A water turbine is a rotary machine that converts kinetic energy and potential energy of water into mechanical work.
109-820: Hume Dam , formerly the Hume Weir , is a major dam across the Murray River downstream of its junction with the Mitta River in the Riverina region of New South Wales , Australia . The dam's purpose includes flood mitigation , hydro-power , irrigation , water supply and conservation. The impounded reservoir is called Lake Hume , formerly the Hume Reservoir . It is a gated concrete gravity dam with four earth embankments and twenty-nine vertical undershot gated concrete overflow spillways . The dam
218-530: A pump to fill a high reservoir during off-peak electrical hours, and then revert to a water turbine for power generation during peak electrical demand. This type of turbine is usually a Deriaz or Francis turbine in design. This type of system is used in El Hierro, one of the Canary Islands: "When wind production exceeds demand, excess energy will pump water from a lower reservoir at the bottom of
327-453: A Knight Wheel, developed a Pelton wheel (double bucket design), which exhausted the water to the side, eliminating some energy loss of the Knight wheel which exhausted some water back against the center of the wheel. In about 1895, William Doble improved on Pelton's half-cylindrical bucket form with an elliptical bucket that included a cut in it to allow the jet a cleaner bucket entry. This is
436-514: A capacity of 20 people. There was also a cabin. The minister onboard, Rev. William Bussell, doubled as captain. On 16 August 1898, Etona arrived at Renmark , where the Bishop of Adelaide , Rev. Dr. John Harmer , held services the following Sunday with the assistance of Rev H M Wylie. In September of the same year, the service due in Holder on the 18th was suspended due to the vessel grounding on
545-735: A consortium of NSW and Victorian government agencies that included the Water Resources Commission of New South Wales, the Public Works Department of New South Wales, and the State Rivers and Water Supply Commission of Victoria. Supplies to the construction site were delivered via rail, through the construction of a branch siding from the Wodonga – Cudgewa railway . Hume Dam is jointly managed by Victorian and New South Wales authorities on behalf of
654-501: A different design, being dragged out of the river during high flow, rather than lifted out. Water turbine Water turbines were developed in the 19th century and were widely used for industrial power prior to electrical grids . Now, they are mostly used for electric power generation. Water turbines are mostly found in dams to generate electric power from water potential energy. Water wheels have been used for hundreds of years for industrial power. Their main shortcoming
763-563: A factor of 2. Along with corrosion resistance and strength, weld-ability and density are important criteria for turbine blade material selection. Greater weld-ability allows for easier and high quality repairs. Low density allows higher efficiency through easier rotation. The most common material used in Kaplan Turbine blades are stainless steel alloys (SS). The martensitic stainless steel alloys have high strength that allow thinner sections than standard carbon steel; reduced mass enhances
872-406: A force on the blades. Since the runner is spinning, the force acts through a distance (force acting through a distance is the definition of work ). In this way, energy is transferred from the water flow to the turbine. Water turbines are divided into two groups: reaction turbines and impulse turbines. The precise shape of water turbine blades is a function of the supply pressure of water, and
981-527: A list of birds and mammals . George "Chinese" Morrison , then aged 18, navigated the river by canoe from Wodonga to its mouth, in 65 days, completing the 1,555-mile (2,503 km) journey in January 1881. Shipping cannot enter the Murray from the sea because it does not have an estuary . However, in the 19th century the river supported a substantial commercial trade using shallow-draft paddle steamers ,
1090-611: A new era of American turbine engineering. Water turbines, particularly in the Americas, would largely become standardized with the establishment of the Holyoke Testing Flume , described as the first modern hydraulic laboratory in the United States by Robert E. Horton and Clemens Herschel , the latter of which would serve as its chief engineer for a time. Initially created in 1872 by James B. Emerson from
1199-402: A number of both historic paddle steamers and newer boats offering cruises ranging from half an hour to five days. The Murray River has been a significant barrier to land-based travel and trade. Many of the ports for transport of goods along the Murray have also developed as places to cross the river, either by bridge or ferry. The first bridge to cross the Murray, which was built in 1869, is in
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#17327805970541308-426: A sandbank. During its year of launch, the boiler of Etona gave way, being replaced at a cost of £87. The Murray was plagued by "snags", fallen trees submerged in the water, and considerable efforts were made to clear the river of these threats to shipping by using barges equipped with steam-driven winches . In recent times, efforts have been made to restore many of these snags by placing dead gum trees back into
1417-559: A series of barrages was built near the Murray Mouth to stop seawater entering the lower part of the river during low flow periods. They are the Goolwa Barrage, with a length of 632 metres (2,073 ft); Mundoo Channel Barragel 800 metres (2,600 ft); Boundary Creek Barragel 243 metres (797 ft); Ewe Island Barrage, 853 metres (2,799 ft); and Tauwitchere Barrage, 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi). These dams inverted
1526-521: A similar number of barges were working the river in season. River transport began to decline once the railways touched the Murray at numerous points. The unreliable levels made it impossible for boats to compete with the rail and later road transport . However, the river still carries pleasure boats along its entire length. Today, most traffic on the river is recreational. Small private boats are used for water skiing and fishing. Houseboats are common, both commercial for hire and privately owned. There are
