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116-414: The Hypertext Editing System , or HES , was an early hypertext research project conducted at Brown University in 1967 by Andries van Dam , Ted Nelson , and several Brown students. It was the first hypertext system available on commercial equipment that novices could use. HES organized data into two main types: links and branching text. The branching text could automatically be arranged into menus, and

232-485: A Memex . A Memex would hypothetically store — and record — content on reels of microfilm, using electric photocells to read coded symbols recorded next to individual microfilm frames while the reels spun at high speed, and stopping on command. The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, and link content to create and follow associative trails. Because the Memex was never implemented and could only link content in

348-788: A means of detecting submarines by measuring the disturbance in the Earth's magnetic field. His device worked as designed, but only from a wooden ship; attempts to get it to work on a metal ship such as a destroyer failed. Bush left Tufts in 1919, although he remained employed by AMRAD, and joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he worked under Dugald C. Jackson . In 1922, he collaborated with fellow MIT professor William H. Timbie on Principles of Electrical Engineering , an introductory textbook. AMRAD's lucrative contracts from World War I had been cancelled, and Bush attempted to reverse

464-614: A wiki but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental "hyperediting" functions in word processors and hypermedia programs, many of whose features and terminology were later analogous to the World Wide Web . Guide , the first significant hypertext system for personal computers , was developed by Peter J. Brown at the University of Kent in 1982. In 1980, Roberto Busa , an Italian Jesuit priest and one of

580-480: A 'hypertext' (meaning editing) interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as " The Mother of All Demos ". In 1971 a system called Scrapbook , produced by David Yates and his team at the UK's National Physical Laboratory , went live. It was an information storage and retrieval system that included what would now be called word processing, e-mail and hypertext. ZOG , an early hypertext system,

696-470: A Military Policy Committee recommendation stating that information given to the British should be limited to technologies that they were actively working on and should not extend to post-war developments. In July 1943, on a visit to London to learn about British progress on antisubmarine technology, Bush, Stimson, and Bundy met with Anderson, Lord Cherwell , and Winston Churchill at 10 Downing Street . At

812-571: A book and puts it on a shelf and nobody ever reads it." On August 23, 1938, Bush was appointed to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the predecessor of NASA. Its chairman Joseph Sweetman Ames became ill, and Bush, as vice chairman, soon had to act in his place. In December 1938, NACA asked for $ 11 million to establish a new aeronautical research laboratory in Sunnyvale, California , to supplement

928-526: A budget of $ 455,000 for its first year. Loomis suggested that the lab should be run by the Carnegie Institution, but Bush convinced him that it would best be run by MIT. The Radiation Laboratory , as it came to be known, tested its airborne radar from an Army B-18 on March 27, 1941. By mid-1941, it had developed SCR-584 radar , a mobile radar fire control system for antiaircraft guns . In September 1940, Norbert Wiener approached Bush with

1044-618: A change from linear, structured and hierarchical forms of representing and understanding the world into fractured, decentralized and changeable media based on the technological concept of hypertext links. In the 1990s, women and feminist artists took advantage of hypertext and produced dozens of works. Linda Dement 's Cyberflesh Girlmonster a hypertext CD-ROM that incorporates images of women's body parts and remixes them to create new monstrous yet beautiful shapes. Caitlin Fisher's award-winning online hypertext novella These Waves of Girls (2001)

1160-568: A continuous signal rather than short pulses. The NDRC created a special Section T chaired by Merle Tuve of the CIW, with Commander William S. Parsons as special assistant to Bush and liaison between the NDRC and the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance (BuOrd). One of CIW staff members that Tuve recruited to Section T in 1940 was James Van Allen . In April 1942, Bush placed Section T directly under

1276-683: A crash program to create an atomic bomb . When the NDRC was formed, the Committee on Uranium was placed under it, reporting directly to Bush as the Uranium Committee. Bush reorganized the committee, strengthening its scientific component by adding Tuve, George B. Pegram , Jesse W. Beams , Ross Gunn and Harold Urey . When the OSRD was formed in June 1941, the Uranium Committee was again placed directly under Bush. For security reasons, its name

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1392-532: A dead end. Taffy Bowen and John Cockcroft of the Tizard Mission then produced a cavity magnetron , a device more advanced than anything the Americans had seen, with a power output of around 10 kW at 10 cm, enough to spot the periscope of a surfaced submarine at night from an aircraft. To exploit the invention, Bush decided to create a special laboratory. The NDRC allocated the new laboratory

1508-625: A few related authors. In 1983, Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction Lab led a group that developed the HyperTies system that was commercialized by Cognetics Corporation . They studied many designs before adopting the blue color for links . Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM as a hypertext document and then

1624-539: A fire broke out at the plant, Bush and the other test men were suspended. He returned to Tufts in October 1914 to teach mathematics, and spent the 1915 summer break working at the Brooklyn Navy Yard as an electrical inspector. Bush was awarded a $ 1,500 scholarship to study at Clark University as a doctoral student of Arthur Gordon Webster , but Webster wanted Bush to study acoustics, a popular field at

