the miners on the second Saturday in Advent. Firmly established is the potter's gathering on a weekend in the second half of April on the Upper Market ( Obermarkt ). Every year on the Drei Brüder Schacht mineshaft in the quarter of Zug there is a model steam engine gathering . Other annual events include

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1012-520: The UNESCO World Heritage Site Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region since 2019 due to its exceptional testimony to the development of mining techniques across many centuries. Freiberg University of Mining and Technology ( Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg ), founded in 1765, is the oldest university of mining and metallurgy in the world. Until 1969, the town was dominated for around 800 years by

1058-585: The application to the sample variance by 'Student' and Fisher . From 1887 Helmert was professor of advanced geodesy at the University of Berlin and director of the Geodetic Institute. In 1916 he had a stroke and died of its effects the following year in Potsdam . Helmert received many honours. He was president of the global geodetic association of " Internationale Erdmessung ", member of

1104-458: The boundary of the borough. Between Kleinwaltersdorf and Lößnitz is the Nonnenwald wood, and east of Leipziger Straße is a trading estate. In the area around Freiberg there are both industrial estates as well as agricultural and recreational areas. Smelting and metalworking firms are based at Muldenhütten and Halsbrücke and paper manufacturers at Weißenborn and Großschirma. Northeast of

1150-719: The city to commemorate past Jewish life in Plauen, such as the Jewish Cemetery. A 3D-model of the Jewish Synagogue of Plauen was designed by Prof. Marc Grellert and his team from the TU Darmstadt as a part of his project to 3D-design German synagogues that were demolished before, during and after WW2. https://www.architektur.tu-darmstadt.de/fachbereich/aktuelles_arch/architektur_news_details_133952.de.jsp The first freely elected mayor after German reunification

1196-730: The decline in the price of silver. Resumed before the Second World War, mining activities for lead, zinc and tin extraction continued until 1969. In 1944, a subcamp of Flossenbürg concentration camp was built outside the town of Freiberg. It housed over 500 female survivors of other camps, including Auschwitz . Altogether 50 or so SS women worked in this camp until its evacuation in April 1945. The female survivors eventually reached Mauthausen concentration camp in Austria. In 1985, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints built

1242-662: The drafting of the trigonometric network for Saxony. In 1863 Helmert became Nagel's assistant on the Central European Arc Measurement . After a year's study of mathematics and astronomy Helmert obtained his doctor's degree from the University of Leipzig in 1867 for a thesis based on his work for Nagel. In 1870 Helmert became instructor and in 1872 professor at RWTH Aachen , the new Technical University in Aachen . At Aachen he wrote Die mathematischen und physikalischen Theorieen der höheren Geodäsie (Part I

1288-611: The first city of the GDR to have a McDonald's restaurant following the collapse of the Berlin Wall . As part of Saxony's local government reform of July 1st 2008, Plauen lost its status as a district-free city and was integrated into the Vogtlandkreis district. The Jewish community of Plauen dates back to the early 14th century and numbered several hundred between the two world wars. A reform-Jewish, bauhaus-style synagogue

1334-471: The last years of the GDR (DDR), an officer school of the Border Guards ("Grenztruppen der DDR"). The first mass demonstration against the communist regime in the GDR began in Plauen on 7 October 1989; this was the beginning of a series of mass demonstrations across the country and ultimately led to the re-unification of Germany in 1990. The exposé Fast Food Nation gives special mention to Plauen as

1380-578: The main road axis is called Unterstadt ("Lower Town"), with its lower market or Untermarkt . The western area is the Oberstadt ("Upper Town") where the Obermarkt or "Upper Market" is situated. The town centre is surrounded by a green belt running along the old town wall. In the west, this belt, in which the ponds of the Kreuzteichen are set, broadens out into an area like a park. Just north of

1426-641: The northeast. It is the seat of the Vogtland District . Plauen directly borders Greiz in Thuringia to the north, and it is also situated near the Saxon border with Bavaria ( Franconia ) and the Czech Republic ( Bohemia ). Plauen and the surrounding Saxon Vogtland are known as the center of the German embroidery and lace industry, and the products of the region are protected under the label Plauener Spitze  [ de ] ("Plauen Lace"). The Elster Viaduct ( Elstertalbrücke ), spanning

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1472-485: The northern declivity of the Ore Mountains , with the majority of the borough west of the Eastern or Freiberger Mulde river. Parts of the town are nestled in the valleys of Münzbach and Goldbach streams. Its centre has an altitude of about 412 m above  sea level (NHN) (at the railway station). Its lowest point is on Münzbach on the town boundary at 340 m above NHN ; its highest point

1518-564: The third subcamp. It was occupied by American troops on 16 April 1945 but was left to Red Army on 1 July 1945. On 15 December 1945, the city issued 7 semi-postal postage stamps of its own to raise money for reconstruction. From 1945 onwards, Plauen fell into the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, which later became the German Democratic Republic (1949–1990). Plauen hosted a large Red Army occupation garrison and, in

