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56-747: The name Imraguen ( Berber orthography : imragen ) is a Berber word meaning "fishermen", or «people who fish while walking on the sea», or «those who harvest life». The Imraguen are believed to descend from the Bafour people . According to the Documentation of the human population of the territory, the Imraguen people lived on the Banc d'Arguin National Park for thousands of years, and its population had probably been larger. Militarily powerless,

112-466: A 'national language' in the 2002 Algerian Constitution, but not as an 'official language' until 2016 after a long campaign by activists. French is not recognized in any legal document of Algeria but enjoys a de facto position of an official language as it is used in every Algerian official administration or institution, at all levels of the government, sometimes much more than Arabic. The Berber (Amazigh) language faces an unfavourable environment, despite

168-517: A 2002 constitutional amendment. In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that made Berber an official language alongside Arabic. The phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of Kabyle. Kabyle has three phonemic vowels : ⟨e⟩ is used to write the epenthetic schwa vowel [ə] which occurs frequently in Kabyle. Historically, it is thought to be the result of

224-507: A bar through the middle of the alif ), e.g. kullu n-nāsi ⟨kullu (u)l-nnāsi⟩ “all the people”. In premodern Shilha orthography, two extra letters were added to the alphabet to represent consonants not represented by the Standard Arabic alphabet: a kāf with three dots ݣ ‎ for g , and ṣād with three dots ڞ ‎ for ẓ (dots may also be added underneath the letter). Consonants ṛ and ḷ , which bear

280-535: A corresponding agent noun . In English it could be translated into verb+er. It is obtained by prefixing the verb with « am- » or with « an- » if the first letter is b / f / m / w (there are exceptions, however). Verbal nouns are derived differently from different classes of verbal stems (including 'quality verbs'). Often a- or t(u)- is prefixed: Pronouns may either occur as standalone words or bound to nouns or verbs. Example: « Ula d nekk. » – "Me too." Possessive pronouns are bound to

336-783: A geminated consonant without following vowel (which never occurs in Standard Arabic). Labialization is generally not represented, e.g. tagʷrsa ⟨tagrsa⟩ “plough share”. The Arabic waṣl spellings are often “mirrored” and used to write word-initial vowels, e.g. ayyur ula tafukt ⟨ayyur(u) ulatafukt⟩ “the moon as well as the sun”. Vowel length is not distinctive in Shilha, but orthographically long vowels may be used to indicate emphasized syllables in metric texts, e.g. lxálayiq ⟨lxālayiq⟩ “creatures” vs. standard Arabic orthography ⟨l-xalāʼiq⟩ . The Arabic letters ﺙ, ﺫ, ﻅ, representing

392-403: A minimal functional load , are not distinguished in the spelling from r and l . Texts are always fully vocalized, with a , i and u written with the vowel signs fatḥah , kasrah , and ḍammah . Consonants without a following phonemic vowel are always written with a sukūn . Gemination is indicated as usual with shaddah , but in Shilha spelling it may be combined with sukūn to represent

448-809: A native language among the Algerian Kabyle-descended diaspora in European and North American cities (mainly France). It is estimated that half of Kabyles live outside the Kabylian region. Estimates on the number of Kabyle speakers in the region vary widely, with different dates and data given for different points of time. As such the number of Kabyle speakers varies considerably depending on differnt sources given. French ethnologist Camille Lacoste-Dujardin  [ fr ] estimates four million Kabyle speakers in 2001 in Algeria. According to

504-407: A noun or verb form, e.g. ⟨urānɣiḍhir manīɣurikfis iblisī⟩ = ur anɣ iḍhir mani ɣ ur ikfis iblis-i “it is not apparent to us where Iblis has not sown [his depravity]”. Kabyle language Kabyle ( / k ə ˈ b aɪ l / ) or Kabylian ( / k ə ˈ b ɪ l i ən / ; native name: Taqbaylit [θɐqβæjlɪθ] ) is a Berber language ( tamazight ) spoken by

560-406: A pan-Berber reduction or merger of three other vowels. The phonetic realization of the vowels, especially /a/ , is influenced by the character of the surrounding consonants; emphatic consonants invite a more open realization of the vowel, e.g. aẓru = [azˤru] 'stone' vs. amud = [æmud] 'seed'. Often /a, i, u/ are realized as [æ, ɪ, ʊ] . In the Kabyle language there are various accents which are

616-489: A public radio in Algeria (Channel II, which dates back to 1925 ), as well as a public TV channel in Morocco (Channel IV or Tamazight TV). Since private ownership of TV channels is illegal in Algeria, Kabyles have launched a private Kabyle speaking TV channel, called Berbère Television , that broadcasts from France. There is no Kabyle newspaper. Some Algerian newspapers such as La Dépêche de Kabylie  [ fr ] offer