1740-573: A hypertext document usually replace the current piece of hypertext with the destination document. A lesser known feature is StretchText , which expands or contracts the content in place, thereby giving more control to the reader in determining the level of detail of the displayed document. Some implementations support transclusion , where text or other content is included by reference and automatically rendered in place. Hypertext can be used to support very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The most famous implementation of hypertext

1856-644: A job with Tufts, where he became involved with the American Radio and Research Corporation (AMRAD), which began broadcasting music from the campus on March 8, 1916. The station owner, Harold Power, hired him to run the company's laboratory, at a salary greater than that which Bush drew from Tufts. In 1917, following the United States' entry into World War I, he went to work with the National Research Council . He attempted to develop

1972-440: A mathematician could have such good times together. I only wish that I could get the real vital grasp of mathematics that he has of the basic principles of physics. Parry Moon and Stratton were acknowledged, as was M.S. Vallarta who "wrote the first set of class notes which I used." An offshoot of the work at MIT was the beginning of digital circuit design theory by one of Bush's graduate students, Claude Shannon . Working on

2088-481: A microcosm of the information society, with the boundaries tightly drawn by the interests and experiences of a major scientist of the time, rather than the more open knowledge spaces of the 21st century. Bush provides a core vision of the importance of information to industrial / scientific society, using the image of an "information explosion" arising from the unprecedented demands on scientific production and technological application of World War II. He outlines

2204-674: A million dollars. It merged with General Plate Company to form Metals & Controls Corporation in 1931, and with Texas Instruments in 1959. Texas Instruments sold it to Bain Capital in 2006, and it became a separate company again as Sensata Technologies in 2010. In 1924, Bush and Marshall teamed up with physicist Charles G. Smith, who had invented a voltage-regulator tube called the S-tube. The device enabled radios, which had previously required two different types of batteries, to operate from mains power . Marshall had raised $ 25,000 to set up

2320-525: A model for the discussion of similar issues, an "opening wedge". He was less successful in promoting his ideas in peacetime with President Harry Truman, than he had been under wartime conditions with Roosevelt. In " As We May Think ", an essay published by the Atlantic Monthly in July 1945, Bush wrote: "This has not been a scientist's war; it has been a war in which all have had a part. The scientists, burying their old professional competition in

2436-542: A new hypertext project in response to a request for a simple, immediate, information-sharing facility, to be used among physicists working at CERN and other academic institutions. He called the project "WorldWideWeb". HyperText is a way to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will. Potentially, HyperText provides a single user-interface to many large classes of stored information, such as reports, notes, data-bases, computer documentation and on-line systems help. We propose

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2552-590: A pen that plotted the terrain over which it traveled. It was the first of a string of inventions. On graduation in 1913 he received both Bachelor of Science and Master of Science degrees. After graduation, Bush worked at General Electric (GE) in Schenectady, New York , for $ 14 a week. As a "test man," he assessed equipment to ensure that it was safe. He transferred to GE's plant in Pittsfield, Massachusetts , to work on high voltage transformers , but after

2668-409: A point within a given area could also have an assigned name, called a label, and be accessed later by that name from the screen. Although HES pioneered many modern hypertext concepts, its emphasis was on text formatting and printing. HES required an IBM 2250 display console and a large memory partition on Brown's IBM System/360 Model 50 campus mainframe computer which limited its use: "Although it

2784-455: A proposal to build a digital computer. Bush declined to provide NDRC funding for it on the grounds that he did not believe that it could be completed before the end of the war. The supporters of digital computers were disappointed at the decision, which they attributed to a preference for outmoded analog technology. In June 1943, the Army provided $ 500,000 to build the computer, which became ENIAC ,

2900-500: A relatively crude fashion — by creating chains of entire microfilm frames — the Memex is regarded only as a proto-hypertext device, but it is fundamental to the history of hypertext because it directly inspired the invention of hypertext by Ted Nelson and Douglas Engelbart. In 1965, Ted Nelson coined the terms 'hypertext' and 'hypermedia' as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content (first published reference 1965). He later worked with Andries van Dam to develop

3016-552: A replacement for hypertextual narrative. Critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old, linear, reader experience by creating several different tracks to read on. This can also been seen as contributing to a postmodernist fragmentation of worlds. In some cases, hypertext may be detrimental to the development of appealing stories (in the case of hypertext Gamebooks ), where ease of linking fragments may lead to non-cohesive or incomprehensible narratives. However, they do see value in its ability to present several different views on

3132-471: A salary of $ 25,000. He was now able to influence research policy in the United States at the highest level, and could informally advise the government on scientific matters. Bush soon discovered that the CIW had serious financial problems, and he had to ask the Carnegie Corporation for additional funding. Bush clashed over leadership of the institute with Cameron Forbes , CIW's chairman of

3248-515: A single sheet of paper describing the agency. Roosevelt approved the proposal in 15 minutes, writing "OK – FDR" on the sheet. With Bush as chairman, the NDRC was functioning even before the agency was officially established by order of the Council of National Defense on June 27, 1940. The organization operated financially on a hand-to-mouth basis with monetary support from the president's emergency fund. Bush appointed four leading scientists to