1635-518: A spear. However, the shock to the fish was so great it launched him forward in a straight line to a place called Peindjalang, near Tailem Bend . Eager to rectify his failure to catch his prey, the hunter and his two wives (sometimes the escaped sibling wives of Waku and Kanu) hurried on, and took positions high on the cliff on which Tailem Bend now stands. They sprung an ambush on Pondi only to fail again. Ngurunderi set off in pursuit again but lost his prey as Pondi dived into Lake Alexandrina. Ngurunderi and
1744-460: A spring acted directly to the valve of the turbine or the wicket gate to control the amount of water that enters the turbines. Newer systems with mechanical governors started around 1880. An early mechanical governor is a servomechanism that comprises a series of gears that use the turbine's speed to drive the flyball and turbine's power to drive the control mechanism. The mechanical governors were continued to be enhanced in power amplification through
1853-527: A true turbine. Fausto Veranzio in his book Machinae Novae (1595) described a vertical axis mill with a rotor similar to that of a Francis turbine . Johann Segner developed a reactive water turbine ( Segner wheel ) in the mid-18th century in Kingdom of Hungary . It had a horizontal axis and was a precursor to modern water turbines. It is a very simple machine that is still produced today for use in small hydro sites. Segner worked with Euler on some of
1962-406: A turbine characterizes the turbine's shape in a way that is not related to its size. This allows a new turbine design to be scaled from an existing design of known performance. The specific speed is also the main criteria for matching a specific hydro site with the correct turbine type. The specific speed is the speed with which the turbine turns for a particular discharge Q, with unit head and thereby
2071-478: A volcanic cone to an upper reservoir at the top of the volcano 700 meters above sea level. The lower reservoir stores 150,000 cubic meters of water. The stored water acts as a battery. The maximum storage capacity is 270 MWh. When demand rises and there is not enough wind power, the water will be released to four hydroelectric turbines with a total capacity of 11 MW." Large modern water turbines operate at mechanical efficiencies greater than 90%. Turbine selection
2180-582: Is Australia's longest river at 2,508 km (1,558 mi) extent. Its tributaries include five of the next six longest rivers of Australia (the Murrumbidgee , Darling , Lachlan , Warrego and Paroo Rivers ). Together with that of the Murray, the catchments of these rivers form the Murray–Darling basin , which covers about one-seventh the area of Australia. It is widely considered Australia's most important irrigated region. The Murray rises in
2289-407: Is able to produce unit power. Affinity laws allow the output of a turbine to be predicted based on model tests. A miniature replica of a proposed design, about one foot (0.3 m) in diameter, can be tested and the laboratory measurements applied to the final application with high confidence. Affinity laws are derived by requiring similitude between the test model and the application. Flow through
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#17327805970542398-761: Is actually on the Mitta Mitta River upstream of Lake Hume (completed 1979). The Murray also receives water from the complex dam and pipeline system of the Snowy Mountains Scheme . An additional reservoir was proposed in the 1960s at Chowilla Dam , which was to have been built in South Australia and would have flooded land mostly in Victoria and New South Wales. It was cancelled in favour of building Dartmouth Dam due to costs and concerns relating to increased salinity. From 1935 to 1940
2507-458: Is also popular for water skiing , and several holiday resorts catering for fishing and skiers are dotted around the upper reaches of the lake. An annual Canoe marathon race the 'Frank Harrison Classic' is run on the river beginning below the dam each February and attracts competitors from across Australia. In 1958, a group of enthusiastic sailors established a Sailing Club and started to run regular regattas. The sailing club has since grown and
2616-618: Is based on the available water head , and less so on the available flow rate. In general, impulse turbines are used for high head sites, and reaction turbines are used for low head sites. Kaplan turbines with adjustable blade pitch are well-adapted to wide ranges of flow or head conditions, since their peak efficiency can be achieved over a wide range of flows. Small turbines (mostly under 10 MW) may have horizontal shafts, and even fairly large bulb-type turbines up to 100 MW or so may be horizontal. Very large Francis and Kaplan machines usually have vertical shafts because this makes best use of
2725-445: Is constructed of rock covered with clay and other earth and is designed to carry vehicular traffic. A controlled concrete spillway has a gated concrete overflow, with twenty-nine vertical undershot gates, is capable of discharging 7,929 cubic metres per second (280,000 cu ft/s). Water is retained nearly 40 kilometres (25 mi) upstream of the reservoir in the valleys of both the Murray and Mitta Mitta rivers. The dam wall
2834-663: Is joined by lagoon water from The Coorong to the south-east before emptying into the Great Australian Bight (often referenced on Australian maps as the Southern Ocean ) through the Murray Mouth , 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Goolwa South . Despite discharging considerable volumes of water at times, particularly before the advent of large-scale river regulation , the waters at the Murray Mouth are almost invariably slow and shallow. As of 2010 ,
2943-589: Is known to have sold his share in the Bungaree Station , which he founded with his brothers, and relocated alongside the Murray at a site near Moorundie . In 1852, Francis Cadell , in preparation for the launch of his steamer service, explored the river in a canvas boat, travelling 1,300 miles (2,100 km) downstream from Swan Hill . In 1858, while acting as Minister of Land and Works for New South Wales, Irish nationalist and founder of Young Ireland , Charles Gavan Duffy , founded Carlyle Township on
