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85-499: The term seems originally to have been a name which was given to any day or season of rejoicing. The hilaria were, therefore, according to Maximus the Confessor either private or public. Among the former, he thinks it the day on which a person married, and on which a son was born; among the latter, those days of public rejoicings appointed by a new emperor. Such days were devoted to general rejoicings and public sacrifices, and no one

170-680: A heretic in 658. In Constantinople, Monothelitism had gained the favor of both the Emperor and the Patriarch of Constantinople. Maximus stood behind the Dyothelite position and was sent back into exile for four more years. During his trial he was accused of aiding the Muslim conquests in Egypt and North Africa , which he rejected as slander. In 662, Maximus was placed on trial once more, and

255-410: A career in public life. In April 175, Avidius Cassius , Governor of Syria , declared himself emperor following rumours that Marcus Aurelius had died. Having been accepted as emperor by Syria, Palestina and Egypt , Cassius carried on his rebellion even after it had become obvious Marcus was still alive. During the preparations for the campaign against Cassius, Commodus assumed his toga virilis on

340-429: A corollary of the emphasis on theosis . In terms of salvation, humanity is intended to be fully united with God. This is possible for Maximus because God was first fully united with humanity in the incarnation. If Christ did not become fully human (if, for example, he only had a divine and not a human will), then salvation was no longer possible, as humanity could not become fully divine. Furthermore, in his works Maximus

425-523: A deific personality cult , including his performances as a gladiator in the Colosseum . Throughout his reign, Commodus entrusted the management of affairs to his palace chamberlain and praetorian prefects, namely Saoterus , Perennis and Cleander . Commodus was assassinated by the wrestler Narcissus in 192, ending the Nerva–Antonine dynasty . He was succeeded by Pertinax , the first claimant in

510-460: A framework of Aristotelian logic, which both suited the temper of the times and made them less liable to misinterpretation. Maximus continued his career as a theological and spiritual writer during his lengthy stay in Carthage. Maximus was also held in high esteem by the exarch Gregory and the eparch George . While Maximus was in Carthage, a controversy broke out regarding how to understand

595-570: A generation after his death, and his cause was aided by the accounts of miracles at his tomb. Maximus is one of the last men to be recognized by both the Orthodox and Catholic Churches as a Father of the Church. In the encyclical Spe Salvi (2007), Pope Benedict XVI called Maximus 'the great Greek doctor of the Church', although it is not clear if the Pontiff intended to nominate Maximus 'Doctor of

680-657: A human and a divine will. The result of the debate was that Pyrrhus admitted the error of the Monothelite position, and Maximus accompanied him to Rome in 645. Maximus may have remained in Rome at San Saba , as he was present when the newly elected Pope Martin I convened the Lateran Council of 649 at the Lateran Basilica in Rome. The 105 bishops present condemned Monothelitism in the official acts of

765-467: A lion's hide and a club. He thought of himself as the reincarnation of Hercules, frequently emulating the legendary hero's feats by appearing in the arena to fight a variety of wild animals. He was left-handed and very proud of the fact. Cassius Dio and the writers of the Augustan History say that Commodus was a skilled archer, who could shoot the heads off ostriches in full gallop, and kill

850-488: A panther as it attacked a victim in the arena. Commodus also had a passion for gladiatorial combat, which he took so far as to take to the arena himself, dressed as a secutor . The Romans found Commodus' gladiatorial combat to be scandalous and disgraceful. According to Herodian, spectators of Commodus thought it unbecoming of an emperor to take up arms in the amphitheater for sport when he could be campaigning against barbarians among other opponents of Rome. The consensus

935-580: A place of honor inside a temple of Cybele. Fleeces of wool would be tied around the tree trunk, representing the goddess wrapping the dying Attis against the cold. The branches would be decked in wreathes of violets, as "the Mother adorned with early flowers the pine which indicates and bears witness to the sad mishap." The priests would ritually mourn for the dead Attis, beating their chests and wailing. Following this, according to Arnobius, worshipers would fast and, in particular, abstain from bread, "in imitation of

