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196-678: Twelvers believe that the Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political successors to the Islamic prophet Muhammad . According to the theology of Twelvers , the Twelve Imams are exemplary human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community ( Ummah ) with justice, but are also able to preserve and interpret the Islamic law ( sharīʿa ) and the esoteric meaning of the Qur'an . The words and deeds ( Arabic : سنة , sunnah ) of Muhammad and

392-499: A book on divination ( Ketb al-jafr ), numerous drafts of his will, and several collections of legal dicta are among the works attributed to al-Sadiq. Most of the extant writings attributed to al-Sadiq are commentaries ( tafsir ) on the Quran : In Sufi circles, a number of mystical Quranic exegeses are attributed to al-Sadiq, such as Tafsir al-Quran , Manafe' Sowar al-Quran , and Kawass al-Quran al-Azam . Another attributed work

588-618: A close confidant of Ja'far al-Sadiq led to a large number of writings being attributed to him by later authors, including major ghulāt works such as the Kitab al-Haft wa-l-azilla ('Book of the Seven and the Shadows') and the Kitab al-Sirat ('Book of the Path'). In Yarsanism is Ja'far al-Sadiq considered to be incarnation of an angel from the group "Haft-sardar" (The Seven Commanders). In

784-480: A dialogue between al-Mufaddal and Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is the main speaker. Like most other works attributed to al-Mufaddal, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal was in fact written by a later, anonymous author who took advantage of al-Mufaddal's status as one of the closest confidants of Ja'far al-Sadiq in order to ascribe their own ideas to the illustrious Imam . However, it differs from other treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal by

980-543: A doer of evil actions. Predestination is rejected in Shiism. However, some philosophers believe that all the existence is His creation including a human being and his actions. But actions have two dimensions. The first is committing the action by free will, the second is the creation of that action by God's will with which he gave the people the power to commit the action. Sadr al-Din Shirazi states that "God, may He be exalted,

1176-483: A famous traditionalist of his time. The Umayyad rule reached its peak in this period, and the childhood of al-Sadiq coincided with the growing interest of Medinans in religious sciences and the interpretations of the Quran . With the death of Zayn al-Abidin, Ja'far entered his early manhood and participated in his father's efforts as the representative of the Household of Muhammad ( Ahl al-Bayt ). Ja'far performed

1372-457: A great seminary ( Hawza ) in Qazvin and Isfahan , consequently, Iran once again became center of Imami jurisprudence. Suhrawardi tried to harmonize rational philosophy and intellectual intuition, but Mir Damad is the founder of it. Mir Damad combined the teachings of Ibn Arabi, Suhrawardi, Ibn Sina and Nair al-Din and founded a new intellectual dimension in the texture of Shi'ism. The scholars of

1568-526: A halt at the Ghadir Khumm before the pilgrims parted to go their separate ways. After the noon prayer, Muhammad delivered a sermon in which he famously said, "He whose mawla I am, Ali is his mawla ." Muhammad repeated this three or four more times, as reported in Musnad Ibn Hanbal , a canonical Sunni source. By some Shia and Sunni accounts, he then continued, "O God, befriend

1764-422: A manual of personal worship and has been the subject of a number of commentaries by prominent Shia and Sufi scholars. It has also been translated into different languages. Its manuscript is available in the library of Gotha . There is also a book on dream interpretation that is attributed to al-Sadiq and is known by the name Taqsim al-roʾyā . It is identical to the work Ketāb al-taqsim fi taʿbir al-ḥolm , which

1960-422: A means of not doing it, though they do not do it or not do it without God's permission." Al-Sadiq declared, "Whoever claims that God has ordered evil, has lied about God. Whoever claims that both good and evil are attributed to him, has lied about God." In his prayers, he often said, "There is no work of merit on my own behalf or on behalf of another, and in evil there is no excuse for me or for another." Al-Sadiq

2156-473: A messenger, an angel conveys the inspiration to the man. By the verses 72:26–28 two types of guardians protect the integrity of the revelation: an angel who protects the prophet against any kind of error, God who protects the angels and the prophets. Succession to Muhammad The issue of succession following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad is the central issue in the schisms that divided

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2352-467: A military campaign against the Byzantines under Usama ibn Zayd . Sunni authors often refer to this event as evidence of Abu Bakr's right to succeed Muhammad, though their accounts of the event might be colored by later Shia-Sunni polemics. Ayoub adds that the prayer argument was likely not a consideration in the early caliphal debate. Lecomte writes that Muhammad respected Abu Bakr but considers

2548-536: A powerful intellectual movement during the late Umayyad and early Abbasid eras. Al-Sadiq is presented by Ya'qubi as one of the most respected personalities of his epoch, adding that it was customary to refer to al-Sadiq as 'the learned one'. Al-Sadiq is respected in Sunni Islam as a jurist and a master teacher of hadith sciences, who is cited in several isnad s (chains of transmissions). Among his students were Abu Ḥanifa and Malik ibn Anas , founders of

2744-586: A proper legal system. Building on the work of his father, al-Sadiq is remembered as the eponymous founder of the Ja'fari school of law ( al-Madhab al-Ja'fari ), followed by the Twelver Shia. According to Lalani, the Isma'ili jurisprudence ( fiqh ), as codified by al-Qadi al-Numan , is also primarily based on the large corpus of statements left behind by al-Sadiq and his father, al-Baqir. Al-Sadiq denounced

2940-502: A prophetic messenger of God eventually led al-Sadiq to repudiate him in 748. His adherents were referred to as Khattabiyya . Later Twelver tradition disavows any connection between al-Sadiq and the views of Abu al-Khattab. The same Imami heresiographers also claim that al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi (died before 799) and his followers, the Mufaddaliya , likewise regarded al-Sadiq as a god and themselves as his prophets. However, it

3136-468: A reporter of hadith. He also introduced the principle of Taqiyya . Al-Baqir narrated many a hadith about Jurisprudence and other religious sciences which based the foundations for the Shia instructions. With change in political situations and a suitable conditions for the development of religious activities and the time of elaborating the religious sciences, Ja'far al-Sadiq had an important role in forming

3332-566: A special prominence among Sufi orders: a number of early Sufi figures are associated with al-Sadiq; he is praised in the Sufi literature for his knowledge of ṭariqat ( lit.   ' path ' ), and numerous sayings and writings about spiritual progress are ascribed to him in Sufi circles. He is also viewed at the head of the Sufi line of saints and mystics by the Sufi writers Abu Nu'aym and Farid al-Din Attar . Attar praises al-Sadiq as

3528-514: A teacher to the Sunni scholars Abu Hanifa and Malik ibn Anas , the namesakes of the Hanafi and Maliki schools of jurisprudence. Al-Sadiq also figures prominently in the initiatic chains of many Sufi orders . A wide range of religious and scientific works were attributed to him, though no works penned by al-Sadiq remain extant. Ja'far al-Sadiq was born around 700 CE, perhaps in 702. He

3724-421: Is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays ( Kitab al-Saqifah ) by Sulaym ibn Qays (died 75-95 AH or 694-714 CE). This collection of hadith and historical reports from the first century of the Islamic calendar narrates in detail events relating to the succession. However, there have been doubts regarding the reliability of the collection, with some believing that it was a later creation given that the earliest mention of

3920-536: Is He Who gave unto everything its nature, then guided it aright. God guides each human through sending messengers and He does not impose upon them obligations that are beyond their capacity. In the Message of The Quran by Mohammad Asad, the interpretation of v 20:50 is as follows; He(Moses) replied (to Pharaoh); Our Sustainer is He who gives unto every thing [ that exists ] its true nature and form, and thereupon guides it [towards its fulfillment]. Tabataba'i states that

4116-483: Is Tawhid. Ali insists that God is Just and he is the Justice Itself and the virtue of Justice flows from him to the souls of men. Since he is Justice, every thing he does is Just. Shiism considers Justice as innate to Divine nature, i.e. God can not act unjustly, because it is his nature to be just. Twelvers believe that God grants every existent what is appropriate for it as the verse 20:50 states: Our Lord

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4312-650: Is a biblical analogy in favor of Ali that appears in canonical Sunni and Shia sources, including Sahih al-Bukhari and Kitab al-kafi . Muhammad might have repeated this analogy on multiple occasions, though the Hadith of Position is most frequently linked to the Expedition of Tabuk in 9-10/630-631 against the Byzantine Empire . Muhammad is said to have left Ali in charge at Medina before leaving on his longest expedition. But when rumors spread that Ali

4508-507: Is a combination of created letters while attributes are what is implied by that name. It is stated in Al-Kafi that whoever worships God's names has committed disbelief in God, as they are not Him. Al-Hur Al-Amilly states that God created everything except humans' actions. According to some Twelvers, Tawhid of Creatorship means that there is no creator but God, that is the causes and effects of

4704-501: Is a matter that is settled by divine selection in the Quran. In particular, God selects their successors from their own families, whether or not those successors become prophets themselves. Jafri and Abbas develop similar arguments. Also known as the verse of wilaya , verse 5:55 of the Quran is translated by The Study Quran as, "Your protector [ wali ] is only [ innama ] God, and His Messenger, and those who believe, who perform

4900-606: Is a specific Shia chapter in "Knowledge of the Imams" in which the names of all the Imams (both before al-Sadiq and after him) are mentioned during the exchange of reports between Muhammad and Salman the Persian . Mohammad Baqer Majlesi considered this work to have been written by Shaqiq al-Balkhi , who supposedly quoted it from "one of the people of knowledge," and not explicitly from Ja'far al-Sadiq. Despite Majlesi's doubts about its authenticity, this work remains very popular as