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672-464: A small Kabyle section. In 1994, Kabyle pupils and students boycotted Algerian schools for a year, demanding the officialization of Berber, leading to the symbolic creation of the " Haut commissariat à l'amazighité " (HCA) in 1995. Berber was subsequently taught as a non-compulsory language in Berber speaking areas. The course being optional, few people attend. The Kabyle school boycott also resulted in

728-602: A vowel and a geminated consonant may sometimes be written as if they contain the Arabic definite article, e.g. azzar “hair” written as ⟨al-zzar⟩ . Final -u or -w in Shilha words may be written with a following alif al-wiqāyah . With respect to word divisions, the premodern orthography may be characterized as conjunctive (in contrast to most European orthographies, which are disjunctive). Thus, elements such as prepositions, preverbals, pronominal affixes, demonstrative and directional particles are written connected to

784-455: Is expressed by «  ur  » before the verb and the particle «  ara  » after the verb: Other negative words (acemma... etc.) are used in combination with ur to express more complex types of negation. This system developed via Jespersen's cycle . Verb derivation is performed by adding affixes. There are three types of derivation forms: causative , reflexive and passive . Two prefixes can cancel each other: Every verb has

840-491: Is mostly composed of fricatives, phonemes which are originally stops in other Berber languages, but in writing there is no difference between fricatives and stops. Below is a list of fricatives vs. stops and when they are pronounced (note that gemination turns fricatives into stops ). The most ancient Berber writings were written in the Libyco-Berber script , mostly from Numidian and Roman times. This script

896-598: Is one of the Berber languages , a family within the Afroasiatic languages . It is believed to have broken off very early from Proto-Berber , although after the Zenaga language did so. Kabyle Berber is native to Kabylia . It is present in seven Algerian districts. Approximately one-third of Algerians are Berber-speakers, clustered mostly near Algiers , in Kabylian and Shawi, but with some communities related to Kabyle in

952-523: Is possible for tourists to practice "sports fishing" in the Banc d'Arguin and gather up to 5 kilos of fish. The Imraguen speak Hassaniya Arabic with some Berber vocabulary related to fishing; their dialect is referred to as the Imraguen language . The Imraguen are Muslims of the Sunni Maliki rite. Berber orthography Berber orthography is the writing system(s) used to transcribe

1008-514: Is still strong in villages but urban Kabyles in Algeria are increasingly shifting to Arabic and diaspora Kabyles to the surrounding language. A 2013 study found that 54% of Kabyles living in Oran spoke Arabic to their siblings. After the 2001–02 widespread Kabyle protests known as the Black Spring , the Berber (Amazigh) language (with all its Algerian dialects and varieties) was recognized as

1064-561: Is the de jure writing system for Tamazight in Morocco. The script was made official by a Dahir of King Mohammed VI, based on the recommendation of IRCAM . It was recognized in the Unicode standard in June 2004. Tifinagh was chosen to be official after consideration of its univocity (one sound per symbol, allowing regional variation ), economy, consistency, and historicity. Significantly, Tifinagh avoids negative cultural connotations of

1120-421: Is used for subjects placed after their verbs, after prepositions, in noun complement constructions, and after certain numerals. Kabyle also places nouns in construct state when they head a noun phrase containing a co-referential bound pronoun earlier in the utterance. Examples: After a preposition (with the exception of "ar" and "s"), all nouns take their annexed state: Verbs are conjugated for three tenses:

1176-832: The International Encyclopedia of Linguistics there were 2.5 million speakers in Kabylia in 2003 out of 3.1 million worldwide. In 2004, Canadian linguist Jacques Leclerc (linguist)  [ fr ] estimated that there were 3.1 million Kabyle speakers in Algeria (9.4% of the total Algerian population) and 500,000 in France. Salem Chaker estimated there were 5.5 million speakers in 2004, including 3 to 3.5 in Kabylia. The Encyclopædia Universalis gives 7 million Kabyle speakers. The French Ministry of Culture estimated there were one million Kabyle speakers in France in 2013. Linguist Matthias Brenzinger estimates

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1232-569: The Berber languages . In antiquity, the Libyco-Berber script was utilized to write Berber languages. Early uses of the script have been found on rock art and in various sepulchres. Usage of this script, in the form of Tifinagh , has continued into the present day among the Tuareg people . Following the spread of Islam , some Berber scholars utilized the Arabic script . Excluding among