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1020-493: A series of conspiracies and attempted coups, which in turn eventually provoked Commodus to take charge of affairs, which he did in an increasingly dictatorial manner. Nevertheless, though the senatorial order came to hate and fear him, the evidence suggests he remained popular with the army and the common people for much of his reign, not least because of his lavish shows of largesse (recorded on his coinage) and because he staged and took part in spectacular gladiatorial combats. He

1105-461: A theater. They bungled the job and were seized by the emperor's bodyguard. Quadratus and Quintianus were executed. Lucilla was exiled to Capri and later killed. Pompeianus retired from public life. One of the two praetorian prefects , Publius Tarrutenius Paternus , had actually been involved in the conspiracy but his involvement was not discovered until later. In the meantime, he and his colleague, Sextus Tigidius Perennis , were able to arrange for

1190-469: A triumph for the conclusion of the wars on 22 October 180. Unlike the preceding emperors Trajan , Hadrian , Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius , he seems to have had little interest in the business of administration. He tended throughout his reign to leave the practical running of the state to a succession of favourites, beginning with Saoterus , a freedman from Nicomedia who had become his chamberlain . Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs led to

1275-713: Is also very unlikely that anyone of low social birth, as the Maronite biography describes Maximus, could have ascended by the age of thirty to be the Protoasekretis of the Emperor Heraclius, one of the most powerful positions in the Empire. It is more likely that Maximus was born of an aristocratic family and received an unparalleled education in philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, etc. It is true, however, that Maximus did not study rhetoric as he himself notes in

1360-596: Is conceptually indistinguishable from Nestorianism . The Monothelites adhered to the Chalcedonian definition of the hypostatic union : that two natures, one divine and one human, were united in the person of Christ. However, they went on to say that Christ had only a divine will and no human will (Monothelite is derived from the Greek for "one will"). The Monothelite position was promulgated by Patriarch Sergius I of Constantinople and by Maximus' friend and successor as

1445-586: Is known to have been at Carnuntum , the headquarters of Marcus Aurelius during the Marcomannic Wars , in 172. It is presumed that there, on 15 October 172, he was given the victory title Germanicus , in the presence of the army . The title suggests Commodus was present at his father's victory over the Marcomanni . On 20 January 175, Commodus entered the College of Pontiffs , the starting point of

1530-621: The Historia Augusta (untrustworthy because of its character as a work of literature rather than of history, with elements of fiction embedded within its biographies; in the case of Commodus, it probably embroiders what the author found in reasonably good contemporary sources). Commodus remained with the Danube armies for only a short time before negotiating a peace treaty with the Danubian tribes. He then returned to Rome and celebrated

1615-643: The Vigiles Urbani to oppose them. Cleander fled to Commodus, who was at Laurentum in the house of the Quinctilii , for protection, but the mob followed him calling for his head. At the urging of his mistress Marcia , Commodus had Cleander beheaded and his son killed. Other victims at this time were the praetorian prefect Julius Julianus, Commodus' cousin Annia Fundania Faustina , and his brother-in-law Mamertinus. Papirius Dionysius

1700-439: The Colosseum replaced with his own portrait, gave it a club, placed a bronze lion at its feet to make it look like Hercules Romanus , and added an inscription boasting of being "the only left-handed fighter to conquer twelve times one thousand men". In November 192, Commodus held Plebeian Games, in which he shot hundreds of animals with arrows and javelins every morning, and fought as a gladiator every afternoon, winning all

1785-618: The Danubian front on 7 July 175, thus formally entering adulthood . Cassius, however, was killed by one of his centurions before the campaign against him could begin. Commodus subsequently accompanied his father on a lengthy trip to the Eastern provinces, during which he visited Antioch . The Emperor and his son then travelled to Athens , where they were initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries . They then returned to Rome in

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1870-519: The Greek Philokalia , a collection of some of the most influential Eastern Orthodox Christian writers. Attributed texts Collections Commodus Commodus ( / ˈ k ɒ m ə d ə s / ; 31 August 161 – 31 December 192) was a Roman emperor who ruled from 177 until his assassination in 192. For the first three years of his reign, he was co-emperor with his father Marcus Aurelius . Commodus's sole rule, starting with