3364-512: A solid professional relationship. Compton appointed Bush to the newly created post of vice president in 1932. That year Bush also became the dean of the MIT School of Engineering . The two positions came with a salary of $ 12,000 plus $ 6,000 for expenses per annum. The companies Bush helped to found and the technologies he brought to the market made him financially secure, so he was able to pursue academic and scientific studies that he felt made

3480-479: A string of his own inventions. He is known particularly for his engineering work on analog computers , and for the memex . Starting in 1927, Bush constructed a differential analyzer , a mechanical analog computer with some digital components that could solve differential equations with as many as 18 independent variables. An offshoot of the work at MIT by Bush and others was the beginning of digital circuit design theory. The memex, which he began developing in

3596-415: A table-like array of shafts and pens that mechanically simulated and plotted the desired equation. Unlike earlier designs that were purely mechanical, the differential analyzer had both electrical and mechanical components. Among the engineers who made use of the differential analyzer was General Electric 's Edith Clarke , who used it to solve problems relating to electric power transmission. For developing

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3712-430: A time when "there is a growing mountain of research. But there is increased evidence that we are being bogged down today as specialization extends. The investigator is staggered by the findings and conclusions of thousands of other workers." The OSRD continued to function actively until some time after the end of hostilities, but by 1946–1947 it had been reduced to a minimal staff charged with finishing work remaining from

3828-401: A version of information science as a key discipline within the practice of scientific and technical knowledge domains. His view encompasses the problems of information overload and the need to devise efficient mechanisms to control and channel information for use. Bush was concerned that information overload might inhibit the research efforts of scientists. Looking to the future, he predicted

3944-425: Is an enlarged intimate supplement to his memory." He wanted the memex to emulate the way the brain links data by association rather than by indexes and traditional, hierarchical storage paradigms, and be easily accessed as "a future device for individual use ... a sort of mechanized private file and library" in the shape of a desk. The memex was also intended as a tool to study the brain itself. The structure of memex

4060-473: Is considered a precursor to the World Wide Web. After thinking about the potential of augmented memory for several years, Bush set out his thoughts at length in " As We May Think ", predicting that "wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear, ready made with a mesh of associative trails running through them, ready to be dropped into the memex and there amplified". "As We May Think" was published in

4176-467: Is no implication about size — a hypertext could contain only 500 words or so. 'Hyper-' refers to structure and not size." The English prefix "hyper-" comes from the Greek prefix "ὑπερ-" and means "over" or "beyond"; it has a common origin with the prefix "super-" which comes from Latin. It signifies the overcoming of the previous linear constraints of written text. The term "hypertext" is often used where

4292-509: Is set in three time periods of the protagonist exploring polymorphous perversity enacted in her queer identity through memory. The story is written as a reflection diary of the interconnected memories of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. It consists of an associated multi-modal collection of nodes includes linked text, still and moving images, manipulable images, animations, and sound clips. Adrienne Eisen (pen name for Penelope Trunk ) wrote hypertexts that were subversive narrative journeys into

4408-538: Is the World Wide Web , written in the final months of 1990 and released on the Internet in 1991. In 1941, Jorge Luis Borges published " The Garden of Forking Paths ", a short story that is often considered an inspiration for the concept of hypertext. In 1945, Vannevar Bush wrote an article in The Atlantic Monthly called " As We May Think ", about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called

4524-578: The FRESS (File Retrieval and Editing System) project. Ted Nelson claims credit for inventing the back button with regards to hypertext, as the Hypertext Editing System was the first system that contained one. Hypertext "(...)'Hypertext' is a recent coinage. 'Hyper-' is used in the mathematical sense of extension and generality (as in 'hyperspace,' 'hypercube') rather than the medical sense of 'excessive' ('hyperactivity'). There

4640-606: The Hypertext Editing System (text editing) in 1967 at Brown University . It was implemented using the terminal IBM 2250 with a light pen which was provided as a pointing device . By 1976, its successor FRESS was used in a poetry class in which students could browse a hyperlinked set of poems and discussion by experts, faculty and other students, in what was arguably the world's first online scholarly community which van Dam says "foreshadowed wikis, blogs and communal documents of all kinds". Ted Nelson said in

4756-616: The National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), and later director of OSRD, Bush coordinated the activities of some six thousand leading American scientists in the application of science to warfare. Bush was a well-known policymaker and public intellectual during World War II, when he was in effect the first presidential science advisor . As head of NDRC and OSRD, he initiated the Manhattan Project, and ensured that it received top priority from

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4872-649: The Western Front in October 1944, and spoke to ordnance officers, but no senior commander would meet with him. He was able to meet with Samuel Goudsmit and other members of the Alsos Mission , who assured him that there was no danger from the German project; he conveyed this assessment to Lieutenant General Bedell Smith . In May 1945, Bush became part of the Interim Committee formed to advise

4988-473: The 1930s (heavily influenced by Emanuel Goldberg 's "Statistical Machine" from 1928) was a hypothetical adjustable microfilm viewer with a structure analogous to that of hypertext . The memex and Bush's 1945 essay " As We May Think " influenced generations of computer scientists, who drew inspiration from his vision of the future. Bush was appointed to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) in 1938, and soon became its chairman. As chairman of