1288-550: The Kabyle language was established in 1970, and most other Northern Berber dialects have to varying extents published literature in the Latin alphabet. The Latin alphabet has been preferred among Amazigh linguists and researchers, and also has a great deal of established writing, including newspapers, periodicals, and magazines. The "overwhelming majority of theses and dissertations on Berber in Morocco and Algeria" are written using

1344-641: The Kabyle people in the north and northeast of Algeria . It is spoken primarily in Kabylia , east of the capital Algiers and in Algiers itself, but also by various groups near Blida , such as the Beni Salah and Beni Bou Yaqob. Estimating the number of Berber speakers is very difficult and figures are often contested. A 2004 estimate was that 9.4% of the Algerian population speaks Kabyle. The diaspora population has been estimated at one million. Kabyle

1400-514: The independence of Algeria , some Kabyle activists tried to revive the Libyco-Berber script, which is still in use by the Tuareg . Attempts were made to modernize the writing system by modifying the shape of the letters and by adding vowels. This new version of Tifinagh has been called Neo-Tifinagh and has been adopted as the official script for Berber languages in Morocco . However, a majority of Berber activists (both in Morocco and Algeria) prefer

1456-441: The preterite (past), intensive aorist (present perfect, present continuous, past continuous) and the future (ad+aorist). Unlike other Berber languages, the aorist alone is rarely used in Kabyle (in the other languages it is used to express the present). Verbs are conjugated for person by adding affixes. These suffixes are static and identical for all tenses (only the theme changes). The epenthetic vowel e may be inserted between

1512-399: The Arabic interdentals /θ, ð, ð̣/ may be used in etymological spellings of loanwords, but they are often replaced by ﺕ, ﺩ, ﺽ, in accordance with Shilha pronunciation, e.g. lḥadit “tradition” can be written as ⟨lḥadiθ⟩ (etymological) or as ⟨lḥadit⟩ (phonemic). Final /-a/ in both native Berber words and loan words is sometimes written with alif maqṣūrah , even if

1568-602: The Arabic script, and the Berber Latin alphabet. Different groups in North Africa have different preferences of writing system, often motivated by ideology and politics. With the exception of one text transcribed in Hebraic square alphabet, no other systems are known to have been used to transcribe the Berber languages. Neo-Tifinagh , a resurrected version of an alphabetic script found in historical engravings,

1624-688: The Arabic script, which is generally unpopular among Berbers who believe it is symptomatic of the pan-Arabist views of North African governments. A consistent orthography was used in the few Berber texts in existence from the eleventh to the fourteenth century CE. These were written in an older Berber language likely to be most closely related to Tashelhiyt. The consonant g was written with jīm ( ج ‎) or kāf ( ك ‎), ẓ with ṣād ( ص ‎) or sometimes zāy ( ز ‎), and ḍ with ṭāʼ ( ط ‎). Vowels a, i, u were written as orthographically long vowels ⟨ā⟩ , ⟨ī⟩ , ⟨ū⟩ . Word-final wāw

1680-476: The Imraguen people agreed to preserve the shark and ray species in the Banc d'Arguin National Park (which became a UNESCO world heritage site in 1989) and traded their nets for money. The Imraguen people blame the new oil and gas explorations around the Banc d'Arguin area, along with a new road adjacent to the area, as the main factors for the reduction of fish reproduction in the area. At the Arkeiss village, it

1736-465: The Imraguen people used to whistle the dolphins to bring them near the shore and catch all the mullets that always followed the dolphins. The Imraguen people are the only ones authorized to fish in the Banc d'Arguin area, as long as they use their traditional fishing techniques. The number of fishes caught for each species is limited and strongly reinforced by the Mauritanian authorities. In 2004,

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1792-586: The Imraguen were traditionally reduced to the degrading lower- caste status of Znaga , forcibly ruled and taxed ( horma ) by more powerful Berber, Hassane and Zawia tribes, such as the Oulad Delim and Ouled Bou Sbaa . In 2008, the Imraguen people occupied 9 small villages along the coastline. Some Imraguen populate the abandoned La Güera fort, which is also the south point of the Western Sahara zone claimed by Morocco. A few generations ago,

1848-781: The Latin alphabet. Usage of the Latin alphabet for Berber is more popular in Algeria than Morocco, but prevalent in the Riffian area. It is backed by the Amazigh elite, but is vehemently opposed by the Moroccan pro-Arab establishment. The Latin script is far more ensconced in the Kabyle dialect than in Tamazight. The orthography used in most modern printed works is the Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales (INALCO) standard, designed for phonemicity. Older systems from