1955-546: The Praetorian Guard at the new rank of a pugione ("dagger-bearer"), with two praetorian prefects subordinate to him. Now at the zenith of his power, Cleander continued to sell public offices as his private business. The climax came in the year 190, which had 25 suffect consuls—a record in the 1,000-year history of the Roman consulship—all appointed by Cleander (they included the future Emperor Septimius Severus ). In

2040-468: The autumn of 176. Marcus Aurelius was the first emperor since Vespasian to have a legitimate biological son, though he himself was the fifth in the line of the so-called Five Good Emperors , also known as the Adoptive Emperors , each of whom had adopted his successor. On 27 November 176, Marcus Aurelius bestowed the title of Imperator on Commodus. Modern authors often use this date as

2125-480: The Abbot of Chrysopolis, Pyrrhus . Following the death of Sergius in 638, Pyrrhus succeeded him as Patriarch, but was shortly deposed owing to political circumstances. During Pyrrhus' exile from Constantinople, Maximus and the deposed Patriarch held a public debate on the issue of Monothelitism. In the debate, which was held in the presence of many North African bishops, Maximus took the position that Jesus possessed both

2210-632: The Church' or to say that he already was one. As a student of Pseudo-Dionysius , Maximus was one of many Christian theologians who preserved and interpreted the earlier Neo-Platonic philosophy, including the thought of such figures as Plotinus and Proclus . Maximus' work on Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite was continued by John Scotus Eriugena at the request of Charles the Bald . The Platonic influence on Maximus' thought can be seen most clearly in his theological anthropology . Here, Maximus adopted

2295-559: The Confessor ( Greek : Μάξιμος ὁ Ὁμολογητής , romanized :  Maximos ho Homologētēs ), also spelled Maximos , otherwise known as Maximus the Theologian and Maximus of Constantinople ( c.  580 – 13 August 662), was a Christian monk , theologian , and scholar. In his early life, Maximus was a civil servant, and an aide to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius . He gave up this life in

2380-559: The Confessor argued the unconditionality of the divine incarnation. Regarding salvation, Maximus, like Origen and St. Gregory of Nyssa , has been described as a proponent of apocatastasis or universal reconciliation , the idea that all rational souls will eventually be redeemed. While this claim has been disputed, others have argued that Maximus shared this belief in universal reconciliation with his most spiritually mature students. In Eastern Christianity , Maximus has always been influential. A number of his works are included in

2465-452: The Danubian front once more in 178. Marcus Aurelius died there on 17 March 180, leaving the 18-year-old Commodus as sole emperor. Upon his ascension, Commodus devalued the Roman currency . He reduced the weight of the denarius from 96 per Roman pound to 105 per Roman pound (3.85 grams to 3.35 grams). He also reduced the silver purity from 79 percent to 76 percent –

2550-613: The Festival of the Great Goddess in March but was betrayed and executed. In the same year Pertinax unmasked a conspiracy by two enemies of Cleander, Antistius Burrus (one of Commodus' brothers-in-law) and Arrius Antoninus . As a result, Commodus appeared more rarely in public, preferring to live on his estates. Early in 188, Cleander disposed of the current praetorian prefect, Atilius Aebutianus , and took over supreme command of

2635-618: The Greeks, who called it Ἀνάβασις , Latin Ascensus : the eve of that day they spent in tears and lamentations, calling it Κατάβασις (Latin Dēscensus ). Greek writers later borrowed the Latin name as Ἱλάρια , as appears from Photios I of Constantinople 's Bibliotheca in his codex of the life of the philosopher Isidore of Alexandria . Sallustius, writing in the 4th century AD, described

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2720-568: The Platonic model of exitus-reditus (exit and return), teaching that humanity was made in the image of God , and the purpose of salvation is to restore us to unity with God. This emphasis on divinization or theosis helped secure Maximus' place in Eastern theology, as these concepts have always held an important place in Eastern Christianity. Christologically Maximus insisted on a strict dyophysitism , which can be seen as