5096-457: Is another commentary attributed to al-Sadiq, which Agha Bozorg Tehrani mentions it in his book al-Dharī'a under the title Tafsir al-Imam Ja'far bin Muhammad al-Sadiq and it is believed that one of Sadiq's students narrated it from him. Fuat Sezgin calls this work Tafsīr al-Qurʾān . A copy of it with the title Tafsīr al-Imām al-Ṣādiq , according to Bankipur Oriental Library 's catalogue,

5292-459: Is ascribed to al-Sadiq that, "It is for us [the Imams] to set out foundational rules and principles ( usul ), and it is for you [the learned] to derive the specific legal rulings for actual cases." Similarly, when asked how legal disputes within the community should be solved, al-Sadiq described the state apparatus as evil ( tagut ) and encouraged the Shia to refer to "those who relate our [i.e.,

5488-565: Is attributed to poisoning at the instigation of al-Mansur. According to Tabatabai , after being detained in Samarra, al-Sadiq was allowed to return to Medina, where he spent the rest of his life in hiding until he was poisoned by order of al-Mansur. He was buried in the al-Baqi Cemetery , being one of the 4 Imams to be buried in the cemetery (the other Imams being Hasan Ibn Ali , Ali Ibn Husayn and Muhammad Ibn Ali ), in Medina, and his tomb

5684-402: Is attributed with what is regarded as the most important principle for judging traditions, that a hadith should be rejected if it contradicts the Quran, whatever other evidence might support it. In his books Haqaeq al-Tafsir and Ziadat Ḥaqaeq al-Tafsir , the author Abd-al-Raḥman Solami cites al-Ṣadiq as one of his major (if not the major) sources. It is said that al-Sadiq merged the inner and

5880-404: Is based on verse 16:106 of the Quran, where the wrath of God is said to await the apostate "except those who are compelled while their hearts are firm in faith." According to Amir-Moezzi, in the early sources, taqiya means "the keeping or safeguarding of the secrets of the Imams' teaching," which may have resulted at times in contradictory traditions from the Imams. In such cases, if one of

6076-570: Is believed to be infallible thanks to this unique knowledge, which also establishes him as the sole authorized source for interpreting the revelation and guiding the Muslims along the right path. This line of Imams in Shia Islam is traced back to Ali, who succeeded Muhammad through a divine decree. Law in Islam is an all-embracing body of ordinances that govern worship and ritual in addition to

Twelver Shi'ism - Misplaced Pages Continue

6272-409: Is credited to Ja'far al-Sadiq. Eighty various types of dream sightings, ranging from the religious (dreams of God, angels, prophets, and imams) to the profane (dreams of meat, fat, and cheese), are interpreted by Ja'far al-Sadiq in this book. According to Robert Gleave, it is not always clear whether they can be regarded as works attributed to Jafar al-Sadiq or works attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib that

6468-416: Is deserved to be worshipped. According to Morteza Motahhari , oneness in worship means rejecting all kinds of counterfeit worship (such as worship of carnal desires, money or prestige), and as Quran says, every act of obedience to an order is worship. Contrary to Tawhid is Shirk . It is a belief that the world has more than one principle or pole. According to the mystic and philosopher Morteza Motahhari ,

6664-463: Is different from his creation and that both are separate entities. However, Sayyid Haydar Amuli , a prominent Shia mystic and philosopher, defines God as alone in being, name, attributes, actions, and theophanies. The totality of being, therefore, is God, through God, comes from God, and returns to God. God is not a being next to or above other beings; God is Being; the absolute act of Being ( wujud mutlaq ). The divine unitude does not have

6860-522: Is far removed from doing any evil deeds and goes about His Kingdom at will." The view that God creates humans' actions is rejected by traditional Twelvers. Ja'far al-Sadiq narrates from his fathers that Muhammad, in one of his sermons expressed that "[God] sent to people messengers so they might be His conclusive argument against His creatures and so His messengers to them might be witnesses against them. He sent among them prophets bearing good tidings and warning. " Tabataba'i states that God has perfected

7056-566: Is inspired by Syriac Christian literature (especially commentaries on the Hexameron ), and ultimately goes back on Hellenistic models such as the pseudo-Aristotelian De mundo (' On the Universe ', 3rd/2nd century BCE) and Stoic theology as recorded in Cicero 's (106–43 BCE) De natura deorum . Misbah al-Sharia and Miftah al-Haqiqah is another work attributed to al-Sadiq. It

7252-545: Is learned, pious, and revolts against the tyrants of his time. In contrast, similar to his father and his grandfather, al-Sadiq adopted a quiescent attitude and kept aloof from politics. He viewed the imamate and caliphate as separate institutions until such time that God would make the Imam victorious. This Imam, who must be a descendant of Muhammad through Ali and Fatima, derives his exclusive authority not from political claims but from nass (divinely inspired designation by

7448-502: Is not certain whether the Mufaddaliya ever existed, and in Twelver hadith al-Mufaddal consistently appears as the intimate companion of Ja'far al-Sadiq and his son Musa al-Kazim, with the exception of the brief period of disgrace with Jaʿfar al-Sadiq due to his Khattabiyya leanings. According to Twelver traditions, al-Mufaddal was even appointed by al-Sadiq to control the excesses of Khattabiyya . Nevertheless, al-Mufaddal's status as

7644-405: Is on personal conduct, with chapters on various topics such as legal interests interspersed with general moral issues, and advice on how to lead a spiritual life and thus purify the soul. As the first person who came across this book in the 7th century A.H., Sayyed Ibn Tawus described it as a collection of hadiths of Jafar al-Sadiq. It includes a prediction of future events and sufferings. There

7840-412: Is said that Muawiya appointed Hasan as his successor. However, Hasan died in 669 at the age of forty six, before Muawiya. It is believed that he was poisoned at the instigation of Muawiya. Before his death in 680, Muawiya arranged for the succession of his son, Yazid , who is often remembered as a debaucher who openly violated the Islamic norms. In particular, Muawiya summoned a council ( shura ) of

8036-412: Is said to have strictly imposed the Islamic guidelines for a fair distribution of booty. The Sunni Ibn Kathir ( d.  774/1373 ) suggests that the Ghadir Khumm sermon was simply intended as a public declaration of Muhammad's love and esteem for Ali in response to criticism of some soldiers. Accepting this explanation as such, that Muhammad equated Ali with himself in an extraordinary announcement at

Twelver Shi'ism - Misplaced Pages Continue

8232-443: Is the book of Jafr , a mystical commentary which according to Ibn Khaldun was written by al-Sadiq about the hidden ( batin ) meanings of the Quran. According to Ibn Khaldun this book was transmitted from al-Sadiq and written down by Hārūn ibn Saʿīd al-ʿIjlī. Perhaps the most influential mystical exegesis attributed to al-Sadiq is the Ḥaqāʾiq al-tafsīr , composed by Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī (d.330/942). This text

8428-651: Is the concern of the elite ( khawass ). The hidden meanings pertain to the Friends of God ( awliya' ). The exalted spiritual doctrines are the province of the prophets ( anbiya' )." These remarks echo the statement of Ali, the first Shia Imam. Ja'far al-Sadiq's significance in the formation of early Muslim thought is demonstrated by the fact that his name is used as a reference in Sufi , scientific, Sunni legal, Ismaili , and ghulāt circles. Most of these groups desired to use his legacy for their own agendas. However,

8624-513: Is their ascription to Ja'far al-Sadiq and al-Mufaddal. Rather than by Shi'i doctrine, their content appears to be influenced by Mu'tazilism , a rationalistic school of Islamic speculative theology ( kalām ). The Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal is in fact a revised version of a work falsely attributed to the famous Mu'tazili litterateur al-Jahiz (died 868) under the title Kitāb al-Dalāʾil wa-l-iʿtibār ʿalā al-khalq wa-l-tadbīr ('Book of Proofs and Contemplation on Creation and Administration'). Both

8820-507: Is transmitted through Ja'far al-Sadiq. From a Shia perspective, this is not problematic because there is no discernible difference between the knowledge of one imam and that of another from a religious perspective. The Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja is presented as al-Sadiq's opinions transmitted through al-Mufaddal. The work is allegedly a response to al-Mufaddal's request for a refutation of atheists. Jafar al-Sadiq describes his own argument with an atheist Indian doctor in it. The discussion took place as

9016-473: Is written by al-Nuʿmānī based on the sayings of al-Sadiq. This commentary is arranged according to the Surahs of the Quran and covers only the words of the Quran that require explanation. This commentary, which is a type of mystical commentary, deals with both the exoteric (ẓāhir) and the esoteric (bāṭin) aspects of the Quran. It is mostly about God and his relationship with mankind, also man's knowledge of God and

9212-556: The falta which, Umar thought, had been averted by God would erupt later in the form of the First Fitna , suggests Madelung. Abu Bakr adopted the title of khalifat rasul Allah , commonly translated as the successor to the messenger of God. This was shortened to khalifa , from which the word caliph arose. Abu Bakr's tenure as the caliph lasted just over two years. Though he was appointed caliph by those at Saqifah, Abu Bakr designated Umar as his successor, reportedly against

9408-666: The hajj ritual with his father, al-Bāqir, and accompanied him when the latter was summoned to Damascus by the Umayyad caliph Hisham for questioning. Most Umayyad rulers are often described by Muslim historians as corrupt, irreligious, and treacherous. The widespread political and social dissatisfaction with the Umayyad Caliphate was spearheaded by Muhammad's extended family, who were seen by Muslims as God-inspired leaders in their religious struggle to establish justice over impiety. Al-Sadiq's imamate extended over

9604-464: The Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal and pseudo -Jahiz's Kitāb al-Dalāʾil likely go back on an earlier 9th-century text, which has sometimes been identified as the Kitāb al-Fikr wa-l-iʿtibār ('Book of Thought and Contemplation') written by the 9th-century Nestorian Christian Jibril ibn Nuh ibn Abi Nuh al-Nasrani al-Anbari. The teleological argument for the existence of God used in the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal

9800-748: The Mufawidda , preached that God gave Muhammad and the imams the authority to create and take care of all living things. Many Twelver Shi'i traditions state that al-Baqir and al-Sadiq did not have supernatural abilities and did not perform the miracles attributed to them. Despite these denials, a number of hadiths that contained ghulāt concepts found their way into Twelver Shiite hadith collections. According to some early Imami heresiographers , Abu al-Khattab (died 755) asserted that he had been chosen to serve as al-Sadiq's envoy and had been given access to his hidden doctrines. It seems that Abu al-Khattab's views on al-Sadiq's divinity and his own status as

9996-474: The Banu Umayya , is said to have regained its pre-Islamic influence and power. Uthman installed his relatives, including his cousin, Muawiya , to rule the Islamic territories. According to Glassé, Uthman was assassinated by rebels in 656, in a climate of growing dissension against the despotism of the Banu Umayya . Shortly after the assassination of Uthman, the caliphate was offered to Ali, who declined

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10192-613: The Event of Ghadir Khumm , following the revelation of verse 5:67 in the Quran . According to Twelver Shia doctrine, the subsequent rulers after Muhammad are considered illegitimate, with Ali and his lineage of eleven divinely-appointed Twelve Imams being the rightful successors. The last of these Imams, Mahdi , entered occultation in 260 AH (874 CE) due to threats from his enemies. The anticipated return of Mahdi holds significance for most Muslims, although different sects maintain varying perspectives on this matter. Most Islamic history

10388-514: The Hanafi and Maliki schools of law in Sunni Islam. According to Jafri, the famous Sunni jurist Malik ibn Anas would quote al-Sadiq as, "The truthful ( thiqa ) Ja'far ibn Muhammad himself told me that…" (A similar attitude is reported from Abu Hanifa . ) Malik was a teacher of al-Shafi'i , who was, in turn, a teacher of Ahmad ibn Hanbal . It has thus been noted that all of the four Imams of Sunni fiqh are connected to Ja'far, whether directly or indirectly. Wasil ibn Ata , founder of

10584-603: The Imami Shia tradition is the most comprehensive source for his teachings. While the Sunnis respect al-Sadiq as a transmitter of hadith and a jurist ( Faqīh ), Shiites view him as an imam and therefore infallible, and record his sayings and actions in the works of hadith and jurisprudence ( Fiqh ). In the Shia writings of the Imamiyya , his legal rulings constitute the most important source of Imamiyya law. In fact,

10780-491: The Islamic prophet Muhammad and the other Shia imams combined. Among other theological contributions, he elaborated the doctrine of nass (divinely inspired designation of each Imam by the previous Imam) and isma (the infallibility of the Imams), as well as that of taqiya (religious dissimulation under persecution). Al-Sadiq is also revered by Sunni Muslims as a reliable transmitter of hadith , and

10976-555: The Kharijites ) wished to incorporate al-Sadiq into their history in order to bolster their schools' positions. He is cited in a wide range of historical sources, including the works of al-Tabari , Ya'qubi , al-Masudi , and Ibn Khallikan . This popularity, however, has hampered the scholarly attempts to ascertain al-Sadiq's actual views. A number of religious and scientific works also bear al-Sadiq's name, though scholars generally regard them as inauthentic. It seems likely that he

11172-514: The Mu'tazila school of thought, was also among al-Sadiq's pupils. The Sunni scholar al-Dhahabi recognizes al-Sadiq's contribution to Sunni tradition, and al-Shahrastani , the influential Sunni historian, pays al-Sadiq a high tribute in his work. There are also many Sunni traditions in which al-Sadiq and other descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib deny any Shia affiliation, though these traditions are likely due to later Sunni propaganda. Al-Sadiq holds

11368-657: The Muhajirun and the Ansar , and reduced the caliphate, as an institution, to no more than a worldly kingship. Second, according to Cooperson, was the exclusion of Ali, who, insofar as the kinship of the Quraysh with Muhammad was concerned, had an arguably better claim to the caliphate. Ali eventually became caliph, but not in time to stop the rise of the Umayyads. After the assassination of Ali in 661, his eldest son, Hasan ,

11564-784: The Prophet's Mosque in Medina. It appears that Ali personally did not force anyone for a pledge though the strong pro-Ali atmosphere of Medina might have exerted some pressure on his opponents. In particular, Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas , Abdullah ibn Umar and Usama ibn Zayd refused to acknowledge the authority of Ali. Talha and Zubayr , both companions of Muhammad with ambitions for the high office, likely gave their pledges though they later broke their oaths, claiming that they had pledged their allegiance to Ali under public pressure. There is, however, less evidence for violence here than in Abu Bakr 's election, according to Madelung . Ali inherited

11760-485: The Second Fitna , which finalized the schism between the Sunni and the Shia. The latter consider Husayn as their third Imam. The succession subsequently transformed under the Umayyads from an elective/appointed position to being effectively hereditary within the family. The Quran , as the central religious text of Islam , does not explicitly identify a successor to Muhammad, though it grants key privileges to

11956-536: The Shia Jurisprudence . Ja'far al-Sadiq and al-Baqir are the founders of the Imami Shiite school of religious law. Al-Sadiq acquired a noteworthy group of scholars around himself, comprising some of the most eminent jurists, traditionists, and theologians of the time. During his time, Shia developed in the theological and legal issues. Both Muhammad al-Baqir and Ja'far al-Sadiq improved the position of

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12152-514: The Twelvers . Ja'far ibn Muḥammad ibn Ali al-Sadiq was born in Medina around 700 CE, and 702 is given in most sources, according to Gleave. Ja'far was the eldest son of Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Bāqir , the fifth Shīʿīte Imam , who was a descendant of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib , Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and Fāṭima , Muhammad's daughter. Ja'far's mother, Umm Farwa , was a great-granddaughter of

12348-734: The Usul of the Jurisprudence under the influence of the Shafe'i and Mu'tazili doctrines. Al- Kulayni and al-Sadduq, in Qom and Ray, were concerned with traditionalist approach. Twelver Imams amongst other Shia imam with their early Imams are shown in the chart below. This also indicate twelvers amongst various other sects in the present world. The beginner of this school, Ibn Idris al-Hilli (d. 1202), with his rationalistic tendency, detailed Shi'ite jurisprudence in his al-Sara'ir. Ibn Idris, with rejecting

12544-578: The hadiths , which are the recorded sayings of Muhammad. Sunni Muslims contend that Muhammad did not explicitly appoint a successor, leaving the choice of leadership to the Muslim community. They recognize the legitimacy of Abu Bakr's rule, who was elected at Saqifah , as well as that of his successors, collectively known as the Rashidun caliphs . Conversely, Twelver Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad had explicitly designated Ali as his heir, notably during

12740-536: The overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate by the Abbasids in the mid-8th century (661–750 CE) and later the Abbasids' prosecution of their former Shīʿīte allies against the Umayyads. The leadership of the early Shīʿa community was also disputed among its different factions. In this period, the various Alid uprisings against the Umayyads and later the Abbasids gained considerable support among the Shia. Among

12936-652: The 18th century when Behbahani led Usulis to dominance and "completely routed the Akhbaris at Karbala and Najaf," so that "only a handful of Shi'i ulama have remained Akhbari to the present day." The reestablishment of the Usuli School led to the enhancement of the authority of the legal scholars in the Qajar dynasty. During the 1960s, Ruhollah Khomeini called for the abolition of the western-backed monarchy in Iran . He

13132-457: The Ahl al-Bayt (lit. 'people of the household') in Shia, though various Sunni interpretations are broader and often include Muhammad's wives as well. Insofar as the Quran reflects the views of Muhammad, Madelung concludes, he could have not seen his succession differently from the earlier prophets or considered Abu Bakr as his natural successor. This is because, he argues, the succession of prophets

13328-517: The Ansar to choose Umar or Abu Ubaida as Muhammad's successor. Since his two candidates lacked any realistic chance of success, this manoeuvre presented Abu Bakr as an acceptable alternative to Umar and Abu Ubaida for the Ansar. Someone countered Abu Bakr with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar should choose their separate rulers among themselves. A heated argument ensued until Umar asked Abu Bakr to stretch his hand and pledged allegiance to

13524-579: The Baghdad School, defining reason as an important principle of Jurisprudence, al-Hillah school laid the theoretical foundation upon which the authority of Jurisprudents is based today. The second wave of the Usulies was shaped in the Mongol period when al-Hilli used the term Mujtahid, the one who deduces the ordinance on the basis of the authentic arguments of the religion. By Ijtihad, al-Hilli meant

13720-523: The Baptist inherited from Zechariah in verses 19:5-6. Verse 2:124 includes the exchange, "[God] said [to Abraham ], 'I shall make you an imam for the people.' He said: 'And also of my off-spring?' [God] said: 'My compact will not comprise the evil-doers.'" God's pledge in this verse thus extends to just descendants of Abraham. Elsewhere in verse 29:27, God praises Abraham, "And We gave him Isaac and Jacob and placed among his progeny prophethood and

13916-458: The Book." In verses 20:29-32, Moses asks God to include his brother Aaron in his prophetic mission. His prayer is answered by God, as evidenced by verses 20:36-42, 25:35, and 28:35. Aaron thus becomes the chosen associate of Moses in his prophetic mission and in revelation, as described in verses 21:48-9 and 2:248. Similar to the past prophets, Muhammad's family has an eminent position in

14112-593: The Essence, the attributes, the creatorship, the lordship and oneness in worship. Tawhid of the essence of God means his essence is one and peerless. Regarding this, Quran 112 states: Say, "He is Allah, [who is] One, Allah, the Eternal Refuge. He neither begets nor is born, Nor is there to Him any equivalent. " Tawhid of the attributes means God's attributes have no other reality than His essence. Ali argues that "Every attribute testifies to its being other than