1904-472: The Latin and Arabic scripts. Tifinagh is preferred by young people as a symbol of identity and has popular support. It has also been criticized for not being practical to implement, and for being Kabyle -centric and not historically authentic. Following the Tifinagh Dahir road signs were installed in the Riffian city of Nador in Arabic and Tifinagh, but these were removed by security forces in

1960-589: The Latin script and see the Tifinagh as a hindrance to literacy in Berber. Kabyle literature continues to be written in Latin script. The use of Tifinagh is limited to logos . Mouloud Mammeri codified a new orthography for the Kabyle language which avoided using French orthography. His script has been adopted by all Berber linguists, the INALCO , and the Algerian HCA. It uses diacritics and two letters from

2016-520: The Standard Arabic spelling does not use it, e.g. zzka “alms tax” written as ⟨zzká⟩ vs. standard ⟨z-zkā ⟩ . Final -t in words of Arabic origin is sometimes written with tāʼ marbūṭah , whether or not the original Arabic word was spelled with it, e.g. zzit “olive oil” written as ⟨zzi ⟩ . Nunation diacritics are sometimes used to write final -Vn in Shilha words, e.g. tumẓin “barley” ⟨tumẓin⟩ or ⟨tumẓ ⟩ . Native words starting with

2072-535: The Tuareg people, the Arabic script became the dominant form of Berber orthography. The Berber Latin alphabet was developed following the introduction of the Latin script in the nineteenth century by the West. The nineteenth century also saw the development of Neo-Tifinagh, an adaptation of Tuareg Tifinagh for use with other Berber languages. There are now three writing systems in use for Berber languages: Tifinagh,

2128-466: The affix and the verb. Verbs are always marked for subject and may also inflect for person of direct and indirect object. Examples: Kabyle is a satellite-framed based language, Kabyle verbs use two particles to show the path of motion: Examples: Kabyle usually expresses negation in two parts, with the particle ur attached to the verb, and one or more negative words that modify the verb or one of its arguments . For example, simple verbal negation

2184-454: The case of Algeria". Nevertheless, after four decades of pacific struggle, riots, strikes, and social mobilization, including the Berber spring (1980, riots and strikes in the Kabylie region of Tizi Ouzou, Bouira and Bejaïa, as well as Algiers) and the Black Spring in 2001, President Bouteflika and his government recognized Amazigh (Berber) as a "national language" for the second time through

2240-452: The colonial French era are still found in place names and personal names. The older colonial system showed marked influence from French, for instance writing /u, w/ as ⟨ou⟩ and /sˤ/ as ⟨ç⟩ , and was inconsistent in marking many Berber sounds, for instance writing /ʕ/ as a circumflex over the vowel, and often leaving emphatics unmarked. Tifinagh is the traditional script for written Berber, but Latin remains

2296-419: The end of the 16th century, and is still used today in circles of traditional Islamic scholars ( ṭṭlba ). The Maghrebi script style is always used. Distinctive features of Maghrebi script are: the different pointing of fāʼ and qāf ; shaddah may be represented with a V-shaped symbol; waṣl is indicated by writing the final vowel of the preceding word a second time with the alif (with u represented by

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2352-578: The established body of literature in the Arabic script was a barrier to wider adoption of the Latin script, it caught on among the French-educated minority, particularly in Algeria. Since independence, the Latin alphabet has been largely favored by the intelligentsia, especially in Kabylie where the Berberists are largely pro-Westernization and French-educated. A standard transcription for

2408-494: The extended Latin alphabet: Č č Ḍ ḍ Ɛ ɛ Ǧ ǧ Ɣ ɣ Ḥḥ Ṣ ṣ Ṭ ṭ Ẓ ẓ. Kabyle has two genders : masculine and feminine. As in most Berber languages , masculine nouns and adjectives generally start with a vowel ( a- , i- , u- ), while feminine nouns generally start with t- and end with a -t , e.g. a qcic 'boy' vs. t aqcic t 'girl'. Plurals generally are formed by replacing initial a- with i- , and either suffixing -en ("regular/external" plurals), changing vowels within

2464-460: The first recognition of Amazigh as a national language in November 1996. President Bouteflika has frequently stated that "Amazigh (the Berber language) will never be an official language, and if it has to be a national language, it must be submitted to a referendum". In 2005, President Bouteflika, stated that "there is no country in the world with two official languages" and "this will never be

2520-399: The like are mostly written as separate words. The medieval texts display many archaisms in phonology, morphology and lexicon. The way in which Tashelhiyt has been written in the Arabic script during the past centuries is very consistent, to the extent that it is possible to talk about “a conventionalized orthography”. This premodern orthography has remained virtually unchanged since at least