3052-421: Is largely used in dam and large power plants Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet. The jet pushes on the turbine's curved blades which changes the direction of the flow. The resulting change in momentum ( impulse ) causes a force on the turbine blades. Since the turbine is spinning, the force acts through a distance (work) and the diverted water flow is left with diminished energy. An impulse turbine
3161-610: Is now known as the Albury Wodonga Yacht Club (AWYC). The club offers sail training for children and adults, and regular weekend racing. Once a year, on the first weekend in November, AWYC runs SailCountry, a large regatta which attracts entrants from all over Australia. The construction of Hume Dam has caused significant changes to the flow patterns and ecology of the Murray River. Before the construction of
3270-412: Is often portrayed as a man) on rafts (or lala ) made from red gums and continually launched spears at his target. But Pondi was a wily prey and carved a weaving path, carving out the river's various tributaries. Ngurunderi was forced to beach his rafts, and often create new ones as he changed from reach to reach of the river. At Kobathatang, Ngurunderi finally got lucky and struck Pondi in the tail with
3379-452: Is one in which the pressure of the fluid flowing over the rotor blades is constant and all the work output is due to the change in kinetic energy of the fluid. Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure ( potential energy ) is converted to kinetic energy by a nozzle and focused on the turbine. No pressure change occurs at the turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't require a housing for operation. Newton's second law describes
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3488-586: Is part of the Engineering Works of the River Murray that are listed as a National Engineering Landmark by Engineers Australia , as part of its Engineering Heritage Recognition Program . Constructed over a 17-year period between 1919 and 1936, the Hume Dam is located approximately 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) east of the city of Albury . The dam was built, involving a workforce of thousands, by
3597-430: Is primarily used for peak-load generation. The station has an average annual output of 220 gigawatt-hours (790 TJ). The power station has two 29 megawatts (39,000 hp) turbines and is operated by Meridian Energy . In October 2012, a high voltage transformer at the power station caught fire, requiring more than fifty fire fighters who worked into the long hours of the night to put the blaze out. The power station
3706-548: Is size, which limits the flow rate and head that can be harnessed. The migration from water wheels to modern turbines took about one hundred years. Development occurred during the Industrial Revolution , using scientific principles and methods. They also made extensive use of new materials and manufacturing methods developed at the time. The word turbine was introduced by the French engineer Claude Burdin in
3815-431: Is the first modern water turbine. It is still the most widely used water turbine in the world today. The Francis turbine is also called a radial flow turbine, since water flows from the outer circumference towards the centre of runner. Inward flow water turbines have a better mechanical arrangement and all modern reaction water turbines are of this design. As the water swirls inward, it accelerates, and transfers energy to
3924-427: Is the point at which the Murray River empties into the sea, and the interaction between its shallow, shifting and variable currents and the open sea can be complex and unpredictable. During the peak period of Murray River commerce (roughly 1855 to 1920), it presented a major impediment to the passage of goods and produce between Adelaide and the Murray settlements, and many vessels foundered or were wrecked there. Since
4033-597: The Australian Alps , draining the western side of Australia's highest mountains, then meanders northwest across Australia's inland plains, forming the border between the states of New South Wales and Victoria as it flows into South Australia . From an east–west direction it turns south at Morgan for its final 315 km (196 mi), reaching the eastern edge of Lake Alexandrina , which fluctuates in salinity . The water then flows through several channels around Hindmarsh Island and Mundoo Island . There it
4142-618: The Murray-Darling Basin Authority . Goulburn-Murray Water manages water and land located in Victoria, and the New South Wales State Water Corporation is responsible for day-to-day operation and maintenance and the management of major remedial works at the dam. The dam is a mix of a concrete gravity dam with four earth embankments. The dam wall height is 51 metres (167 ft). The crest is 1,615 metres (5,299 ft) long, with
4251-493: The Roman Empire . Two helix-turbine mill sites of almost identical design were found at Chemtou and Testour , modern-day Tunisia , dating to the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. The horizontal water wheel with angled blades was installed at the bottom of a water-filled, circular shaft. The water from the mill race entered the pit tangentially, creating a swirling water column which made the fully submerged wheel act like
4360-517: The river red gum . The health of the Murray has declined significantly since European settlement, particularly through regulation of its flows. Extreme droughts between 2000 and 2007 put significant stress on river red gum forests, leading to mounting concern over their long-term survival. The Murray has also flooded on occasion. The most significant was the flood of 1956 : lasting for up to six months, it inundated many towns on its lower reaches in South Australia. Between 2.5 and 0.5 million years ago,