14308-515: The Ghadir Khumm as Muhammad's most public announcement of Ali's succession. Supporting the Shia interpretation, the Shia Amini has compiled multiple volumes of Sunni and Shia historical documents about the Ghadir Khumm. Among Sunni Muslims, the Ghadir Khumm is not associated with the succession to Muhammad. Instead, the event is often connected with Ali's earlier campaign in Yemen , where he

14504-514: The Ghadir Khumm is rarely disputed within the Muslim community, as its recorded tradition is "among the most extensively acknowledged and substantiated" in classical Islamic sources, even as the statements made at the event remain open to interpretation. In Shia and some Sunni sources, two verses of the Quran are also associated with the Ghadir Khumm: the Verse of Ikmal (5:3), which announces

14700-474: The Ghadir Khumm still provides a strong basis for the Shia claims, suggests Jafri. For the Sunni, it is also unimaginable that most companions would act wrongly and ignore a clear appointment of Ali at the Ghadir Khumm. The Shia response is that numerical strength cannot be a factor in a tribal community, adding that majority does not imply legitimacy in the Qur'an. The most notable event that supports Abu Bakr's right to succession reportedly occurred towards

14896-456: The Hadith of Position is irrelevant to Muhammad's succession because Aaron died before Moses. The Shia Sharif al-Murtaza ( d.  436/1044 ) counters that had Aaron survived Moses, the former would have surely succeeded the latter. The Shia al-Kulayni ( d.  329/941 ) adds that Moses' successor Joshua later designated the progeny of Aaron to succeed him instead of his own or Moses'. Al-Kulayni suggests that Joshua did so because it

15092-483: The House of Muhammad, widely recognized as an authority in Islamic law, theology, hadith, and esoteric and occult sciences. Amir-Moezzi considers him possibly the most brilliant scholar of his time, and the variety of (at times contradictory) views ascribed to al-Sadiq suggest that he was an influential figure in the history of early Islamic thought, as nearly all the early intellectual factions of Islam (except perhaps

15288-511: The Imam's legal doctrine is called Ja'fari jurisprudence ( Madhhab Ja'fari ) by both the Imamis and the Sunnis in order to refer to his legal authority. The Shias considered al-Sadiq the only legitimate person who could represent the Sharia in his time and have the authority to rule. According to Imami Shi'as, Ja'far al-Sadiq, is the sixth imam who was responsible for turning the imamiya into

15484-439: The Imams are a guide and model for the Muslim community to follow; as a result, Muhammad and the Imams must be free from error and sin, a doctrine known as Ismah ( Arabic : عِصْمَة , lit.   'protection') or infallibility, and must be chosen by divine decree, or nass ( Arabic : نَصّ ), through Muhammad. Globally, there are about 160 million Twelvers: most of Iran , Iraq , Bahrain and Azerbaijan ; half

15680-410: The Imams'] hadiths" because the Imams have "made such a one a judge ( hakam ) over you." The Sunni jurisprudence is based on the three pillars of the Quran, the practices of Muhammad ( sunna ), and consensus ( ijma' ), whereas the Twelver Shia jurisprudence adds to these pillars a fourth pillar of reasoning ( aql ) during the occultation of Mahdi . In Shia Islam, sunna also includes

15876-406: The Islamic community ( umma ). This spiritual, rather than political, imamate of al-Sadiq was accompanied by his teaching of the taqiya doctrine (religious dissimulation) to protect the Shia against prosecution by Sunni rulers. In this period, al-Sadiq taught quietly in Medina and developed his considerable reputation as a scholar, according to Momen . The years of transition from

16072-879: The Islamic world who propagated the Shi'ism. During the tenth century and the Buyid era, Baghdad was the center of Mu'tazila theologians. Their ideas about attribute and justice of God and human free will affected Shia theologians. Bani Nawbakht , particularly Abu Sahl Al-Nawbakhti (d. 923–924), fuzed Mu'tazili theology with Imami system of thought. On the other hand, Imami traditionists of Qom, particularly Ibn Babawayh (d. 991), react to their theological ideas based on Twelve Imams' Hadiths. He tried to defend Imami ideas against Mu'tazili criticism regarding Anthropomorphism ( Tashbih ). The three prominent figures of Baghdad school were Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid (d. 1022 CE), Sharif al-Murtaza (d. 1044) and Shaykh al-Tusi (d. 1067). Al-Mufid

16268-541: The Justice of God necessitates that the virtuous and evil people become separated; the virtuous have a good life and the evil have a wretched life. He will judge the beliefs and the deeds of all the people according to the truth and he will give every one his right due. Then the reality of every thing as it is will be revealed for the man. Through his faith and good deeds, he can get to friendship with God. The form of man's deeds are joined to his soul and accompany him which are

16464-459: The Lord ;... The correct form of belief in his unity is to realize that he is so absolutely pure and above nature that nothing can be added to or subtracted from his being. That is, one should realize that there is no difference between his person and his attributes, and his attributes should not be differentiated or distinguished from his person. Traditional Twelvers strictly believe that God

16660-551: The Most High decreed some things for us and He has likewise decreed some things through our agency: what He has decreed for us or on our behalf He has concealed from us, but what He has decreed through our agency He has revealed to us. We are not concerned, therefore, so much with what He has decreed for us as we are with what He has decreed through our agency." Al-Sadiq is also credited with the statement that God does not "order created beings to do something without providing for them

16856-706: The Muslim elite in 676 and won their support through flattery, bribes, and threats. Notably, Muawiya was unsuccessful in securing the oath of allegiance from Hasan's younger brother, Husayn , who, after Muawiya's death, publicly denounced Yazid's legitimacy. In 680, after surrounding them in Karbala and cutting off their access to water for multiple days, Yazid's forces slaughtered Husayn, alongside his family and his small group of supporters. The women and children were taken prisoner and marched to Kufa and then Damascus , some of whom are said to have perished from mistreatment. The tragic death of Husayn and his supporters marked

17052-583: The Muslim world and major events of the Twelver history, such as the Battle of Karbala and the occultation of the twelfth Imam , Muhammad al-Mahdi . Mystics, philosophers, and traditional scholars all have diverse opinions about the unity of God, free will, and Judgement Day, as stated by Jafaar Seedaan. Care has been taken to mention the traditional view first and then mention other views as objectively as possible. According to Hossein Nasr , Ali ibn Abi Talib ,

17248-610: The Muslims in Lebanon ; a sizeable minority in India , Pakistan , Afghanistan , Saudi Arabia , Bangladesh , Kuwait , Oman , UAE , Qatar . Iran is the only country where Twelver Shi'ism is the state religion . Twelvers share many tenets with other Shīʿīte sects, such as the belief in the Imamate , but the Ismāʿīlī and Nizārī branches believe in a different number of Imams and, for

17444-602: The Qur'an. Alevis in Turkey and Albania , and Alawites in Syria and Lebanon , share belief in the Twelve Imams with Twelvers, but their theological doctrines are markedly different. The term Twelver is based on the belief that twelve male descendants from the family of Muhammad, starting with ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib and ending with Muhammad al-Mahdi , are Imams who have religious and political authority. The Twelvers are also known by other names: In 610, when Muhammad received

17640-511: The Quran tasked Muhammad with presenting Islam to his relatives, some three years after his first divine revelation ( c. 617 CE). One of the two versions of how Muhammad attempted to do this is that he invited his relatives to a meal. After the meal, Muhammad introduced his relatives to Islam and asked for their support, "And which of you will assist me in this cause and become my brother, my trustee and my successor among you." Muhammad's cousin Ali,

17836-468: The Quran. Elevating them above common Muslims, a state of purity is bestowed upon Muhammad's kin in verses 8:41, 59:7, the verse of purification 33:33, and the verse of mawadda 42:23 by some accounts. The praise in the verse of purification and the privileges in the verse of mubahala are specific to Muhammad's daughter Fatima , her husband Ali, and their two sons Hasan and Husayn , by Shia and some Sunni accounts. These five are known as

18032-661: The Saqifa, accompanied by Abu Ubaida . These three companions were the only members of the Muhajirun in the Saqifa meeting, possibly accompanied by some relatives and servants. Once there, Abu Bakr warned the Ansar that Arabs will not recognize the rule of anyone outside of Muhammad's tribe, the Quraysh . The Muhajirun, Abu Bakr argued, were the best of Arabs in lineage and location, had accepted Islam earlier, and were closer to Muhammad in kinship. Abu Bakr then reportedly invited

18228-477: The School of Isfahan integrated the philosophical, theological, and mystical traditions of Shi'ism into a metaphysical synthesis known as Divine Wisdom or theosophy(Persian:hikmat-i ilahi). The most important representative of the School of Isfahan was Mulla Sadra. Mulla Sadra produced his own synthesis of Muslim thought, including theology, peripatetic philosophy, philosophical mysticism, and Sufi studies, particularly

18424-400: The Shia and elaborated the intellectual basis of the interpretation and practice of Shiite Islam. Their teachings were the basis for the development of Shiite spirituality and religious rituals. At the beginning of the third/ninth century once again Shia flourished and it was due to the translation of scientific and philosophical books from other languages to Arabic, Al-Ma'mun giving freedom to

18620-428: The Shia exegete Tabatabai ( d.  1981 ), Muhammad made it clear that the first relative to accept his invitation would become his successor and inheritor. Lastly, Rubin notes that the association of this account with verse 26:214 implies divine authorization. Burton comments that this banquet "won for [Muhammad] a proselyte worth a thousand sabers in the person of Ali, son of Abu Talib ." Hadith of position

18816-423: The Shia, wilaya in this verse is interpreted as spiritual authority. The verse of wilaya thus describes Ali as the rightful authority over the believers, after God and Muhammad, and underlines his right to succeed Muhammad as the spiritual and political leader of the Muslim community. Alternatively, those Sunni authors who acknowledge a link between this verse and Ali reject any Shia implications. For instance,