5104-468: The 1960s that he began implementation of a hypertext system he theorized, which was named Project Xanadu , but his first and incomplete public release was finished much later, in 1998. Douglas Engelbart independently began working on his NLS system in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute, although delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968. In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated

5220-420: The 1990s. Judy Malloy 's Uncle Roger (1986) and Michael Joyce 's afternoon, a story (1987) are generally considered the first works of hypertext fiction. An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes,

5336-785: The American Appliance Company on July 7, 1922, to build silent refrigerators, with Bush and Smith among its five directors, but changed course and renamed it the Raytheon Company , to make and market the S-tube. The venture made Bush wealthy, and Raytheon ultimately became a large electronics company and defense contractor . Starting in 1927, Bush constructed a differential analyzer , an analog computer that could solve differential equations with as many as 18 independent variables. This invention arose from previous work performed by Herbert R. Stewart, one of Bush's master's students, who at Bush's suggestion created

5452-479: The Army on board, Bush moved to streamline oversight of the project by the OSRD, replacing the Section ;S-1 with a new S-1 Executive Committee. A week later, on June 23, President Roosevelt sent this one-sentence memo back to Bush: "Do you have the money?" Bush soon became dissatisfied with the dilatory way the project was run, with its indecisiveness over the selection of sites for the pilot plants. He

5568-724: The Coupled Circuit and the Artificial Transmission Line , in April 1916. His adviser, Arthur Edwin Kennelly , demanded more work from him, but Bush refused, and Kennelly was overruled by the department chairman. Bush received his doctorate in engineering jointly from MIT and Harvard University . He married Phoebe in August 1916. They had two sons: Richard Davis Bush and John Hathaway Bush. Bush accepted

5684-594: The Germans would be unable to copy and produce it before the war was over. Eventually, the Joint Chiefs agreed to allow its employment from December 25. In response to the German Ardennes Offensive on December 16, 1944, the immediate use of the proximity fuze was authorized, and it went into action with deadly effect. By the end of 1944, proximity fuzes were coming off the production lines at

5800-513: The Internet began the creation of the Web on the Internet. As new web browsers were released, traffic on the World Wide Web quickly exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994. As a result, all previous hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the Web, even though it lacked many features of those earlier systems, such as integrated browsers/editors (a feature of

5916-408: The July 1945 issue of The Atlantic . A few months later, Life magazine published a condensed version of "As We May Think", accompanied by several illustrations showing the possible appearance of a memex machine and its companion devices. Shortly after "As We May Think" was originally published, Douglas Engelbart read it, and with Bush's visions in mind, commenced work that would later lead to

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6032-513: The NACA, with George J. Mead as his deputy. Bush remained a member of the NACA until November 1948. During World War I, Bush had become aware of poor cooperation between civilian scientists and the military. Concerned about the lack of coordination in scientific research and the requirements of defense mobilization, Bush proposed the creation of a general directive agency in the federal government , which he discussed with his colleagues. He had

6148-412: The NDRC began work on a proximity fuze , a fuze inside an artillery shell that would explode when it came close to its target. A radar set, along with the batteries to power it, was miniaturized to fit inside a shell, and its glass vacuum tubes designed to withstand the 20,000  g-force of being fired from a gun and 500 rotations per second in flight. Unlike normal radar, the proximity fuze sent out

6264-656: The NDRC: Karl Taylor Compton (president of MIT), James B. Conant (president of Harvard University), Frank B. Jewett (president of the National Academy of Sciences and chairman of the Board of Directors of Bell Laboratories), and Richard C. Tolman (dean of the graduate school at Caltech); Rear Admiral Harold G. Bowen, Sr. and Brigadier General George V. Strong represented the military. The civilians already knew each other well, which allowed

6380-404: The Navy had convinced him that it would not listen to his advice, and could not handle large-scale construction projects. In March 1942, Bush sent a report to Roosevelt outlining work by Robert Oppenheimer on the nuclear cross section of uranium-235 . Oppenheimer's calculations, which Bush had George Kistiakowsky check, estimated that the critical mass of a sphere of Uranium-235 was in

6496-417: The OSRD while Conant succeeded him as chairman of the NDRC, which was subsumed into the OSRD. The OSRD was on a firmer financial footing than the NDRC since it received funding from Congress, and had the resources and the authority to develop weapons and technologies with or without the military. Furthermore, the OSRD had a broader mandate than the NDRC, moving into additional areas such as medical research and

6612-494: The OSRD, and Parsons in charge. The research effort remained under Tuve but moved to the Johns Hopkins University 's Applied Physics Laboratory (APL), where Parsons was BuOrd's representative. In August 1942, a live firing test was conducted with the newly commissioned cruiser USS  Cleveland ; three pilotless drones were shot down in succession. To preserve the secret of the proximity fuze, its use

6728-486: The OSRD. Bush felt that basic research was important to national survival for both military and commercial reasons, requiring continued government support for science and technology; technical superiority could be a deterrent to future enemy aggression. In Science, The Endless Frontier , a July 1945 report to the president, Bush maintained that basic research was "the pacemaker of technological progress". "New products and new processes do not appear full-grown," Bush wrote in