1564-613: The town centre is Freudenstein Castle as well as the remnants of the town wall with several wall towers and Schlüsselteich pond in front of them. The remains of the wall run eastwards, in sections, to the Donats Tower . This area is dominated by the historic moat . The southern boundary of the old town is characterised in places by buildings from the Gründerzeit period. The B 101 federal road, here called Wallstraße , flanks

1610-571: The town is the recreational area of the Tharandt Forest The town of Großschirma lies north of Freiberg on the B 101 federal road. To the northeast the municipality of Halsbrücke borders on the territory of Freiberg's borough and, to the east, is the municipality of Bobritzsch-Hilbersdorf . The municipality of Weißenborn to the southeast belongs to the Verwaltungsgemeinschaft of Lichtenberg/Erzgebirge . On

1656-510: The valley of the Münzbach stream. The unwalled town centre grew up on its two slopes and on the ridge to the west. This means inter alia that the roads radiating outwards east of the old main road axis (today Erbische Straße and Burgstraße running from the former Erbisch Gate ( Erbischer Tor ) on Postplatz to Freudenstein Castle ), some of which run as far as the opposite side of the Münzbach valley, are very steep. The area located east of

1702-614: The valley of the White Elster between Plauen and Pöhl , is the second-largest brick bridge in the world, after the Göltzsch Viaduct . Although being a Saxon city, the regional Vogtlandian dialect spoken in Plauen is a ( Saxon -influenced) East Franconian variant related to the dialects of neighbouring Franconia in Bavaria. The name of the city as well as the names of many of its boroughs are of Slavic origin. Plauen

1748-480: The west of the town centre, the B 173 , as Schillerstraße and Hornstraße , bounds it to the south. Freiberg's north is dominated by the campus of its University of Mining and Technology . The main part of the campus on either side of Leipziger Straße (as the B 101 road, the most important transport link in this district) emerged in the 1950s and 1960s. Furthermore, the districts of Lossnitz , Lößnitz and Kleinwaltersdorf are found here, extending almost out to

1794-415: The world. Freiberg is twinned with: [REDACTED] Media related to Freiberg (Sachsen) at Wikimedia Commons Plauen Plauen ( German pronunciation: [ˈplaʊən] ; Upper Sorbian : Pławno ; Czech : Plavno ) is, with a population of around 65,000, the fifth-largest city of Saxony , Germany after Leipzig , Dresden , Chemnitz and Zwickau , the second-largest city of

1840-595: Was Rolf Magerkord of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), who served from 1990 to 2000. The mayor was originally chosen by the city council, but since 1994 has been directly elected. Ralf Oberdorfer of the Free Democratic Party (FDP) was mayor between 2000 and 2021. The most recent mayoral election was held in two rounds on 13 June and 4 July 2021, in which Steffen Zenner (CDU) was elected. The most recent city council election

1886-547: Was founded around 1168, after a silver discovery led to the first Berggeschrey , and has been a centre of the mining industry in the Ore Mountains for centuries. A symbol of that history is the Freiberg University of Mining and Technology , often just known as the Mining Academy ( Bergakademie ), established in 1765 and the oldest extant university of mining and metallurgy in the world. Freiberg also has

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1932-654: Was founded by Polabian Slavs in the 12th century as "Plawe" and was passed to the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1327. The town was captured by the Archbishop of Magdeburg , Lippold von Bredow , in 1384. In 1466, it was passed to Albertine Saxony and later in 1569 to the Electorate of Saxony . Plauen became incorporated into the Kingdom of Saxony in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars , and in 1871 it became part of

1978-410: Was held on 9 June 2024, and the results were as follows: Plauen (Vogtland) Oberer Bahnhof lies on the Leipzig–Hof line . The section of this line through Plauen is part of the Saxon-Franconian trunk line running between Nürnberg , Hof , Plauen, Zwickau , Chemnitz and Dresden . The city had another station, Plauen (Vogtland) Unterer station (now defunct), on the Elster Valley Railway . There

2024-427: Was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Every year in Freiberg the Mining Town Festival ( Bergstadtfest ) is held on the last weekend in June with a procession by the historic Miners' and Ironworkers' Guilds, the so-called Miners' and Ironworkers' Parade. The Freiberg Christmas Market takes place during Advent , when a so-called Mettenschicht is held with a parade by the Miners' and Ironworkers' Guilds and

2070-403: Was opened in 1930, only to be demolished in 1938 during the Krystallnacht . Plauen becoming a Nazi stronghold, attacks against the Jewish community were frequent in the 1920s. Physically labelled Jews are documented from 1932. Most of the Jewish population either left or was killed during The Holocaust . Today, no Jewish community exists in Plauen. The city of Plauen maintains a few sites in

2116-410: Was published in 1880 and Part II in 1884). This work laid the foundations of modern geodesy . See history of geodesy . Part I is devoted to the mathematical aspects of geodesy and contains a comprehensive summary of techniques for solving for geodesics on an ellipsoid . The method of least squares had been introduced into geodesy by Gauss and Helmert wrote a fine book on least squares (1872, with

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