19012-693: The Sufism of Ibn al-'Arabi. Mulla Sadra trained eminent students, such as Mulla Muhsin Kashani and 'Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji who passed down the traditions of the School of Isfahan in later centuries in both Iran and India. By the end of the Safavid era (1736), the Usuli School of thought was attacked by the Akhbari (traditionalist) trend whose founder was Mulla Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi. Astarabadi attacked

19208-468: The Sunni al-Razi ( d.  606/1210 ) holds that wilaya in this verse is nothing more than friendship or mutual support. In response, Shia authors note that the particle innama ( lit.   ' only ' ) confines the wilaya in this verse to God, Muhammad, and those believers who gave alms while praying. As such, wilaya in this verse has a different significance than mere friendship, similar to that in verse 33:6. Verse 26:214 of

19404-541: The Twelver Shia . Abu Bakr's view that the caliphate should remain within the Quraysh tribe persisted in later generations. According to Cooperson , however, this definition of the caliphate had its costs. First, it facilitated the rise of the Umayyads who, despite being of the Quraysh, were among the most powerful enemies of Muhammad before their late conversion to Islam. Their rise to power marginalized both

19600-400: The Umayyad Caliphate, the Abbasids violently prosecuted their former Shia allies against the Umayyads. Because they had relied on the public sympathy for the Ahl al-Bayt to attain power, the Abbasids considered al-Sadiq a potential threat to their rule. As the leader of the politically quiet branch of the Shia, he was summoned by al-Mansur to Baghdad but was reportedly able to convince

19796-426: The Umayyads to the Abbasids was a period of weak central authority, allowing al-Sadiq to teach freely. Some four thousand scholars are thus reported to have studied under al-Sadiq. Among these were Abu Ḥanifa and Malik ibn Anas , founders of the Hanafi and Maliki schools of law in Sunni Islam. Wasil ibn Ata , founder of the Mu'tazila school of thought, was also among his pupils. After their overthrow of

19992-687: The Yaresan book "Doureh-ye Bahlul" is written that Yaresan saint Bahlul Mahi visited Ja'far al-Sadiq in Baghdad and studied there. A large number of religious books bear al-Sadiq's name as their author, but none of them can be attributed to al-Sadiq with certainty. It has been suggested that al-Sadiq was a writer who left the work of writing to his students. In this regard, some of the works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan ( c.  850  – c.  950 ) also claim to be mere expositions al-Sadiq's teachings. A Quran commentary ( tafsir ),

20188-513: The absence of any content that is specifically Shi'i in nature, a trait it shares with only one other Mufaddal work—also dealing with a rational proof for the existence of God—the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja ('Book of the Myrobalan Fruit'). Though both preserved by the 17th-century Shi'i scholar Muhammad Baqir al-Majlisi (died 1699), the only thing that connects the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal and the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja to Shi'ism more generally

20384-500: The absence of any precedent from the Quran or the Sunnah. Abd al-Rahman then presented the same conditions to Uthman who readily accepted them. It has been suggested that Abd al-Rahman was well aware of Ali's disagreements with the past two caliphs and that Ali, known for his sincerity, would have inevitably rejected the second condition. Uthman's reign was marked with widespread accusations of nepotism. Under Uthman's rule, his tribe,

20580-414: The advice of the Quraysh elders. Umar was instrumental in the ascension of Abu Bakr to the caliphate. In 644, on his deathbed, Umar tasked a committee of six with choosing the next caliph among themselves. The committee included Ali, Uthman ibn Affan , and his brother-in-law, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf . The tie breaker vote belonged to Abd al-Rahman , Othman's brother-in-law, and it has been suggested that

20776-503: The appointment of Abu Bakr. Among them were Muhammad's uncle Abbas and Zubayr . These held Ali to be the rightful successor to Muhammad, possibly referring to the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm . Ordered by Abu Bakr, Umar then led an armed mob to Ali's residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters would not pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakr. The scene soon grew violent, but

20972-410: The attribution of historical reports to Ibn Abbas and Aisha as mostly fictitious, preferring accounts reported without isnad by early historians such as Ibn Ishaq. Madelung has rejected the indiscriminate dismissal of everything not included in "early sources", instead judging later narratives in the context of history and compatibility with events and figures. The only contemporaneous source

21168-409: The authority of Ali from Muhammad . This treatise was compiled by Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Nu'mani - known as Ibn Abi Zainab. The 17th-century scholar Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi recorded it in his Bihar al-Anwar . A summary of it has also been attributed to the Twelver theologian Sharif al-Murtaza and was published under the title Risālat al-muḥkam wa-l-mutashābih . Tafsīr al-Imām al-Ṣādiq

21364-478: The authority of al-Sadiq for Sufi teachings. Gleave and Bowering suggest that Tafsir al-Quran , Manafe' Sowar al-Quran, and Kawass al-Qoran al-Azam, three mystical commentaries of the Quran attributed to al-Sadiq, were composed after his death because these works demonstrate a mastery of the recent lexicon of Muslim mysticism. Alternatively, Taylor is certain that the traditions in the Quranic exegesis edited by

21560-522: The bases of reasoning in Shia Jurisprudence. His book al-Mabsut is the first book of Ijtihad which derives the subordinates from the principles. Tusi bought the Shia religious law to a new period. The main point is that he recognized the needs of the community and preserved the principles. By his debates and books, Al-Mufid, Sayyid-al Murtada and Shaykh al-Tusi in Iraq were the first to introduce

21756-459: The caliph al-Mansur . The question of succession after al-Sadiq's death divided the early Shīʿa community. Some considered the next Imam to be his eldest son, Isma'il al-Mubarak , who had predeceased his father. Others accepted the Imamate of his younger son and brother of Isma'il, Musa al-Kazim . The first group became known as the Isma'ili , whereas the second and larger group was named Jaʽfari or

21952-496: The caliph to let him stay in Medina by quoting the hadith, "The man who goes away to make a living will achieve his purpose, but he who sticks to his family will prolong his life." Al-Sadiq remained passive in 762 CE to the failed uprising of his nephew, Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya. Nevertheless, he was arrested and interrogated by al-Mansur and held in Samarra , near Baghdad, before being allowed to return to Medina. His house

22148-426: The caliphates of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, which has been interpreted as a silent censure of the first three caliphs. Umar later criticized the Saqifa affair, "The oath of allegiance for Abu Bakr was a falta [i.e., a precipitate and ill-considered deal], but God averted the evil of it." This was a reference to the exclusion of the majority of the Muhajirun and particularly Muhammad's kin, whose participation

22344-574: The canonical Sunni collection Sahih al-Bukhari . Of those present at Muhammad's bedside, this report continues that his companion Umar protested, "The illness has overwhelmed the prophet. We have the book of God [ Quran ] and that is enough for us." In some reports by the Sunni Ibn Sa'd ( d.  230/845 ), Umar instead says that Muhammad is raving. A quarrel then broke out at Muhammad's bedside, with some suggesting that his orders should be followed and some siding with Umar to disregard

22540-418: The capital of Islam to Kufa and there began to fight against Mu'awiyah, who rejected giving allegiance to Ali. The death of Husayn played an important role in the spread of Shi'ism in the regions of Iraq, Yemen and Persia. At the end of the first century, the influential leaders in the government established the city of Qom for the settlement of the Shia. Muhammad Al-Baqir was teacher of law for 20 years and

22736-444: The capital of his future life. The verse 96: 8 refers to getting back to God. According to Twelvers' narrations, God does not create Humans' actions and instead they are fully created by humans. According to a narration by Musa Al-Khadhim, if God created humans' actions then He should not punish humans for it. Jaafar Al-Subhani argues that the justice of God requires that humans' actions cannot be created by God, otherwise God would be

22932-492: The classic Islamic histories with circumspection and are less likely than Sunni Islamic scholars to trust the work of the Abbasid historians. Hadith compilations are records of the traditions or sayings of Muhammad. The development of hadith is a crucial element of the first three centuries of Islamic history. Early Western scholars mistrusted the later narrations and reports, regarding them as fabrications. Caetani considered

23128-409: The contemporary use of opinion ( ray ), personal juristic reasoning ( ejtehad ), and analogical reasoning ( qias ) as human attempts to impose regularity and predictability onto the laws of God. He argued that God's law is occasional and unpredictable and that Muslims should submit to the inscrutable will of God as revealed by the Imam. He also embraced a devolved system of legal authority: it

23324-400: The contradictory reports matches the corresponding Sunni doctrine, it would be discarded because the Imam must have had agreed with Sunnis to avoid prosecution of himself or his community. Armstrong suggests that taqiya also kept conflict to a minimum with those religious scholars ( ulama ) who disagreed with the Shia teachings. On the question of predestination and free will, which

23520-522: The conviction that Arabs would revolt against Ali. A tradition to this effect is also cited by the Shia Tababatai ( d.  1981 ). This view has been echoed by Hazleton . Others In terms of Ihsan : Ja%27far al-Sadiq This is an accepted version of this page Ja'far ibn Muhammad al-Sadiq ( Arabic : جَعْفَر بْن مُحَمَّد ٱلصَّادِق , romanized :  Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad al-Ṣādiq ; c.  702 –765 CE)

23716-420: The dead in the grave. The journeyers, Harut and Marut are also among them. Tabataba'i expresses that according to the thesis of general guidance, as the human reason cannot perceive the perfect law of happiness (Sa'adah) and he could not get it through the process of creation, there should be a general awareness of this law and it could be within the reach of every one. He adds there must be people who apprehend