4469-863: The "Weir Ground". Hume Weir won the Albury & Border FA premiership in 1922 and 1923. In 1924, Hume Weir joined the Ovens and Murray Football League (O&MFL) and played there until 1929. Percy Jones kicked 104 goals for Hume Weir in 1928 before being lured to Geelong in 1929. As part of being admitted into the O&;MFL in 1924, Hume Weir agreed to play their home games at the Wodonga Racecourse Oval. Hume Weir were runners up to Wangaratta in 1925 and were coached by Tim Archer . In 1927, Hume Weir played their home games at Wodonga Park. In 1930, Hume Weir merged with Ebden Rovers Football Club to become
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4578-720: The Albury Football Club and became known as Albury FC. Albury FC played in the 1937, 1939 and 1940 O&MFL grand finals. Immediately after the World War II recess, Albury played in the 1946, 1947 and 1948 O&MFL grand finals. Murray River The Murray River (in South Australia: River Murray ) ( Ngarrindjeri : Millewa , Yorta Yorta : Dhungala ( Tongala )) is a river in Southeastern Australia . It
4687-467: The Cadell Fault. About 25,000 years ago, displacement occurred along this fault, raising its eastern edge, which runs north–south, 8 to 12 m (26 to 39 ft) above the floodplain. This created a complex series of events. A section of the original Murray River channel immediately behind the fault was rendered abandoned (it exists today as an empty channel known as Green Gully). The Goulburn River
4796-572: The Hume Weir, flows in normal, non-drought years were low in summer and autumn, though still significant overall, rising in winter due to seasonal rainfall and reaching a flood-peak in late spring due to snow-melt in the Murray and its tributaries' alpine headwaters. The flow is now effectively reversed, with low flows in winter and sustained, relatively high flows in late spring, summer and early autumn to meet irrigation demands. The spring flood peak has been virtually eliminated. The water released from
4905-584: The Millennium Drought, Lake Hume fell to 1% capacity, barely more than the water in the Murray and Mitta Mitta rivers flowing through on their original paths. Between 2010 and April 2013, the lowest storage level was in the range of 500,000 megalitres (18,000 × 10 ^ cu ft). The lake is stocked with fish . Most of these are introduced species – carp , redfin and trout though native species such as Golden Perch and Murray Cod can also be found. The fishing varies from year to year. It
5014-619: The Murray River in 1824. In 1920, the reservoir was named the Hume Reservoir and the dam adopted the name of the Hume Weir, the name given by the Victorian Place Names Committee. Following a proposal from Hume Shire Council , in 1996 both the NSW and Victorian governments agreed that the dam should be named the Hume Dam, and the reservoir be named Lake Hume. Lake Hume is estimated to hold approximately six times
5123-403: The Murray River system received 58 per cent of its natural flow; the figure varies considerably. The border between Victoria and New South Wales (NSW) lies along the top of the southern or left bank of the Murray River. The Murray forms part of the 3,750 km (2,330 mi) long combined Murray–Darling river system that drains most of the inland of Victoria, New South Wales and
5232-500: The Murray River, after his close friend, Scottish historian and essayist Thomas Carlyle . Included in the township were "Jane Street", named in honour of Carlyle's wife Jane Carlyle and "Stuart-Mill Street" in honour of political philosopher John Stuart Mill In 1858, the Government Zoologist , William Blandowski , together with Gerard Krefft , explored the lower reaches of the Murray and Darling rivers, compiling
5341-422: The Murray and its tributaries by destroying aquatic plants and permanently raising turbidity . Carp is the most common species, and can be found in all segments of the river. Four large reservoirs were built along the Murray. In addition to Lake Victoria (completed late 1920s), these are Lake Hume near Albury-Wodonga (completed 1936), Lake Mulwala at Yarrawonga (completed 1939), and Lake Dartmouth , which
5450-458: The Murray persists in numerous forms in various language groups that inhabit the enormous area spanned by the Murray system. The Wotojobaluk people of Victoria tell of Totyerguil from the area now known as Swan Hill , who ran out of spears while chasing Otchtout the cod. Roonka Flat , near Blanchetown , was a site of occupation since at least 7000BC. The first Europeans to encounter the river were Hamilton Hume and William Hovell , who crossed
5559-466: The Murray short-necked turtle, broad-clawed yabbies and the large-clawed Macrobrachium shrimp, in addition to aquatic species more widely distributed through Southeastern Australia such as common long-necked turtles, common yabbies , the small claw-less paratya shrimp, water rats and platypus . The Murray crayfish , an endangered species, was able to increase its numbers thanks to scientists. The Murray also supports fringeing corridors and forests of
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#17327805970545668-480: The Murray terminated in a vast freshwater lake – Lake Bungunnia – formed by earth movements that blocked the river near Swan Reach . At its maximum extent, Lake Bungunnia covered 33,000 km (12,741 sq mi), extending to near the Menindee Lakes in the north and to near Boundary Bend in the south. The draining of Lake Bungunnia occurred approximately 600,000 years ago. Deep clays deposited by
5777-524: The Red Gum forests, actually travels through the Edward River channel. The Murray has not had enough flow power to naturally enlarge The Barmah Choke and The Narrows to increase the amount of water they can carry. The Cadell Fault is quite noticeable as a continuous, low, earthen embankment as one drives into Barmah from the west, although to the untrained eye it may appear man-made. The Murray Mouth
5886-478: The Southern Ocean, and their populations from the 2016 Australian census are as follows. The Murray and its tributaries support a variety of river life adapted to its vagaries. This includes native fish such as the famous Murray cod , trout cod , golden perch , Macquarie perch , silver perch , eel-tailed catfish , Australian smelt and western carp gudgeon , as well as other aquatic species such as