6844-602: The Summer of 1940 would have been the greatest calamity for America, the President is first, and Dr. Bush would be second or third." Bush was fond of saying that "if he made any important contribution to the war effort at all, it would be to get the Army and Navy to tell each other what they were doing." He established a cordial relationship with Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , and Stimson's assistant, Harvey H. Bundy , who found Bush "impatient" and "vain", but said he

6960-471: The U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), through which almost all wartime military R&D was carried out, including important developments in radar and the initiation and early administration of the Manhattan Project . He emphasized the importance of scientific research to national security and economic well-being, and was chiefly responsible for the movement that led to

7076-579: The V-1, the V-2 or the Henschel Hs 293 air-to-ship gliding guided bomb. Although the United States trailed the Germans and Japanese in several areas, this represented an entire field that had been left to the enemy. Bush did not seek the advice of Robert H. Goddard . Goddard would come to be regarded as America's pioneer of rocketry, but many contemporaries regarded him as a crank. Before the war, Bush had gone on

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7192-614: The World Wide Web series of conferences, organized by IW3C2 , also include many papers of interest. There is a list on the Web with links to all conferences in the series. Hypertext writing has developed its own style of fiction, coinciding with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks. Hypertext fiction is one of earliest genres of electronic literature , or literary works that are designed to be read in digital media. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, Storyspace and Intermedia , became available in

7308-487: The analytical engine, Shannon described the application of Boolean algebra to electronic circuits in his landmark master's thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits . In 1935, Bush was approached by OP-20-G , which was searching for an electronic device to aid in codebreaking . Bush was paid a $ 10,000 fee to design the Rapid Analytical Machine (RAM). The project went over budget and

7424-468: The army, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell representing the navy. At the meeting with Roosevelt on October 9, 1941, Bush advocated cooperating with the United Kingdom, and he began corresponding with his British counterpart, Sir  John Anderson . But by October 1942, Conant and Bush agreed that a joint project would pose security risks and be more complicated to manage. Roosevelt approved

7540-525: The atomic program. To control it, he created a Top Policy Group consisting of himself—although he never attended a meeting—Wallace, Bush, Conant, Stimson and the Chief of Staff of the Army , General George Marshall . On Bush's advice, Roosevelt chose the army to run the project rather than the navy, although the navy had shown far more interest in the field, and was already conducting research into atomic energy for powering ships. Bush's negative experiences with

7656-613: The board, and with his predecessor, John Merriam, who continued to offer unwanted advice. A major embarrassment to them all was Harry H. Laughlin , the head of the Eugenics Record Office , whose activities Merriam had attempted to curtail without success. Bush made it a priority to remove him, regarding him as a scientific fraud, and one of his first acts was to ask for a review of Laughlin's work. In June 1938, Bush asked Laughlin to retire, offering him an annuity, which Laughlin reluctantly accepted. The Eugenics Record Office

7772-405: The branched literature writing software Storyspace , were also demonstrated. Meanwhile, Nelson (who had been working on and advocating his Xanadu system for over two decades) convinced Autodesk to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was released. In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, then a scientist at CERN , proposed and later prototyped

7888-482: The company's fortunes by developing a thermostatic switch invented by Al Spencer, an AMRAD technician, on his own time. AMRAD's management was not interested in the device, but had no objection to its sale. Bush found backing from Laurence K. Marshall and Richard S. Aldrich to create the Spencer Thermostat Company, which hired Bush as a consultant. The new company soon had revenues in excess of

8004-632: The confidence of the military, which distrusted the ability of civilians to observe security regulations and devise practical solutions, and opposing conscription of young scientists into the armed forces. This became especially difficult as the army's manpower crisis really began to bite in 1944. In all, the OSRD requested deferments for some 9,725 employees of OSRD contractors, of which all but 63 were granted. In his obituary, The New York Times described Bush as "a master craftsman at steering around obstacles, whether they were technical or political or bull-headed generals and admirals." In August 1940,

8120-571: The creation of the National Science Foundation . Bush joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1919, and founded the company that became the Raytheon Company in 1922. Bush became vice president of MIT and dean of the MIT School of Engineering in 1932, and president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1938. During his career, Bush patented

8236-517: The daughter of a prominent Provincetown family. He had two older sisters, Edith and Reba. He was named after John Vannevar, an old friend of the family who had attended Tufts College with Perry. The family moved to Chelsea, Massachusetts , in 1892, and Bush graduated from Chelsea High School in 1909. He then attended Tufts College , like his father before him. A popular student, he was vice president of his sophomore class, and president of his junior class. During his senior year, he managed

8352-447: The demand of a common cause, have shared greatly and learned much. It has been exhilarating to work in effective partnership." Bush introduced the concept of the memex during the 1930s, which he imagined as a form of memory augmentation involving a microfilm -based "device in which an individual stores all his books, records, and communications, and which is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding speed and flexibility. It

8468-816: The differential analyzer, Bush was awarded the Franklin Institute 's Louis E. Levy Medal in 1928. Bush taught Boolean algebra , circuit theory , and operational calculus according to the methods of Oliver Heaviside while Samuel Wesley Stratton was President of MIT. When Harold Jeffreys in Cambridge, England, offered his mathematical treatment in Operational Methods in Mathematical Physics (1927), Bush responded with his seminal textbook Operational Circuit Analysis (1929) for instructing electrical engineering students. In