23912-448: The death (and miscarriage) of the young Fatima are attributed to an attack on her house to subdue Ali at the order of Abu Bakr. Sunnis categorically reject these allegations. After Fatima's death and in the absence of popular support, Ali is said to have relinquished his claims to the caliphate for the sake of the unity of a nascent Islam, In contrast with Muhammad's lifetime, Ali is believed to have retired from public life during

24108-399: The death of Ja'far al-Sadiq, his following fractured, and the largest group, who came to be known as the Twelvers , followed his younger son, Musa al-Kadhim . It also appears that many expected the next Imam to be al-Sadiq's eldest son, Isma'il , who predeceased his father. This group, which later formed the Isma'ili branch, either believed that Isma'il was still alive or instead accepted

24304-639: The deeds of men. They follow the commands of God and do not precede him 21:27 . Izz al-Din Kashani discusses that the angels are different in degree and station. Some of them cling to the Threshold of Perfection, others manage the affairs of the creation. Al-Qazwini , on the base of Quran and hadith, names them as the Bearers of the Throne, the Spirit, he governs all the affairs of the earth and heaven according to

24500-615: The disciplined reasoning on the basis of the shari'ah. By developing the principles of the Usul, he introduced more legal and logical norms which extended the meaning of the Usul beyond the four principle sources of Shari'ah. Amili was the first who fully formulated the principles of the Ijtihad. In 1501 Isma'il I took the power in Iran and set up the Safavid dynasty . While most of the larger cities of Iran were Sunni, he declared Twelverism as

24696-437: The distinction of theoretical Tawhid from Shirk is recognition of the idea that every reality and being in its essence, attributes and action are from him (from Him-ness ( Arabic : انّالله )). Every supernatural action of the prophets is by God's permission as Quran points to it. Shirk in practice is to assume something as an end in itself, independent from God, but to assume it as a path to God (to Him-ness ( Arabic : انّاالیه ))

24892-517: The early Muslim community in the first century of Islamic history into numerous schools and branches . The two most prominent branches that emerged from these divisions are Sunni and Shia branches of Islam . Sunni Islam asserts that Abu Bakr rightfully succeeded Muhammad through a process of election. In contrast, Shia Islam maintains that Ali ibn Abi Talib was Muhammad's designated successor. These differing viewpoints on succession stem from varying interpretations of early Islamic history and

25088-420: The end of Muhammad's life. According to Walker, too ill to lead the prayers himself, Muhammad instructed Abu Bakr to take his place, ignoring concerns that he was too emotionally delicate for the role. In particular, when Muhammad entered the prayer hall one morning during the fajr prayer , Abu Bakr attempted to step back to let Muhammad lead the prayer but the prophet allowed Abu Bakr to continue. Jafri finds

25284-467: The esoteric knowledge of the scripture. Of similar importance therein is the divine prerogatives bestowed upon Aaron's descendants. Shia authors have used the Hadith of Position to argue for the special status of Ali and his designation as the successor of Muhammad. For instance, the Shia al-Mufid ( d.  413/1022 ) writes that this hadith invested in Ali all the privileges which Aaron had received from Moses except prophethood. In particular, Ali

25480-439: The existence of the angels is one of the articles of Iman. Unseen beings of a luminous and spiritual substance, angels act as intermediaries between God and the visible world. Although superior in substance, angels are inferior to mankind, because man can reflect the image of God. The verse 2:34 implies the superiority of the mankind. God revealed the Quran to Muhammad by Gabriel who was also his guide on Mi'raj . The angels record

25676-621: The families of the past prophets. After the past prophets, their descendants become the spiritual and material heirs to them in the Quran. The scripture describes how the past prophets prayed for (and were granted) the divine favor to be succeeded by their close kin in kingship, in rule, in wisdom, in imamate , etc. From Noah to Jesus , Madelung notes that the prophets of the Israelites were all descendants of one family. In particular, Solomon inherited from David both his kingship and his prophetic wisdom in verses 27:16 and 21:78, and John

25872-502: The first rāshidūn caliph, Abū Bakr . During the first fourteen years of his life, Ja'far lived alongside his grandfather, Zayn al-Abidin , the fourth Shīʿīte Imam, and witnessed the latter's withdrawal from politics and his limited efforts amid the popular appeal of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya . Ja'far also noted the respect that the famous scholars of Medina held toward Zayn al-Abidin. In his mother's house, Ja'far also interacted with his grandfather, Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr ,

26068-441: The first Shia Imam is credited with establishing Islamic theology and, among Muslims, his sermons contain the first philosophical proofs of God's unity ( Tawhid ). Ali is quoted as arguing that "unity of God" means that God has no like; is not subject to numeration; and is indivisible in neither reality nor imagination. On another occasion, he is quoted saying: The first step of religion is to accept, understand and realize him as

26264-551: The first revelation, Ali was 10 years old. At the time of Muhammad, some of the supporters of Ali, particularly Miqdad ibn al-Aswad, Salman the Persian, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, and Ammar ibn Yasir were called the Shiites of Ali. The division of Islam into Shia and Sunni traces back to the crisis of the succession to Muhammad. The followers of Ali fought with some of the Quraysh and some of the companions of Muhammad like Talhah and Zubayr . As most of his supporters were in Iraq, Ali moved

26460-473: The friend of Ali and be the enemy of his enemy," which might have been the standard formula for pledging allegiance at the time, used later both by Ali and his son Hasan during their caliphates. As reported in Musnad Ibn Hanbal , Muhammad's companion Umar congratulated Ali after the sermon and told him, "You have now become mawla of every faithful man and woman." The historicity of

26656-479: The governor, the Imam's oldest (surviving) son Abdullah al-Aftah, and Musa al-Kazim, his younger son. Al-Mansur's plot was thus thwarted. Al-Sadiq married Fatima, a descendant of Hasan , with whom he had two sons, Isma'il (the sixth Isma'ili Imam) and Abdullah al-Aftah . He also married Hamida Khatun, a slave-girl from Berber or Andalusia, who bore al-Sadiq three more sons: Musa al-Kazim (the seventh Twelver Imam), Muhammad al-Dibaj , and Ishaq al-Mu'tamin. She

26852-542: The guidance of people through sending the prophets; When the doctrines and practices of the revealed law gets to its perfection, the prophecy comes to an end, too. That is why the Quran points out that Islam is the last and the most perfect religion and Muhammad is the "seal of the prophets", he adds. Al-Hilli states that "the Prophets are greater in merit than the angels, because the prophets have conflicts with rational power and they compel it to submit to reason. " Belief in

27048-466: The idea of Ijtihad and called the Usulies as the enemies of religion. He recognized the hadith as the only source for the Islamic law and the understanding of the Quran. Muhammad Baqir Behbahani , as the founder of a new stage in Shia Jurisprudence, took a new practical method. He attacked the Akhbaris and their method was abandoned by Shia. The dominance of the Usuli over the Akhbari came in last half of

27244-486: The imamate of Isma'il's son, Muhammad . While the Twelvers and the Isma'ilis are the only extant Jaf'ari Shia sects today, there were more factions at the time: Some followers of al-Sadiq accepted the imamate of his eldest surviving son, Abdullah al-Aftah . Several influential followers of al-Sadiq are recorded to have first followed Abdullah and then changed their allegiance to Musa. As Abdullah later died childless,

27440-496: The intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun . The leading candidate was possibly Sa'd ibn Ubada , a companion of Muhammad and a chief of the Banu Khazraj , the majority tribe of the Ansar. Their motive has been questioned by Madelung and Jafri , who contend that the Ansar only wanted to re-establish their control over their city, Medina. When they found out about the meeting via an informant, Abu Bakr and Umar rushed to

27636-465: The internal problems of Uthman's reign. Immediately after his election, Ali quelled an armed insurrection led by Aisha , a widow of Muhammad, and Talhah and Zubayr. Afterwards, Uthman's governor of Syria, Muawiya , declared war on Ali and a long and indecisive civil war ensued. The first four caliphs are referred to by the Sunni as the Rashidun (rightly-guided) caliphs, though only Ali is recognized by

27832-417: The latter half of the Umayyad Caliphate, which was marked by many (often Shia) revolts and eventually witnessed the violent overthrow of the Umayyads by the Abbasids, the descendants of Muhammad's paternal uncle al-Abbas . Al-Sadiq maintained his father's policy of quietism in this period and, in particular, was not involved in the uprising of his uncle, Zayd , who enjoyed the support of the Mu'tazilites and

28028-438: The latter, followed by others. In the process, Sa'd was beaten into submission by Umar, which indicates that a substantial number of the Ansar must have initially refused to follow Umar's lead. Otherwise, there would have been no need to beat up their chief Sa'd, according to Madelung. Muhammad had been buried by the time the Saqifa meeting ended, with the exclusion of Abu Bakr from the funeral rites. The authority of Abu Bakr

28224-455: The leaders of these movements were Zayd ibn Ali (al-Sadiq's uncle), Yahya bin Zayd (al-Sadiq's cousin), Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya and his brother (al-Sadiq's nephews). These claimants saw the imamate and caliphate as inseparable for establishing the rule of justice, according to Jafri . In particular, Zayd argued that the imamate could belong to any descendant of Hasan or Husayn who

28420-449: The majority of his followers returned to Musa. A minority of al-Sadiq's followers joined his other son, Muhammad al-Dibaj , who led an unsuccessful uprising against Caliph al-Ma'mun , after which he abdicated and publicly confessed his error. A final group believed that al-Sadiq was not dead and would return as Mahdi , the promised savior in Islam. Al-Sadiq died in 765 CE (148 AH) at sixty-four or sixty-five. His death in Shia sources

28616-512: The makeup and configuration of this committee left a small possibility for the nomination of Ali. In the final showdown, Abd al-Rahman offered the caliphate to Ali on two conditions: first, he should follow the way of the Quran and the Sunnah of Muhammad, and second, he should follow the example of Abu Bakr and Umar. Ali is said to have accepted the first condition but declined the second one, adding that he would rely only on his own judgment in