2805-516: The actual source of his power, he stressed his own personal uniqueness as the bringer of a new order, seeking to re-cast the empire in his own image. During 191, the city of Rome was extensively damaged by a fire that raged for several days, during which many public buildings including the Temple of Pax , the Temple of Vesta , and parts of the imperial palace were destroyed. Perhaps seeing this as an opportunity, early in 192 Commodus, declaring himself

2890-417: The arena, he charged the city of Rome a million sesterces , straining the Roman economy. Commodus was also known for fighting exotic animals in the arena, often to the horror and disgust of the Roman populace. According to Cassius Dio, Commodus once killed 100 lions in a single day. Later, he decapitated a running ostrich with a specially designed dart and afterward carried his sword and the bleeding head of

2975-412: The basic multi-day structure of the festival as it related to the myth of Cybele and Attis: "And at first we ourselves, having fallen from heaven and living with the nymph, are in despondency, and abstain from corn and all rich and unclean food, for both are hostile to the soul. Then comes the cutting of the tree and the fast, as though we also were cutting off the further process of generation. After that

3060-411: The beginning of his reign, but the exact chronology of events is uncertain. Commodus is first mentioned as Augustus (emperor) on 17 June 177, but he reckoned his reign back to his salutation in 176. For instance, he assumed the tribunicia potestas (tribunician power) around February 177, but starting from April he started to backdate this event to November 176. He was the first (and until 337,

3145-524: The conspirators sent his wrestling partner Narcissus to strangle him in his bath. Upon his death, the Senate declared him a public enemy (a de facto damnatio memoriae ) and restored the original name of the city of Rome and its institutions. Statues of Commodus were demolished. His body was buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian . Commodus' death marked the end of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty . Commodus

3230-644: The current state of affairs. Another event, as recorded by the historian Aelius Lampridius , took place at the Roman baths at Terme Taurine , where the emperor had an attendant thrown into an oven after he had found his bathwater to be lukewarm. His original name was Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus. On his father's death in 180, Commodus changed this to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Commodus, before changing back to his birth name in 191. Later that year he adopted as his full style Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus Augustus Herculeus Romanus Exsuperatorius Amazonius Invictus Felix Pius (the order of some of these titles varies in

3315-501: The dead bird over to the Senators' seating area, and motioned to suggest that they were to be next. Dio notes that the targeted senators actually found this more ridiculous than frightening, and chewed on laurel leaves to conceal their laughter. On other occasions, Commodus killed three elephants on the floor of the arena by himself, and a giraffe. Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage

3400-721: The death of Marcus in 180, is commonly thought to mark the end of a golden age of peace and prosperity in the history of the Roman Empire (the Pax Romana ). Commodus accompanied his father during the Marcomannic Wars in 172 and on a tour of the Eastern provinces in 176. The following year, he became the youngest emperor and consul up to that point, at the age of 16. His solo reign saw less military conflict than that of Marcus Aurelius, but internal intrigues and conspiracies abounded, goading Commodus to an increasingly dictatorial style of leadership. This culminated in his creating

3485-707: The emperor as plotting to make his own son emperor (they had been enabled to do so by Cleander, who was seeking to dispose of his rival), and Commodus gave them permission to execute him as well as his wife and sons. The fall of Perennis brought a new spate of executions: Aufidius Victorinus committed suicide. Ulpius Marcellus was replaced as governor of Britain by Pertinax . Brought to Rome and tried for treason, Marcellus narrowly escaped death. Cleander proceeded to concentrate power in his own hands and to enrich himself by taking responsibility for all public offices. He sold (and bestowed entry to) Senate seats, army commands, governorships , and increasingly, suffect consulships , to

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3570-550: The empire were set up portraying him in the guise of Hercules , reinforcing the image of him as a demigod, a physical giant, a protector, and a warrior who fought against men and beasts (see § Commodus and Hercules and § Commodus the Gladiator below). Moreover, as Hercules, he could claim to be the son of Jupiter , the supreme god of the Roman pantheon . These tendencies now increased to megalomaniacal proportions. Far from celebrating his descent from Marcus Aurelius,