5995-584: The United States. The design effectively combined the inward flow principles of the Francis design with the downward discharge of the Jonval turbine , with flow inward at the inlet, axial through the wheel's body, and slightly outward at the outlet. Initially performing optimally at 90% efficiency at lower speeds, this design would see many improvements in the subsequent decades in derivatives under names like "Victor", "Risdon", "Samson" and "New American," ushering in
6104-600: The Weir United Football Club. Weir United won the 1930 and 1931 O&MFL premierships. In 1933, East Albury Football Club and Weir United Football Club merged to become the Border United Football Club (Albury based). They wore green and white jumpers. They played in and lost the 1933 O&MFL grand final to Wangaratta. In 1935, they lost the O&MFL grand final to Rutherglen. In 1936, Border United FC (Albury based) merged with
6213-433: The area. These conditions are perfect for River Red Gums , which rapidly formed forests in the area. Thus the displacement of the Cadell Fault 25,000 BP led directly to the formation of the famous Barmah River Red Gum Forests. The Barmah Choke and The Narrows restrict the amount of water that can travel down this part of the Murray. In times of flood and high irrigation flows the majority of the water, in addition to flooding
6322-446: The auxiliary embankments extending a further 1,010 metres (3,310 ft). The maximum water elevation above sea level is 194 metres (636 ft). At 100% capacity the dam wall holds back 3,005,157 megalitres (106,126.1 × 10 ^ cu ft) of water at 194 metres (636 ft) AHD . The surface area of Lake Hume is 20,190 hectares (49,900 acres). The catchment area is 15,300 square kilometres (5,900 sq mi). The dam wall
6431-823: The available head, and makes installation of a generator more economical. Pelton wheels may be either vertical or horizontal shaft machines because the size of the machine is so much less than the available head. Some impulse turbines use multiple jets per runner to balance shaft thrust. This also allows for the use of a smaller turbine runner, which can decrease costs and mechanical losses. • Water wheel • Screw turbine • VLH turbine • Kaplan turbine • Francis turbine • Pelton wheel • Turgo turbine 0.2 < H < 4 ( H = head in m) 1 < H < 10 1.5 < H < 4.5 2 < H < 70 10 < H < 300 80 < H < 1600 50 < H < 250 The specific speed n s {\displaystyle n_{s}} of
6540-422: The base of the Hume Weir is unnaturally cold, at least 10 °C (18 °F) colder than it naturally should be. This flow reversal, temperature depression, and removal of the spring flood peak, has led to the drying out and loss of many billabongs and has harmed the populations of native fish of the Murray River such as the iconic Murray Cod and the freshwater catfish , which can no longer be found downstream of
6649-438: The capacity to release water at the fastest rate. Irrigation authorities use the reservoir as the storage of first resort. Typically, the reservoir had fallen to less than one-third of its capacity by March each year. In normal years, it refills to at least two-thirds of its capacity before November. Australia's highly unpredictable climatic conditions cause those norms to vary quite significantly from year to year. In 2007, during
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#17327805970546758-407: The controls were still done through analog systems. In the modern systems, also known as third-generation governors, the controls are performed digitally by algorithms that are programmed to the computer of the governor. A wicket gate , or guide vane , is a ring of gates (or vanes) surrounding a water turbine which control the flow of water entering it; varying the aperture between them manages
6867-410: The dam as far as Yarrawonga , where it had previously been recorded up until the 1960s. The Hume Weir FC was established in 1921, mainly from footballers working on the construction of the new weir. The club initially played in the Albury & Border Football Association from 1921 to 1923, wearing black and white striped jumpers. Andrew Mafferzoni was the club's initial coach in 1921 and they played at
6976-433: The dam was heading for collapse, threatening Albury-Wodonga and the entire Murray basin. Authorities denied any short-term threat. Traffic was banned from the spillway, and remedial work began involving, in part, the construction of a secondary earth wall behind the original to take the strain. Further upgrades to the dam at an estimated cost of A$ 60 million began in 2007 and were completed in 2013. These works include
7085-581: The driest continents on Earth, the Murray has significant cultural relevance to Aboriginal Australians . According to the people of Lake Alexandrina , the Murray was created by the tracks of the Great Ancestor, Ngurunderi, as he pursued Pondi, the Murray Cod . The chase originated in the interior of New South Wales. Ngurunderi pursued the fish (who, like many totem animals in Aboriginal myths,
7194-595: The early 19th century and is derived from the Greek word "τύρβη" for "whirling" or a " vortex ". The main difference between early water turbines and water wheels is a swirl component of the water which passes energy to a spinning rotor. This additional component of motion allowed the turbine to be smaller than a water wheel of the same power. They could process more water by spinning faster and could harness much greater heads. (Later, impulse turbines were developed which didn't use swirl.) The earliest known water turbines date to
7303-546: The early 2000s, dredging machines have operated at the Murray Mouth for 24 hours a day, moving sand from the channel to maintain a minimal flow from the sea and into the Coorong's lagoon system. Without the dredging, the mouth would silt up and close, cutting the supply of fresh sea-water into the Coorong National Park, which would then warm up, stagnate and die. Being one of the major river systems on one of
7412-543: The early mathematical theories of turbine design. In the 18th century, a Dr. Robert Barker invented a similar reaction hydraulic turbine that became popular as a lecture-hall demonstration. The only known surviving example of this type of engine used in power production, dating from 1851, is found at Hacienda Buena Vista in Ponce, Puerto Rico . In 1820, Jean-Victor Poncelet developed an inward-flow turbine. In 1826, Benoît Fourneyron developed an outward-flow turbine. This