8584-480: The end of the Second World War, Bush and Conant had foreseen and sought to avoid a possible nuclear arms race . Bush proposed international scientific openness and information sharing as a method of self-regulation for the scientific community, to prevent any one political group gaining a scientific advantage. Before nuclear research became public knowledge, Bush used the development of biological weapons as

8700-517: The existing Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory . The California location was chosen for its proximity to some of the largest aviation corporations. This decision was supported by the chief of the United States Army Air Corps , Major General Henry H. Arnold , and by the head of the navy's Bureau of Aeronautics , Rear Admiral Arthur B. Cook , who between them were planning to spend $ 225 million on new aircraft in

8816-401: The field back many years in the United States. He saw little value in the humanities and social sciences , and slashed funding for Isis , a journal dedicated to the history of science and technology and its cultural influence. Bush later explained that "I have a great reservation about these studies where somebody goes out and interviews a bunch of people and reads a lot of stuff and writes

8932-872: The first commercial electronic book Hypertext Hands-On! . In August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention . Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's GUIDE (marketed by OWL and released earlier that year) and Brown University's Intermedia , led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext, hypermedia, databases, and new media in general. The first ACM Hypertext (hyperediting and databases) academic conference took place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC, where many other applications, including

9048-460: The first general-purpose electronic computer. Having delayed its funding, Bush's prediction proved correct as ENIAC was not completed until December 1945, after the war had ended. His critics saw his attitude as a failure of vision. On June 28, 1941, Roosevelt established the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) with the signing of Executive Order 8807. Bush became director of

9164-488: The football team. He became a member of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity, and dated Phoebe Clara Davis, who also came from Chelsea. Tufts allowed students to gain a master's degree in four years simultaneously with a bachelor's degree . For his master's thesis, Bush invented and patented a "profile tracer". This was a mapping device for assisting surveyors that looked like a lawn mower. It had two bicycle wheels, and

9280-517: The highest levels of government. In Science, The Endless Frontier , his 1945 report to the president of the United States, Bush called for an expansion of government support for science, and he pressed for the creation of the National Science Foundation . Vannevar Bush was born in Everett, Massachusetts , on March 11, 1890. He was the third child and only son of Richard Perry Bush, the local Universalist pastor, and his wife Emma Linwood (née Paine),

9396-516: The implementation of a simple scheme to incorporate several different servers of machine-stored information already available at CERN, including an analysis of the requirements for information access needs by experiments... A program which provides access to the hypertext world we call a browser. ― T. Berners-Lee, R. Cailliau, 12 November 1990, CERN In 1992, Lynx was born as an early Internet web browser. Its ability to provide hypertext links within documents that could reach into documents anywhere on

9512-416: The integraph, a device for solving first-order differential equations , in 1925. Another student, Harold Hazen , proposed extending the device to handle second-order differential equations . Bush immediately realized the potential of such an invention, for these were much more difficult to solve, but also quite common in physics. Under Bush's supervision, Hazen was able to construct the differential analyzer,

9628-404: The invention of the mouse . Ted Nelson , who coined the terms " hypertext " and " hypermedia ", was also greatly influenced by Bush's essay. "As We May Think" has turned out to be a visionary and influential essay. In their introduction to a paper discussing information literacy as a discipline, Bill Johnston and Sheila Webber wrote in 2005 that: Bush's paper might be regarded as describing

9744-452: The mandate of the OSRD as narrowly as possible to avoid overtaxing his office and to prevent duplicating the efforts of other agencies. Bush would often ask: "Will it help to win a war; this war?" Other challenges involved obtaining adequate funds from the president and Congress and determining apportionment of research among government, academic, and industrial facilities. His most difficult problems, and also greatest successes, were keeping

9860-458: The mass production of penicillin and sulfa drugs . The organization grew to 850 full-time employees, and produced between 30,000 and 35,000 reports. The OSRD was involved in some 2,500 contracts, worth in excess of $ 536 million. Bush's method of management at the OSRD was to direct overall policy, while delegating supervision of divisions to qualified colleagues and letting them do their jobs without interference. He attempted to interpret

9976-524: The meeting, Churchill forcefully pressed for a renewal of interchange, while Bush defended current policy. Only when he returned to Washington did he discover that Roosevelt had agreed with the British. The Quebec Agreement merged the two atomic bomb projects, creating the Combined Policy Committee with Stimson, Bush and Conant as United States representatives. Bush appeared on the cover of Time magazine on April 3, 1944. He toured

10092-525: The mind of a woman whose erotic encounters were charged with a post-feminist satirical edge that cuts deep into the American psyche. There are various forms of hypertext fiction, each of which is structured differently. Below are four: Vannevar Bush Vannevar Bush ( / v æ ˈ n iː v ɑːr / van- NEE -var ; March 11, 1890 – June 28, 1974) was an American engineer, inventor and science administrator, who during World War II headed