3655-475: The family estates at Lanuvium. As he was physically strong, his chief interest was sport: he took part in horse racing , chariot racing , and combat with beasts and men, mostly in private but occasionally in public. Commodus was inaugurated in 183 as consul with Aufidius Victorinus as colleague and assumed the title Pius . War broke out in Dacia : few details are available, but it appears two future contenders for

3740-635: The feeding on milk, as though we were being born again; after which come rejoicings and garlands and, as it were, a return up to the Gods." According to the calendar in the Chronography of 354, ten days before the calends of April was the Arbor Intrat , or "entering of the tree". According to Arnobius , in his Against the Pagans (book V), this involved cutting down a pine tree and setting it up in

3825-399: The fights. In December, he announced his intention to inaugurate the year 193 as both consul and gladiator on 1 January. When Marcia found a list of people Commodus intended to have executed, she discovered that she, the prefect Laetus, and Eclectus were on it. The three of them plotted to assassinate the emperor. On 31 December, Marcia poisoned Commodus' food, but he vomited up the poison, so

3910-560: The future emperor and a relative of Salvius Julianus, was dismissed from the governorship of Germania Inferior . After the murder of the powerful Saoterus , Perennis took over the reins of government and Commodus found a new chamberlain and favourite in Cleander , a Phrygian freedman who had married one of the emperor's mistresses, Demostratia. Cleander was in fact the person who had murdered Saoterus. After these attempts on his life, Commodus spent much of his time outside Rome, mostly on

3995-428: The hand of an emperor was considered a mark of fortitude. Cassius Dio claimed that citizens of Rome who lacked feet (either through accident or illness) were taken to the arena, where they were tethered together for Commodus to club to death while pretending they were giants. Dio also wrote that it was Commodus' custom to privately use deadly weapons to fight, murdering and maiming his opponents. For each appearance in

4080-555: The highest bidder. Unrest rose throughout the empire, with large numbers of army deserters causing trouble in Gaul and Germany . Pescennius Niger dealt with the deserters in Gaul in a military campaign. The revolt in Brittany was put down by two legions brought over from Britain. In 187, one of the leaders of the deserters, Maternus , came from Gaul intending to assassinate Commodus at

4165-530: The interaction between the human and divine natures within the person of Jesus . This Christological debate was the latest development in disagreements that began following the First Council of Nicaea in 325, and were intensified following the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The Monothelite position was developed as a compromise between the dyophysitists and the miaphysists , who believed dyophysitism

4250-634: The legionary legates in Britain cashiered . On 15 October 184, at the Capitoline Games , a Cynic philosopher publicly denounced Perennis before Commodus. His tale was considered false and he was immediately put to death. According to Cassius Dio, Perennis, though ruthless and ambitious, was not personally corrupt and was a generally good administrator. However, the following year a detachment of soldiers from Britain (they had been drafted to Italy to suppress brigands) also denounced Perennis to

4335-519: The monastery. When the Persians conquered Anatolia , Maximus was forced to flee to a monastery near Carthage . It was there that he came under the tutelage of Saint Sophronius , and began studying in detail with him the Christological writings of Gregory of Nazianzus and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite . According to I P Sheldon Williams his achievement was to set these doctrines into

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4420-435: The murder of Saoterus, the hated chamberlain. Commodus took the loss of Saoterus badly, and Perennis now seized the chance to advance himself by implicating Paternus in a second conspiracy, one apparently led by Publius Salvius Julianus, the son of the jurist Salvius Julianus and betrothed to Paternus' daughter. Salvius and Paternus were executed along with a number of other prominent consulars and senators. Didius Julianus ,

4505-415: The new Romulus , ritually re-founded Rome, renaming the city Colonia Lucia Annia Commodiana . All the months of the year were renamed to correspond exactly with his (now twelve) names: Lucius , Aelius , Aurelius , Commodus , Augustus , Herculeus , Romanus , Exsuperatorius , Amazonius , Invictus , Felix , and Pius . The legions were renamed Commodianae , the fleet which imported grain from Africa