7521-439: The film which improves aqueous corrosion resistance. The chromium content in these steel alloys exceed the minimum of 12% chromium required to exhibit some atmospheric corrosion resistance. Having a higher chromium concentration in the steel alloys allows for a much longer lifespan of the turbine blades. Currently, the blades are made of martensitic stainless steels which have high strength compared to austenitic stainless steels by
7630-499: The first trips being made by two boats from South Australia on the spring flood of 1853. The Lady Augusta , captained by Francis Cadell , reached Swan Hill while another, Mary Ann , captained by William Randell , reached Moama (near Echuca ). In 1855 a steamer carrying gold-mining supplies reached Albury but Echuca was the usual turn-around point, though small boats continued to link with up-river ports such as Tocumwal , Wahgunyah and Albury. The arrival of steamboat transport
7739-446: The gold fields, Knight developed a bucketed wheel which captured the energy of a free jet, which had converted a high head (hundreds of vertical feet in a pipe or penstock ) of water to kinetic energy. This is called an impulse or tangential turbine. The water's velocity, roughly twice the velocity of the bucket periphery, does a U-turn in the bucket and drops out of the runner at low velocity. In 1879, Lester Pelton , experimenting with
7848-470: The hydrodynamic flow conditions and efficiency of the water turbine. The SS(13Cr-4Ni) has been shown to have improved erosion resistance at all angles of attack through the process of laser peening . It is important to minimize erosion in order to maintain high efficiencies because erosion negatively impacts the hydraulic profile of the blades which reduces the relative ease of rotation. Turbines are designed to run for decades with very little maintenance of
7957-405: The installation of an improved filter and drainage system on the junction between the concrete spillway and southern embankment, construction of a concrete buttress on the southern training wall, and possible modifications to improve the ability of the dam to manage extreme floods. The Hume Power Station is a 58 megawatts (78,000 hp) hydro-electric power station installed in the dam wall, and
8066-491: The intervening stretch of the river a series of locks and weirs were built. These were originally proposed to support navigation even in times of low water, but riverborne transport was already declining due to improved highway and railway systems. The disruption of the river's natural flow, run-off from agriculture, and the introduction of pest species such as the European carp has led to serious environmental damage along
8175-553: The irrigation has led to dryland salinity that now threatens the agricultural industries. In 2006, the Government of South Australia released a plan to investigate the construction of controversial Wellington Weir . Lock 1 was completed near Blanchetown in 1922. Torrumbarry weir downstream of Echuca began operating in December 1923. Of the several locks that were proposed, only thirteen were completed; Locks 1 to 11 on
8284-663: The lake are evident in cliffs around Chowilla in South Australia. Considerably higher rainfall would have been required to keep such a lake full; the draining of Lake Bungunnia appears to have marked the end of a wet phase in the history of the Murray–Darling Basin and the onset of widespread arid conditions similar to today. A species of Neoceratodus lungfish existed in Lake Bungunnia; today Neoceratodus lungfish are only found in several Queensland rivers. The noted Barmah River red gum forests owe their existence to
8393-404: The late 19th century (including water wheels ) were basically reaction machines; water pressure head acted on the machine and produced work. A reaction turbine needs to fully contain the water during energy transfer. In 1866, California millwright Samuel Knight invented a machine that took the impulse system to a new level. Inspired by the high pressure jet systems used in hydraulic mining in
8502-424: The line of longitude 141°E, the border is between Victoria and South Australia, in the middle of the river. The discrepancy was caused during the 1840s, when the border was originally surveyed, by an east–west miscalculation of 3.72 kilometres (2.31 miles). West of this sector, the Murray is entirely within the state of South Australia. Major settlements along the course of the river, from its source to
8611-528: The main elements; overhaul intervals are on the order of several years. Maintenance of the runners and parts exposed to water include removal, inspection, and repair of worn parts. Normal wear and tear includes pitting corrosion from cavitation , fatigue cracking , and abrasion from suspended solids in the water. Steel elements are repaired by welding, usually with stainless steel rods. Damaged areas are cut or ground out, then welded back up to their original or an improved profile. Old turbine runners may have
8720-407: The mechanical forces of this speed. The manufacturer will supply the runaway speed rating. Different designs of governors have been used since the mid-18th century to control the speeds of the water turbines. A variety of flyball systems, or first-generation governors, were used during the first 100 years of water turbine speed controls. In early flyball systems, the flyball component countered by
8829-481: The modern fluid bearing was invented, now universally used to support heavy water turbine spindles. As of 2002, fluid bearings appear to have a mean time between failures of more than 1300 years. Around 1913, Viktor Kaplan created the Kaplan turbine , a propeller-type machine. It was an evolution of the Francis turbine and revolutionized the ability to develop low-head hydro sites. All common water machines until
8938-453: The modern form of the Pelton turbine which today achieves up to 92% efficiency. Pelton had been quite an effective promoter of his design and although Doble took over the Pelton company he did not change the name to Doble because it had brand name recognition. Turgo and cross-flow turbines were later impulse designs. Flowing water is directed on to the blades of a turbine runner, creating