28812-491: The meaning of an arithmetical unity , among, next to, or above other unities. For, if there were being other than he (i.e., creatural being), God would no longer be the Unique , i.e., the only one to be. As this Divine Essence is infinite, his qualities are the same as his essence. Essentially, there is one Reality, which is one and indivisible. According to Twelver theology, Tawhid consists of several aspects, including Tawhid of

29008-736: The mob retreated without Ali's pledge after his wife Fatima pleaded with them. During this time period Madelung says that Ali could see nothing but hypocrisy in Abu Bakr's tears and his claims to love Muhammad's family. Abu Bakr soon placed a boycott on Ali and also on Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim , to abandon their support for Ali. The boycott was successful, and those who initially supported Ali gradually turned away and pledged their allegiance to Abu Bakr. Most likely, Ali did not pledge allegiance to Abu Bakr until his wife Fatima died within six months of her father Muhammad. In Shia sources,

29204-419: The most part, a different path of succession regarding the Imamate. They also differ in the role and overall definition of an Imam. Twelvers are also distinguished from Ismāʿīlīs by their belief in Muhammad's status as the "Seal of the Prophets" ( Arabic : خاتم النبيين , Khatam an-Nabiyyin ), in rejecting the possibility of abrogation of sharīʿa laws, and in considering both esoteric and exoteric aspects of

29400-404: The mystic Dhu al-Nun Misri can be traced back to the Imam. Given the appeal and influence of al-Sadiq outside the circle of his Shia supporters, Algar suggests that he likely played some role in the formation of Sufism. Both Abu Nu'aym and Attar narrate several encounters between al-Sadiq and contemporary proto-Sufis to highlight his asceticism ( zuhd ). One encounter describes how Sofyan Ṯawri,

29596-453: The object to which it is attributed, and every such object in turn testifies to its being other than the attribute." Tawhid of the attributes means to deny the existence of any sort of multiplicity and combination in the Essence itself. A differentiation between the essence and the attributes or between the attributes implies a limitation in being. Traditional Twelvers believe that God's names are created by Him and are not His attributes. A name

29792-399: The official religion of his empire. Many Shia scholars were brought to set up the Shia seminaries in Iran. One of those was Karaki who stated that, for the interest of Umma, it is necessary for a Shia scholar to be a legitimate leader to carry out the tasks of the Imam who is hidden. Under Safavids, religious authorities ( Shaykh al-Islam ) were appointed for all major cities. Karaki established

29988-520: The one "who spoke more than the other imams concerning the ṭariqat ," who "excelled in writing on innermost mysteries and truths and who was matchless in expounding the subtleties and secrets of revelation." However, some of the material attributed to al-Sadiq in the Sufi literature is said to be apocryphal. Among others, the Shia Moqaddas Ardabili has thus dismissed the alleged links between al-Sadiq and Sufism as an attempt to gain

30184-523: The original work is lost, portions of it survive in the recensions of Ibn Hisham (d. 833) and Al-Tabari (d. 923). Many scholars accept these biographies although their accuracy is uncertain. Studies by Schacht and Goldziher have led the scholars to distinguish between legal and historical traditions. According to Watt , although legal traditions could have been invented, historical material may have been primarily subject to "tendential shaping" rather than being invented. Modern Western scholars approach

30380-451: The outer meanings of the Quran to reach a new interpretation of it ( ta'wil ). It is ascribed to al-Sadiq that, "The Book of God [Quran] comprises four things: the statement set down ( ibarah ), the implied purport ( isharah ), the hidden meanings, relating to the supra-sensible world ( lata'ij ), and the exalted spiritual doctrines ( haqaiq ). The literal statement is for the ordinary believers ( awamm ). The implied purport

30576-508: The perfection of Islam, and the verse of Tabligh (5:67), which urges Muhammad to fulfill his divine instructions. In the context of the Ghadir Khumm, the polysemous Arabic word mawla is interpreted along sectarian lines. Shia sources interpret this word as meaning 'leader' or 'ruler', while Sunni accounts of this sermon tend to offer little explanation or substitute the word wali (of God, lit.   ' friend of God ' ) in place of mawla . Shia Muslims view

30772-475: The position at first. Aslan attributes Ali's initial refusal to the polarizing impact of Uthman's murder on the community, while Durant writes that, "[Ali] shrank from drama in which religion had been displaced by politics, and devotion by intrigue." In the absence of any serious opposition and urged particularly by the Ansar and the Iraqi delegations, Ali eventually accepted the first pledges of allegiance in

30968-565: The practices of the Shia Imams. Taqiya is a form of religious dissimulation, where an individual can hide one's beliefs under persecution. Taqiya was introduced by al-Baqir and later advocated by al-Sadiq to protect his followers from prosecution at the time when al-Mansur , the Abbasid caliph, conducted a brutal campaign against the Alids and their supporters. This doctrine

31164-520: The prayer and give alms [ zakat ] while bowing down." Some Sunni exegeses link this verse to the hostility of the Jewish tribes in Medina, while Shia and some Sunni sources consider this verse a specific reference to the occasion where Ali gave away his ring to a beggar while he was bowing in worship. In particular, Nasr et al. suggest that the frequent association of this verse with Ali in early Sunni sources strongly support its authenticity. For

31360-568: The prayer story inconclusive because it does not formally relate to the political leadership of the community. Walker notes that this and similar traditions suggest friendship and trust but are hardly related to succession because Muhammad regularly delegated this task and other positions of authority to others. For the same reason, Shaban goes further and assigns no significance to the prayer story. Shortly before his death, Muhammad asked for writing materials, so that he would "write something, after which you will not be led into error," as reported in

31556-410: The previous Imam) and he also inherits the special knowledge ( ilm ) which qualifies him for the position. Al-Sadiq did not originate this theory of imamate, which was already adopted by his predecessors, Zayn al-Abidin and al-Baqir. Rather, al-Sadiq leveraged the sudden climate of political instability to freely propagate and elaborate the Shia teachings, including the theory of imamate. After

31752-434: The previous Imam. As the successor of Muhammad, the Imam has an all-inclusive mandate for temporal and religious leadership of the Islamic community, though this doctrine views the imamate and caliphate as separate institutions until such time that God would make the Imam victorious. The Imam also inherits from his predecessor the special knowledge ( ilm ), which qualifies him for the position. Similar to Muhammad, Imam

31948-544: The principle of creation; Israfil , he places the spirits in the bodies and will blow the trumpet on the Last Day. Gabriel , who took the revelation to Muhammad. Michael , Azrael , the angel of death. The cherubim (al-karrūbiyyūn) who just praise God. The angels of seven heavens and the Guardian angels, two of them are concerned with men. The Attendant angels, they bring blessings upon human. Munkar and Nakir who question

32144-477: The propagation of different religious views and his interest in intellectual debates. Under the rule of al-Ma'mun, Shia was free from the political pressures and was somehow at liberty. In the fourth/tenth century, the weaknesses in the Abbasid government and coming up the Buyid rulers caused the spread, strength and open propagation of the Shi'ism. From the fifth/eleventh to the ninth century many Shia kings appeared in

32340-436: The prophet's request. The argument is said to have saddened Muhammad, who asked them to leave and did not write anything. Some sources write that Muhammad instead gave oral recommendations, which have been recorded differently by various authors. The disobedience to Muhammad in this incident has been downplayed by some Sunni scholars, whereas others view this incident as a missed opportunity to formally designate Abu Bakr as

32536-400: The prophets got through the revelation was religion which consists of doctrine and practice or method. He further adds that with passing of the time and gradual development of the society, the gradual development in the revealed law is apparent. By three ways the speech of God reaches to man, by revelation or divine inspiration; behind a veil, man can hear God's speech but can not hear him; or by

32732-440: The real duties of life and bring them within the reach of human being. Tabataba'i refers to this power of perception, which is other than the reason and the sense, as the prophetic consciousness or the consciousness of revelation as the verse 4: 163 points to this perception namely revelation. Tabataba'i describes that the reception of revelation, its preservation and its propagation are three principles of ontological guidance. What

32928-500: The related traditions often contradictory, many of which are attributed by Ibn Sa'd ( d.  230/845 ) to Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha , whose rivalry and dislike for Ali and Fatima are well-documented. Mentioning three different versions of the story, Madelung defers to Caetani , who considers it fabricated. Shia authors similarly dispute the authenticity of these reports, adding that Muhammad had earlier instructed his companions, including Abu Bakr and Umar, to leave Medina on

33124-650: The relationship between Muhammad and God. The Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal ('Declaration by al-Mufaddal of the Oneness of God'), also known as the Kitāb fī badʾ al-khalq wa-l-ḥathth ʿalā al-iʿtibār ('Book on the Beginning of Creation and the Incitement to Contemplation'), is a ninth-century treatise concerned with proving the existence of God , attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq's financial agent al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi (died before 799). The work presents itself as

33320-408: The renowned jurist and ascetic, allowed himself to reproach the Imam for his silken robe, only for the Imam to reveal beneath it a modest white woolen cloak, explaining that the finery was for men to behold and the woolen cloak for God. The Imam thus displayed the former and concealed the latter. One of the distinctive features of the ghulāt is the imam 's deification. One group of them, called

33516-462: The successor. Ibn Kathir ( d.  774/1373 ) goes further, claiming that Muhammad had publicly appointed Abu Bakr before his final illness. In contrast, the incident is viewed as a calamity and a missed opportunity to designate Ali in Shia sources. In relation to this episode, Madelung quotes an exchange between Ibn Abbas and Umar in which the latter claimed that Muhammad intended to name Ali as his successor and that he prevented this out of