4590-406: The only) emperor " born in the purple ," meaning during his father's reign. On 23 December 176, the two imperatores celebrated a joint triumph . On 1 January 177, Commodus became consul for the first time, which made him, aged 15, the youngest consul up to that time (the minimum age for the consulship was around 30). He subsequently married Bruttia Crispina before accompanying his father to

4675-418: The political sphere to enter the monastic life. Maximus had studied diverse schools of philosophy, and certainly what was common for his time, the Platonic dialogues, the works of Aristotle, and numerous later Platonic commentators on Aristotle and Plato, like Plotinus , Porphyry , Iamblichus , and Proclus . When one of his friends began espousing the Christological position known as Monothelitism , Maximus

4760-536: The prologue to his Earlier Ambigua to John, to which his lack of high stylistic by Byzantine standards attests. Nevertheless, for reasons not explained in the few autobiographical details to be gleaned from his texts, Maximus left public life and took monastic vows at the monastery of Philippicus in Chrysopolis , a city across the Bosporus from Constantinople. Maximus was elevated to the position of abbot of

4845-431: The silver weight dropping from 2.57 grams to 2.34 grams. In 186, he further reduced the purity and silver weight to 74 percent and 2.22 grams respectively, being 108 to the Roman pound. His reduction of the denarius during his rule was the largest since the empire's first devaluation during Nero 's reign. Whereas the reign of Marcus Aurelius had been marked by almost continuous warfare, Commodus' rule

4930-428: The slave of his companions, and it was through them that he at first, out of ignorance, missed the better life and then was led on into lustful and cruel habits, which soon became second nature." His recorded actions do tend to show a rejection of his father's policies, his father's advisers, and especially his father's austere lifestyle, and an alienation from the surviving members of his family. It seems likely that he

5015-505: The sources). "Exsuperatorius" (the supreme) was a title given to Jupiter, and "Amazonius" identified him again with Hercules. An inscribed altar from Dura-Europos on the Euphrates shows that Commodus' titles and the renaming of the months were disseminated to the farthest reaches of the Empire; moreover, that even auxiliary military units received the title Commodiana, and that he claimed two additional titles: Pacator Orbis (pacifier of

5100-558: The spring of 190, Rome was afflicted by a food shortage, for which the praefectus annonae Papirius Dionysius , the official actually in charge of the grain supply , contrived to lay the blame on Cleander. At the end of June, a mob demonstrated against Cleander during a horse race in the Circus Maximus : he sent the Praetorian Guard to put down the disturbances, but Pertinax, who was now City Prefect of Rome, dispatched

5185-498: The synod, which some believe may have been written by Maximus. It was in Rome that Pope Martin and Maximus were arrested in 653 under orders from Constans II , who supported the Monothelite doctrine. Pope Martin was condemned without a trial, and died before he could be sent to the Imperial Capital. Maximus' refusal to accept Monothelitism caused him to be brought to the imperial capital of Constantinople to be tried as

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5270-666: The theological and political conflicts of the Monothelite controversy. Numerous Maximian scholars call substantial portions of the Maronite biography into question, including Maximus' birth in Palestine, which was a common seventh century trope to discredit an opponent. Moreover, the exceptional education Maximus evidently received could not have been had in any other part of the Byzantine Empire during that time except for Constantinople, and possibly Caesarea and Alexandria. It

5355-520: The throne, Clodius Albinus and Pescennius Niger , both distinguished themselves in the campaign. Also, in Britain in 184, the governor Ulpius Marcellus re-advanced the Roman frontier northward to the Antonine Wall , but the legionaries revolted against his harsh discipline and acclaimed another legate, Priscus, as emperor. Priscus refused to accept their acclamation, and Perennis had all

5440-612: The time when the goddess abstained from Ceres ' fruit in her vehement sorrow", and they would enter a state of mourning, wounding their arms and breasts. The full festival can be tentatively reconstructed (with the days of the festival literally translated) as follows: According to the Calendar of Filocalus from 354, a Hilaria of Isis was part of the Isia festival, taking place on its final day, November 3. Herodian details an assassination plot by Maternus against Emperor Commodus that