9047-484: The patterns of the river's natural flow from the original winter-spring flood and summer-autumn dry to the present low level through winter and higher during summer. These changes ensured the availability of water for irrigation and made the Murray Valley Australia's most productive agricultural region, but have seriously disrupted the life cycles of many ecosystems both inside and outside the river, and
9156-411: The rate of the turbine's spin, and thereby the amount of electricity generated. Given that the turbine blades in a water turbine are constantly exposed to water and dynamic forces, they need to have high corrosion resistance and strength. The most common material used in overlays on carbon steel runners in water turbines are austenitic steel alloys that have 17% to 20% chromium to increase stability of
9265-518: The remaining length of the Murray to finally reach Lake Alexandrina and the river's mouth. The vicinity of the Murray Mouth was explored more thoroughly by Captain Collet Barker in 1831. The first three settlers on the Murray River are known to have been James Collins Hawker (explorer and surveyor) along with Edward John Eyre (explorer and later Governor of Jamaica ) plus E.B. Scott (onetime superintendent of Yatala Labour Prison ). Hawker
9374-426: The river channel is unusually narrow), before entering into the proper Murray River channel again. The primary result of the Cadell Fault – that the west-flowing water of the Murray River strikes the north-south fault and diverts both north and south around the fault in the two main channels (Edward and ancestral Goulburn) in addition to a fan of small streams, and regularly floods a large amount of low-lying country in
9483-645: The river promoted an expansion of farming and led ultimately to the development of irrigation areas (including the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area ). In 1915, the three Murray states – New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia – signed the River Murray Agreement which proposed the construction of storage reservoirs in the river's headwaters as well as at Lake Victoria near the South Australian border. Along
9592-696: The river where Albury now stands in 1824: Hume named it the Hume River after his father. In 1830, Captain Charles Sturt reached the river after travelling down its tributary the Murrumbidgee River and named it the Murray River in honour of the then British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies , Sir George Murray , not realising it was the same river that Hume and Hovell had encountered further upstream. Sturt continued down
9701-595: The river's length. There are widespread concerns that the river will be unusably salty in the medium to long term – a serious problem given that the Murray supplies 40 per cent of the water supply for Adelaide . Efforts to alleviate the problems have proceeded but disagreement between various groups has hampered progress. Introduced fish species such as carp , gambusia , weather loach , redfin perch , brown trout , and rainbow trout have also had serious negative effects on native fish. The most pernicious are carp, which have contributed to environmental degradation of
9810-533: The river. The primary purpose of this is to provide habitat for fish species whose breeding grounds and shelter were eradicated by the removal of the snags. Author E.J. Brady chronicled an eventful journey downriver in a small motor boat from Albury to the coast in 1911 in River Rovers. The volume and value of river trade made Echuca Victoria's second port and in the decade from 1874 it underwent considerable expansion. By this time up to thirty steamers and
9919-609: The runner. Water pressure decreases to atmospheric, or in some cases subatmospheric, as the water passes through the turbine blades and loses energy. In 1876, John B. McCormick , building on Francis's designs, demonstrated the first modern mixed-flow turbine with the development of the Hercules turbine, initially manufactured by the Holyoke Machine Company and subsequently improved upon by engineers in Germany and
10028-444: The southern part of Queensland. The Murray carries only a small fraction of the water of comparably sized rivers in other parts of the world, and with great annual variability of its flow. It has dried up completely during extreme droughts on three occasions since official record-keeping began. More often, a sandbar formed at the mouth and stopped the flow. The Murray is the border between New South Wales and Victoria – specifically at
10137-434: The stretch downstream of Mildura , Lock 15 at Euston and Lock 26 at Torrumbarry . Construction of the remaining weirs purely for navigation purposes was abandoned in 1934. The last lock to be completed was Lock 15, in 1937. Lock 11, just downstream of Mildura, creates a 100-kilometre (62 mi) long lock pool that aided irrigation pumping from Mildura and Red Cliffs . Each lock has a navigable passage next to it through
10246-662: The testing flumes of Lowell , after 1880 the Holyoke, Massachusetts hydraulic laboratory was standardized by Herschel, who used it to develop the Venturi meter , the first accurate means of measuring large flows, to properly measure water power efficiency by different turbine models. While skepticism of certain weir calculations were held by European hydrologists, the facility allowed for standard efficiency testing among major manufacturers through 1932, by which time more modern facilities and methods had proliferated. Around 1890,
10355-561: The top of the bank of the Victorian side of the river. In a 1980 judgement, the High Court of Australia ruled on the question as to which state had jurisdiction in the unlawful death of a man who was fishing by the river's edge on the Victorian side of the river. This boundary definition can be ambiguous, since the river changes its course over time, and some of the river banks have been modified. For 11 km (6.8 mi) west of