10208-582: The new president, Harry S. Truman , on nuclear weapons. It advised that the atomic bomb should be used against an industrial target in Japan as soon as possible and without warning. Bush was present at the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range on July 16, 1945, for the Trinity nuclear test , the first detonation of an atomic bomb. Afterwards, he took his hat off to Oppenheimer in tribute. Before

10324-470: The organization to begin functioning immediately. The NDRC established itself in the administration building at the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Each member of the committee was assigned an area of responsibility, while Bush handled coordination. A small number of projects reported to him directly, such as the S-1 Section . Compton's deputy, Alfred Loomis , said that "of the men whose death in

10440-636: The original WorldWideWeb browser, which was not carried over into most of the other early Web browsers). Besides the already mentioned Project Xanadu , Hypertext Editing System , NLS , HyperCard , and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy early implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets: Among the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annual ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media . The Electronic Literature Organization hosts annual conferences discussing hypertext fiction , poetry and other forms of electronic literature . Although not exclusively about hypertext,

10556-587: The pioneers in the usage of computers for linguistic and literary analysis, published the Index Thomisticus , as a tool for performing text searches within the massive corpus of Aquinas 's works. Sponsored by the founder of IBM, Thomas J. Watson , the project lasted about 30 years (1949–1980), and eventually produced the 56 printed volumes of the Index Thomisticus the first important hypertext work about Saint Thomas Aquinas books and of

10672-410: The preface he wrote: I write as an engineer and do not pretend to be a mathematician. I lean for support, and expect always to lean, upon the mathematician, just as I must lean upon the chemist, the physician, or the lawyer. Norbert Wiener has patiently guided me around many a mathematical pitfall ... he has written an appendix to this text on certain mathematical points. I did not know an engineer and

10788-599: The proposed site at Oak Ridge, Tennessee , and obtained a AAA priority. At a meeting in Stimson's office on September 23 attended by Bundy, Bush, Conant, Groves, Marshall Somervell and Stimson, Bush put forward his proposal for steering the project by a small committee answerable to the Top Policy Group. The meeting agreed with Bush, and created a Military Policy Committee chaired by him, with Somervell's chief of staff, Brigadier General Wilhelm D. Styer , representing

10904-407: The range of 2.5 to 5 kilograms, with a destructive power of around 2,000 tons of TNT. Moreover, it appeared that plutonium might be even more fissile . After conferring with Brigadier General Lucius D. Clay about the construction requirements, Bush drew up a submission for $ 85 million in fiscal year 1943 for four pilot plants, which he forwarded to Roosevelt on June 17, 1942. With

11020-456: The rate of 40,000 per day. "If one looks at the proximity fuze program as a whole," historian James Phinney Baxter III wrote, "the magnitude and complexity of the effort rank it among the three or four most extraordinary scientific achievements of the war." The German V-1 flying bomb demonstrated a serious omission in OSRD's portfolio: guided missiles. While the OSRD had some success developing unguided rockets, it had nothing comparable to

11136-448: The record as saying, "I don't understand how a serious scientist or engineer can play around with rockets", but in May 1944, he was forced to travel to London to warn General Dwight Eisenhower of the danger posed by the V-1 and V-2. Bush could only recommend that the launch sites be bombed, which was done. Bush played a critical role in persuading the United States government to undertake

11252-426: The report. "They are founded on new principles and new conceptions, which in turn are painstakingly developed by research in the purest realms of science!" In Bush's view, the "purest realms" were the physical and medical sciences; he did not propose funding the social sciences . In Science, The Endless Frontier , science historian Daniel Kevles later wrote, Bush "insisted upon the principle of Federal patronage for

11368-459: The same subject in a simple way. This echoes the arguments of 'medium theorists' like Marshall McLuhan who look at the social and psychological impacts of the media. New media can become so dominant in public culture that they effectively create a "paradigm shift" as people have shifted their perceptions, understanding of the world, and ways of interacting with the world and each other in relation to new technologies and media. So hypertext signifies

11484-405: The secretary of NACA prepare a draft of the proposed National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) to be presented to Congress, but after the Germans invaded France in May 1940, Bush decided speed was important and approached President Franklin D. Roosevelt directly. Through the President's uncle, Frederic Delano , Bush managed to set up a meeting with Roosevelt on June 12, 1940, to which he brought

11600-514: The self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text. One of the most successful computer games, Myst , was first written in HyperCard. The game was constructed as a series of Ages, each Age consisting of a separate HyperCard stack. The full stack of the game consists of over 2500 cards. In some ways, Myst redefined interactive fiction, using puzzles and exploration as

11716-551: The strange term "interactive multimedia": this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext. Hypertext documents can either be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamic (continually changing in response to user input, such as dynamic web pages ). Static hypertext can be used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications , or books on CDs . A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus and command lines. Links used in

11832-407: The term " hypermedia " might seem appropriate. In 1992, author Ted Nelson  – who coined both terms in 1963  – wrote: By now the word "hypertext" has become generally accepted for branching and responding text, but the corresponding word "hypermedia", meaning complexes of branching and responding graphics, movies and sound – as well as text – is much less used. Instead they use