5525-692: The trials of Maximus were recorded by Anastasius Bibliothecarius . Along with Pope Martin I, Maximus was vindicated by the Third Council of Constantinople (the Sixth Ecumenical Council , 680–681), which declared that Christ possessed both a human and a divine will. With this declaration Monothelitism became heresy, and Maximus was posthumously declared innocent. Maximus is among those Christians who were venerated as saints shortly after their deaths. The vindication of Maximus' theological position made him extremely popular within

5610-632: The tumultuous Year of the Five Emperors . Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus was born on 31 August AD   161 in Lanuvium , near Rome . He was the son of the reigning emperor, Marcus Aurelius , and Aurelius' first cousin, Faustina the Younger , the youngest daughter of Emperor Antoninus Pius , who had died only a few months before. Commodus had an elder twin brother, Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, who died in 165. On 12 October 166, Commodus

5695-440: The vernal equinox, or the first day of the year which was longer than the night. The winter with its gloom had died, and the first day of a better season was spent in rejoicings. The manner of its celebration during the time of the republic is unknown, except that Valerius Maximus mentions games in honour of the mother of the gods. Respecting its celebration at the time of the empire, Herodian writes that, among other things, there

5780-509: The world) and Dominus Noster (Our Lord). The latter eventually would be used as a conventional title by Roman emperors, starting about a century later, but Commodus seems to have been the first to assume it. Disdaining the more philosophic inclinations of his father, Commodus was extremely proud of his physical prowess. The historian Herodian, a contemporary, described Commodus as an extremely handsome man. As mentioned above, he ordered many statues to be made showing him dressed as Hercules with

5865-463: Was a solemn procession, in which the statue of the goddess was carried, and before this statue were carried the most costly specimens of plate and works of art belonging either to wealthy Romans or to the emperors themselves. All kinds of games and amusements were allowed on this day; masquerades were the most prominent among them, and everyone might, in his disguise, imitate whomsoever he liked, even magistrates. The Romans took this feast originally from

5950-462: Was allowed to show any symptoms of grief or sorrow. The Romans also celebrated hilaria as a feria stativa , on March 25, the seventh day before the Calends of April, in honor of Cybele, the mother of the gods; and it is probably to distinguish these hilaria from those mentioned above, that the Augustan History calls them Hilaria Matris Deûm . The day of its celebration was the first after

6035-521: Was beheaded and his followers punished. The public celebrated the emperor's safety, and Commodus sacrificed to Cybele for protecting him from harm. Maximus the Confessor Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: Maximus

6120-647: Was comparatively peaceful in the military sense, but was also characterised by political strife and the increasingly arbitrary and capricious behaviour of the emperor himself. In the view of Cassius Dio , his accession marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust". Despite his notoriety, and considering the importance of his reign, Commodus' years in power are not well chronicled. The principal surviving literary sources are Herodian , Cassius Dio (a contemporary and sometimes first-hand observer and Senator during Commodus' reign, whose reports for this period survive only as fragments and abbreviations), and

6205-611: Was drawn into the controversy, in which he supported an interpretation of the Chalcedonian formula on the basis of which it was asserted that Jesus had both a human and a divine will . Maximus is venerated in both the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. He was eventually persecuted for his Christological positions; following a trial, his tongue and right hand were mutilated. He was then exiled and died on 13 August 662, in Tsageri in present-day Georgia . However, his theology

6290-492: Was executed, too. In AD 191, Commodus took more of the reins of power, though he continued to rule through a cabal consisting of Marcia, his new chamberlain Eclectus, and the new praetorian prefect Quintus Aemilius Laetus . In opposition to the Senate, in his pronouncements and iconography , Commodus had always stressed his unique status as a source of god-like power, liberality, and physical prowess. Innumerable statues around

6375-537: Was made Caesar together with his younger brother, Marcus Annius Verus . The latter died in 169 having failed to recover from an operation, which left Commodus as Marcus Aurelius's sole surviving son. He was looked after by his father's physician, Galen , who treated many of Commodus' common illnesses. Commodus received extensive tutoring from a multitude of teachers with a focus on intellectual education. Among his teachers, Onesicrates, Antistius Capella, Titus Aius Sanctus , and Pitholaus are mentioned. Commodus