33712-592: The teachings of the Shia Imams, including al-Sadiq. According to Rizvi , al-Sadiq preached against slavery. Following his predecessors, Zayn al-Abidin and al-Baqir, al-Sadiq further elaborated the Shia doctrine of imamate, which has become the hallmark of the Twelver and Isma'ili Shia theologies, but rejected by the Zaydis . In this doctrine, Imam is a descendant of Muhammad through Ali and Fatima who derives his exclusive authority not from political claims but from nass , that is, divinely-inspired designation by

33908-493: The text only appears in the eleventh century. In the immediate aftermath of Muhammad's death in 11/632, a gathering of the Ansar ( Medinan Muslims) took place at the Saqifa ( lit.   ' courtyard ' ) of the Banu Sa'ida clan, while Muhammad's close relatives were preparing for his burial. The conventional wisdom is that the Ansar met there to decide on a new leader for the Muslim community among themselves, with

34104-480: The traditionalists of Medina and Kufa . Al-Sadiq also played no role in the Abbasid overthrow of the Umayyads. His response to a request for help from Abu Muslim , the Khorasani rebel leader, was to burn his letter, saying, "This man is not one of my men, this time is not mine." At the same time, al-Sadiq did not advance his claims to the caliphate, even though he saw himself as the divinely designated leader of

34300-422: The universe are not independent from God, just as the beings which are not independent in essence. There is no power except God, according to Motahari. Tawhid of Lordship means the governance of the world and that human beings only belong to God. This oneness of lordship has two aspects: creative governance ( tadbir takwini ), and religious governance ( tadbir tashrii ). At last oneness in worship, i.e., God alone

34496-421: The validity of the isolate hadith, states rational faculty ( 'aql ) as the fourth source of law in deducing legal norms before Quran and hadith. But the real Usuli doctrinal movement began by al-Muhaqqiq al-Hilli (d. 1277) who brought up ijtihad and qiyas (analogy) to jurisprudence. Ijtihad brought dynamism into Shia law. Muhaqqiq Hilli and al-Hilli gave a definite shape to Shia jurisprudence and they separated

34692-426: The weak hadith from the sound. According to John Cooper, after al-Hilli, Imami theology and legal methodology became thoroughly infused with the terminology and style of philosophy. In 1256 the Abbasid dynasty collapsed with the invasion of Mongols to Baghdad . Under the ruling of Mongols , Shi'a were more free to develop and al-Hilla became the new learning center for Shia. Continuing the rationalistic tradition of

34888-459: The youngest among them, was the only relative who offered his assistance to Muhammad, who then declared, "This [Ali] is my brother, my executor, and my successor among you, so listen to him and obey." This was the account of the Sunni al-Tabari (d. 923) and the proto-Shia Ibn Ishaq (d. 767), among others, though some Sunni reports do not include Muhammad's response to Ali or replace it with his rejection of Ali's offer. Muhammad's announcement

35084-517: Was transmitted orally until after the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate . Historical works of later Muslim writers include the traditional biographies of Muhammad and quotations attributed to him—the sira and hadith literature—which provide further information on Muhammad's life. The earliest surviving written sira (biography of Muhammad) is Sirat Rasul Allah ( Life of God's Messenger ) by Ibn Ishaq (d. 761 or 767 CE). Although

35280-502: Was a Shia Muslim scholar , jurist , and theologian , and the sixth imam of the Twelver and Isma'ili branches of Shia Islam . Known by the title al-Sadiq ("The Truthful"), Ja'far was the founder of the Ja'fari school of Islamic jurisprudence . The hadith recorded from al-Sadiq and his predecessor, Muhammad al-Baqir , are said to be more numerous than all the hadith preserved from

35476-447: Was a Twelver theologian, Muhaddith and Fiqih who used Bani Nawbakht as well as Baghdadi Mu'tazila ideas to form his theology while trying to adapt theological ideas with Twelve Imams' Hadith. While the Mu'tazila was dominant in Baghdad, he tries to distinguish Shia and Mu'tazila ideas and assert reason needs revelation . Shaykh Tusi, founder of Shia Ijtihad, was the first to establish

35672-513: Was a place of pilgrimage until 1926. It was then that Wahhabis , under the leadership of Ibn Saud , the founding King of Saudi Arabia , conquered Medina for the second time and razed all the tombs except that of the Islamic prophet. According to Tabatabai, upon hearing the news of his death, al-Mansur ordered the governor of Medina to behead al-Sadiq's heir, the future Imam. The governor, however, learned that al-Sadiq had chosen four people, rather than one, to administer his will: al-Mansur himself,

35868-477: Was a teacher who left writing to others. The most extensive contributions of al-Sadiq were to the Twelver Shia, helping establish them as a serious intellectual force in the late Umayyad and early Abbasid periods, according to Gleave. Tabatabai writes that the number of traditions left behind by al-Sadiq and his father, al-Baqir, were more than all the hadiths recorded from Muhammad and the other Shia Imams combined. Shia thought has continued to develop based on

36064-414: Was about thirty-seven when his father, Muḥammad al-Bāqir , died after designating him as the next Imam. As the sixth Shia Imam, al-Sadiq kept aloof from the political conflicts that embroiled the region, evading the requests for support that he received from rebels. He was the victim of some harassment by the Abbasid caliphs and was eventually, according to Shia sources, poisoned at the instigation of

36260-412: Was burned by order of al-Mansur, though he was unharmed, and there are reports of multiple arrests and attempts on his life by the caliph. Ja'far al-Sadiq was about thirty-seven when his father, al-Bāqir, died after designating him as the next Shīʿīte Imam. He held the Imamate for at least twenty-eight years. His Imamate coincided with a crucial period in the history of Islam , as he witnessed both

36456-510: Was elected caliph in Kufa. Muawiya then marched on Kufa with his army, whereas Hasan's military response to Muawiya suffered defections in large numbers, largely facilitated by military commanders and tribal chiefs who had been swayed to Muawiya's side by promises and offers of money. Under attack from Muawiya and after a failed assassination attempt on his life, a wounded Hasan ceded the caliphate to Muawiya in 661. Notably, under their agreement, it

36652-463: Was first introduced to modern scholarship by Louis Massignon , and was later published in a critical edition by Paul Nwyia. Another version was published by ʿAlī Zayʿūr. One of the outstanding features of this exegesis is its emphasis on letter mysticism. It is considered to be the oldest mystical commentary of the Quran after Sahl al-Tustari 's exegesis. Tafsīr al-Nuʿmānī is another exegesis attributed to al-Sadiq, which he supposedly narrated on

36848-460: Was known as Hamida the Pure and respected for her religious learning. Al-Sadiq often referred other women to learn the tenets of Islam from her. He is reported to have praised her, "Hamida is removed from every impurity like an ingot of pure gold." Ishaq al-Mu'tamin, is said to have married Sayyida Nafisa , a descendant of Hasan . After Ali, al-Sadiq is possibly the most famed religious scholar of

37044-412: Was left behind because he was a burden to Muhammad, he left Medina and caught up with Muhammad, who reassured him, "Are you not content, Ali, to stand to me as Aaron stood to Moses , except that there will be no prophet after me?" By divine designation, Aaron was the associate of Moses in his prophetic mission and in revelation. In Hebrew Bible , Aaron also performs miracles and is entrusted with

37240-401: Was met with ridicule from Abu Lahab , Muhammad's uncle and his foe, and the guests dispersed. Rubin writes that Ali's response to Muhammad's call contrasts the remainder of his tribe, the Quraysh . He adds that the early appointment of Ali as Muhammad's heir in this version supports Ali's right to succeed Muhammad, a central tenet of Shia Islam. Momen is of the same opinion. According to

37436-668: Was precarious at first, until Umar secured the pledges of allegiance from the Medinans with help from the Banu Aslam and Banu Aws tribes. In chronological order, Abu Bakr obtained the backing of Uthman and of the Banu Umayyad , of Sa'd and Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf , of the Banu Zuhra , of Zubayr , and finally of Ali. The Banu Hashim and some companions of Muhammad gathered at Ali's house in protest after learning about

37632-525: Was sent into exile in Iraq, where he continued his opposition to the Iranian regime. He further ordered the opposition to the Shah and led the 1979 revolution . Twelver theology, which mainly consists of five principles, has formed over the course of history on the basis of the Quran , hadiths from Muhammad and the Twelve Imams (especially Jafar al-Sadiq ), as well as in response to intellectual movements in

37828-401: Was the deputy of Muhammad just as Aaron was the deputy of Moses, which implies that Ali was the rightful successor to Muhammad. Despite its Shia coloring, the Hadith of Position nevertheless remains prominent in Sunni sources as one of the most important pieces of evidence supporting the finality of Muhammad in the chain of prophets. In response to the Shia claims, Sunni scholars argue that

38024-559: Was the divine choice. Shortly before his death in 632, Muhammad performed the Hajj rituals in Mecca. In his sermon in Mecca and again later at the Ghadir Khumm by some accounts, he alerted Muslims about his impending death. After the Hajj, Muhammad set off on the return journey from Mecca to Medina, accompanied by a large number of pilgrims. On the way, Muhammad called the Muslim caravan to

38220-525: Was under much discussion at the time, al-Sadiq followed his father, portraying human responsibility but preserving God's autocracy, asserting that God decreed some things absolutely but left others to human agency. This compromise, widely adopted afterward, is highlighted when al-Sadiq was asked if God forces His servants to do evil or whether He had delegated power to them: he answered negatively to both questions and instead suggested, "The blessings of your Lord are between these two." Al-Sadiq taught "that God

38416-432: Was vital for a legitimate outcome at the Saqifa. Possibly because of its questionable legal authority, Umar also warned Muslims against ever following the example of Saqifa. Similar concerns about the legitimacy of the Saqifa are raised by contemporary authors. Some have further criticized the Saqifa affair as a "backroom deal" and a "coup" which was heavily influenced by the pre-Islamic tribal politics. The evil of

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