11948-539: The time. Bush preferred to quit rather than study a subject that did not interest him. Bush subsequently enrolled in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) electrical engineering program. Spurred by the need for enough financial security to marry, he submitted his thesis, entitled Oscillating-Current Circuits: An Extension of the Theory of Generalized Angular Velocities, with Applications to

12064-740: The war period; Bush was calling for its closure even before the war had ended. During the war, the OSRD had issued contracts as it had seen fit, with just eight organizations accounting for half of its spending. MIT was the largest to receive funds, with its obvious ties to Bush and his close associates. Efforts to obtain legislation exempting the OSRD from the usual government conflict of interest regulations failed, leaving Bush and other OSRD principals open to prosecution. Bush therefore pressed for OSRD to be wound up as soon as possible. With its dissolution, Bush and others had hoped that an equivalent peacetime government research and development agency would replace

12180-540: The war, Bowen would again try to create a rival to the NDRC inside the navy. On August 31, 1940, Bush met with Henry Tizard , and arranged a series of meetings between the NDRC and the Tizard Mission , a British scientific delegation. At a meeting On September 19, 1940, the Americans described Loomis and Compton's microwave research. They had an experimental 10 cm wavelength short wave radar, but admitted that it did not have enough power and that they were at

12296-538: The world better in the years before and after World War II. In May 1938, Bush accepted a prestigious appointment as president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington (CIW), which had been founded in Washington, D.C. Also known as the Carnegie Institution for Science, it had an endowment of $ 33 million, and annually spent $ 1.5 million in research, most of which was carried out at its eight major laboratories. Bush became its president on January 1, 1939, with

12412-559: The year ahead. However, Congress was not convinced of its value, and Bush had to appear before the Senate Appropriations Committee on April 5, 1939. It was a frustrating experience for Bush, since he had never appeared before Congress before, and the senators were not swayed by his arguments. Further lobbying was required before funding for the new center, now known as the Ames Research Center ,

12528-739: Was "one of the most important, able men I ever knew". Bush's relationship with the navy was more turbulent. Bowen, the director of the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), saw the NDRC as a bureaucratic rival, and recommended abolishing it. A series of bureaucratic battles ended with the NRL placed under the Bureau of Ships , and Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox placing an unsatisfactory fitness report in Bowen's personnel file. After

12644-455: Was changed to the Section S-1. Bush met with Roosevelt and Vice President Henry A. Wallace on October 9, 1941, to discuss the project. He briefed Roosevelt on Tube Alloys , the British atomic bomb project and its Maud Committee , which had concluded that an atomic bomb was feasible, and on the German nuclear energy project , about which little was known. Roosevelt approved and expedited

12760-618: Was developed at Carnegie Mellon University during the 1970s, used for documents on Nimitz class aircraft carriers, and later evolving as KMS (Knowledge Management System). The first hypermedia application is generally considered to be the Aspen Movie Map , implemented in 1978. The Movie Map allowed users to arbitrarily choose which way they wished to drive in a virtual cityscape, in two seasons (from actual photographs) as well as 3-D polygons . In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE , an early hypertext database system somewhat like

12876-855: Was finally approved. By this time, war had broken out in Europe, and the inferiority of American aircraft engines was apparent, in particular the Allison V-1710 which performed poorly at high altitudes and had to be removed from the P-51 Mustang in favor of the British Rolls-Royce Merlin engine. The NACA asked for funding to build a third center in Ohio, which became the Glenn Research Center . Following Ames's retirement in October 1939, Bush became chairman of

12992-566: Was initially permitted only over water, where a dud round could not fall into enemy hands. In late 1943, the Army obtained permission to use the weapon over land. The proximity fuze proved particularly effective against the V-1 flying bomb over England, and later Antwerp , in 1944. A version was also developed for use with howitzers against ground targets. Bush met with the Joint Chiefs of Staff in October 1944 to press for its use, arguing that

13108-415: Was not delivered until 1938, when it was found to be unreliable in service. Nonetheless, it was an important step toward creating such a device. The reform of MIT's administration began in 1930, with the appointment of Karl T. Compton as president. Bush and Compton soon clashed over the issue of limiting the amount of outside consultancy by professors, a battle Bush quickly lost, but the two men soon built

13224-498: Was particularly disturbed at the allocation of an AA-3 priority, which would delay completion of the pilot plants by three months. Bush complained about these problems to Bundy and Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson . Major General Brehon B. Somervell , the commander of the army's Services of Supply , appointed Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves as project director in September. Within days of taking over, Groves approved

13340-568: Was renamed the Genetics Record Office, its funding was drastically cut, and it was closed completely in 1944. Senator Robert Reynolds attempted to get Laughlin reinstated, but Bush informed the trustees that an inquiry into Laughlin would "show him to be physically incapable of directing an office, and an investigation of his scientific standing would be equally conclusive." Bush wanted the institute to concentrate on hard science . He gutted Carnegie's archeology program, setting

13456-470: Was shared with others, it was a multi-million-dollar piece of technology housed in a large machine room that van Dam’s team was able to use as essentially a personal computer between midnight and 4 AM." The program was used by NASA 's Houston Manned Spacecraft Center for documentation on the Apollo space program. The project's research was funded by IBM but the program was stopped around 1969, and replaced by

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