6460-449: Was not an inspired combatant. He killed animals by bow, standing above the arena. When he fought fellow gladiators, they would purposely submit. During this period Rome's economy declined. One of the ways he paid for his donatives (imperial handouts) and mass entertainments was to tax the senatorial order. On many inscriptions, the traditional order of the two nominal powers of the state, the Senate and People ( Senatus Populusque Romanus )

6545-512: Was once more convicted of heresy. Following the trial Maximus was tortured, having his tongue cut out, so he could no longer speak his rebellion, and his right hand cut off, so that he could no longer write letters. Maximus was then exiled to the Lazica or Colchis region of modern-day Georgia and was cast in the fortress of Schemarum, perhaps Muris-Tsikhe near the modern town of Tsageri . He died soon thereafter, on 13 August 662. The events of

6630-602: Was over ten years his senior and held the rank of Augusta as the widow of her first husband, Lucius Verus . The first crisis of the reign came in 182, when Lucilla engineered a conspiracy against her brother. Her motive is alleged to have been the envy of the Empress Crispina . Lucilla's husband, Pompeianus, was not involved, but two men alleged to have been her lovers, Marcus Ummidius Quadratus Annianus (the consul of 167, also her first cousin) and Appius Claudius Quintianus, attempted to murder Commodus as he entered

6715-590: Was provocatively reversed ( Populus Senatusque... ). At the outset of his reign, Commodus, aged 18, inherited many of his father's senior advisers, notably Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus (the second husband of Commodus' eldest sister Lucilla ), his father-in-law Gaius Bruttius Praesens , Titus Fundanius Vitrasius Pollio, and Aufidius Victorinus the Prefect of the City of Rome . He also had four surviving sisters, all of them with husbands who were potential rivals. Lucilla

6800-457: Was raised in an atmosphere of Stoic asceticism , which he rejected entirely upon his accession to sole rule. After repeated attempts on Commodus' life, Roman citizens were often killed for making him angry. One such notable event was the attempted extermination of the house of the Quinctilii . Condianus and Maximus were executed on the pretext that while they were not implicated in any plots, their wealth and talent would make them unhappy with

6885-557: Was succeeded by Pertinax , whose reign was short; he became the first claimant to be usurped during the Year of the Five Emperors . In 195, the emperor Septimius Severus , trying to gain favour with the family of Marcus Aurelius, rehabilitated Commodus' memory and had the Senate deify him. Cassius Dio, a first-hand witness, describes him as "not naturally wicked but, on the contrary, as guileless as any man that ever lived. His great simplicity, however, together with his cowardice, made him

6970-550: Was termed Alexandria Commodiana Togata , the Senate was entitled the Commodian Fortunate Senate, his palace and the Roman people themselves were all given the name Commodianus , and the day on which these reforms were decreed was to be called Dies Commodianus . Thus, he presented himself as the fountainhead of the Empire, Roman life, and religion. He also had the head of the Colossus of Nero adjacent to

7055-508: Was that it was below his office to participate as a gladiator. Popular rumors spread alleging he was not actually the son of Marcus Aurelius, but of a gladiator his mother Faustina had taken as a lover at the coastal resort of Caieta . In the arena, Commodus' opponents always submitted to the emperor; as a result he never lost. Commodus never killed his gladiatorial adversaries, instead accepting their surrenders. His victories were often welcomed by his bested opponents, as bearing scars dealt by

7140-472: Was to occur on the hilaria. Maternus planned to disguise himself and his followers as members of the Praetorian Guard , and proceed among the true members of the Guard, until they were close enough to kill Commodus. However, one of Maternus's followers revealed the plot ahead of time, betraying him because, according to Herodian, his men "preferred a legitimate emperor to a robber tyrant". On the day of hilaria, he

7225-593: Was upheld by the Third Council of Constantinople and he was venerated as a saint soon after his death. His title of " Confessor " means that he suffered for the Christian faith, but was not directly martyred . His feast day is 13 August in the Western Church and 21 January in the Byzantine Christianity . Very little is known about the details of Maximus' life prior to his involvement in

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