10464-468: The town of Murray Bridge, formerly called Edwards Crossing. To distinguish this bridge from the many others that span the Murray River, this bridge is known as Murray River road bridge, Murray Bridge Tolls applied on South Australian ferries until abolished in November 1961. Small-scale pumping plants began drawing water from the Murray in the 1850s and the first high-volume plant was constructed at Mildura in 1887. The introduction of pumping stations along
10573-510: The transfer of energy for impulse turbines. Impulse turbines are often used in very high (>300m/1000 ft) head applications. The power available in a stream is; P = η ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h ⋅ q ˙ {\displaystyle P=\eta \cdot \rho \cdot g\cdot h\cdot {\dot {q}}} where: Some water turbines are designed for pumped-storage hydroelectricity. They can reverse flow and operate as
10682-430: The turbine is controlled either by a large valve or by wicket gates arranged around the outside of the turbine runner. Differential head and flow can be plotted for a number of different values of gate opening, producing a hill diagram used to show the efficiency of the turbine at varying conditions. The runaway speed of a water turbine is its speed at full flow, and no shaft load. The turbine will be designed to survive
10791-594: The type of impeller selected. Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. They must be encased to contain the water pressure (or suction), or they must be fully submerged in the water flow. Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines. Most water turbines in use are reaction turbines and are used in low (<30 m or 100 ft) and medium (30–300 m or 100–1,000 ft) head applications. In reaction turbine pressure drop occurs in both fixed and moving blades. It
10900-419: The use of gears and the dynamic behavior. By 1930, the mechanical governors had many parameters that could be set on the feedback system for precise controls. In the later part of the twentieth century, electronic governors and digital systems started to replace the mechanical governors. In the electronic governors, also known as second-generation governors, the flyball was replaced by rotational speed sensor but
11009-667: The volume of water in Sydney Harbour . The small towns of Tallangatta , Bonegilla and Bellbridge are located on the shores of Lake Hume. The reservoir is often referred to as the Hume Weir, and was named Lake Hume in the mid-1980s. Lake Hume was the furthest upstream of the major reservoirs on the Murray River system, before the Dartmouth Dam was built further up the Mitta Mitta River to provide improved buffering during prolonged dry spells. The Hume Dam has
11118-409: The weir, which is opened during periods of high river flow, when there is too much water for the lock. The weirs can be completely removed, and the locks completely covered by water during flood conditions. Lock 11 is unique in that the lock was built inside a bend of the river, with the weir in the bend itself. A channel was dug to the lock, creating an island between it and the weir. The weir is also of
11227-400: The women settled on the shore, only to suffer bad luck with fishing, being plagued by a water fiend known as Muldjewangk . They later moved to a more suitable spot at the site of present-day Ashville . The twin summits of Mount Misery are said to be the remnants of his rafts; they are known as Lalangengall or the two watercraft . This story of a hunter pursuing a Murray cod that carved out
11336-623: Was an efficient machine (~80%) that sent water through a runner with blades curved in one dimension. The stationary outlet also had curved guides. In 1844, Uriah A. Boyden developed an outward flow turbine that improved on the performance of the Fourneyron turbine. Its runner shape was similar to that of a Francis turbine . In 1849, James B. Francis improved the inward flow reaction turbine to over 90% efficiency. He also conducted sophisticated tests and developed engineering methods for water turbine design. The Francis turbine , named for him,
11445-640: Was completed in 1957, running two 25 megawatts (34,000 hp) turbines. In 2000, these turbines were each upgraded to 29 megawatts (39,000 hp). Originally named the Mitta Mitta Dam site, following representations from the Municipal Council of Albury, on 17 February 1920 the River Murray Commission decided to honour Hamilton Hume , who, in company with William Hovell , was one of the first Europeans to see and cross
11554-610: Was dammed by the southern end of the fault to create a natural lake. The Murray River flowed to the north around the Cadell Fault, creating the channel of the Edward River which exists today and through which much of the Murray's waters still flow. Then the natural dam on the Goulburn River failed, the lake drained, and the Murray changed its course to the south and started to flow through the smaller Goulburn River channel, creating "The Barmah Choke" and "The Narrows" (where
11663-481: Was extended during the 1950s, and completed in 1961, necessitating the wholesale removal of Tallangatta township and its re-establishment at a new site 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) west of the original, as well as the raising of the Bethanga Bridge . Monitoring of the dam in the early 1990s revealed that the water pressure and leakage had caused the dam to move on its foundations slightly, leading to concerns that
11772-428: Was launched as a mission steamer, replacing an earlier steam launch, also named Etona , which had been operating on the Murray since 1891. The vessel was based at Murray Bridge , and operated between Goolwa and the Victorian border, stopping at towns such as Mannum , Morgan and Renmark as well as isolated settlements and workcamps. The forepart of the vessel was used a chapel fitted with an altar and organ, with
11881-405: Was welcomed by pastoralists who had been suffering from a shortage of transport due to the demands of the gold fields. By 1860 a dozen steamers were operating in the high water season along the Murray and its tributaries. Once the railway reached Echuca in 1864, the bulk of the woolclip from the Riverina was transported via river to Echuca and then south to Melbourne. The steam paddleship Etona
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