2576-492: The middle of the night soon after. The Moroccan state arrested and imprisoned people using this script during the 1980s and the 1990s, but now Morocco is the only country in which Tifinagh has official status. The Latin script has its origins in French colonialism. French missionaries and linguists found the Arabic script inconvenient, so they adapted the Latin alphabet to various Berber languages and Arabic vernaculars. While

2632-628: The number of Kabyle speakers in Algeria at between 2.5 to 3 million in 2015. Bruce Maddy-Weitzman's 2018 estimate is more than 5 million Kabyle speakers in Kabylie. Linguist Asya Pereltsvaig gives 5.6 million Kabyle speakers worldwide in 2020, mostly in Algeria. In 2021, Amina Mettouchi, professor of Berber linguistics, estimated the number of speakers at five million worldwide and more than three million in Algeria. In 2022, according to Ethnologue there were 7.5 million speakers worldwide, including 6.4 million in Algeria. Many identify two dialects: Greater Kabylie (west) and Lesser Kabylie (east), but

2688-514: The predominant orthography for literature aimed at the general public in North Africa. Some Tamazight newspapers, periodicals, and magazines are written in the Arabic script, although the Latin alphabet is preferred. The policies of some North African states have imposed the Arabic script over others suggested by Berber groups, which has been perceived as Arab colonialism replacing the prior French variety. Amazigh activists, however, eschew

2744-530: The reality is more complex than that, Kabyle dialects constitute a dialect continuum that can be divided into four main dialects (from west to east): With the exception of the far-eastern dialect, much of the vocabulary of Kabyle is common across its dialects, though some lexical differences exist, e.g. the word dream in English (from west to east): bargu, argu, argu, bureg. Almost all Berber speakers are multilingual, in Arabic and often also in French. Kabyle

2800-531: The region of Kabylia by the sixth century, when Latin became the official and administrative language in North Africa, as in the rest of the former Roman empire. Kabyle became a mostly spoken language after the Arabic conquest of North Africa , and while many examples of the Kabyle language written in a form of Berber-Arabic script survive, the number of Kabyle texts was relatively much smaller than those written in other Berber languages such as Shilha , Mozabite , and Nafusi . The first French–Kabyle dictionary

2856-457: The result of assimilations (these accents are generally divided into western and eastern Kabyle). Some of these assimilations are present among all Kabyle "dialects" and some not. These assimilations are not noted in writing, such as: Gemination affects the quality of certain consonants, turning semivowels and fricatives into stops ; in particular, geminated ɣ becomes qq , geminated y becomes gg , and geminated w becomes bb . Kabyle

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2912-527: The west ( Shenwa languages ), east and south of the country. The populations of Béjaïa (Bgayet), Bouïra (Tubirett) and Tizi Ouzou (Tizi Wezzu) provinces are in majority Kabyle-speaking. In addition, Kabyle is mainly spoken in the provinces of Boumerdès , and as well as in Bordj Bou Arréridj , Jijel , and in Algiers where it coexists with Algerian Arabic . Kabyle Berber is also spoken as

2968-577: The word ("broken/internal" plurals), or both. Examples: As in all Berber languages, Kabyle has two types of states or cases of the noun : free state and construct state (or 'annexed state'). The free state is morphologically unmarked. The construct state is derived either by changing initial /a-/ to /u-/, loss of initial vowel in some feminine nouns, addition of a semi-vowel word-initially, or in some cases no change occurs at all: As in Central Morocco Tamazight , construct state

3024-507: Was an abjad , and is not yet completely deciphered today. Deciphered scripts are mostly funerary, following a simple formula of "X son of Y" (X u Y) which is still used to this day in the Kabyle language. Such writings have been found in Kabylie (also known as Kabylia) and continue to be discovered by archeologists. The Tifinagh script of the Tuaregs was a direct continuation of this earlier script. The Libyco-Berber alphabet disappeared in

3080-492: Was compiled by a French ethnologist in the 18th century. It was written in Latin script with an orthography based on that of French . However, the Kabyle language really became a written language again in the beginning of the 19th century. Under French influence, Kabyle intellectuals began to use the Latin script . " Tamacahutt n wuccen " by Brahim Zellal was one of the first Kabyle books written using this alphabet. After

3136-413: Was usually accompanied by alif al-wiqāyah . The vowels signs fatḥah or kasrah represent a phonemic shwa /ə/ which was lost in the post-medieval language, e.g. tuwərmin ⟨tūwarmīn⟩ ( تووَرمين ‎) “joints, articulation”. Labialization may be represented by ḍammah , e.g. tagʷərsa ⟨tāgursā⟩ ( تاكُرسا ‎) “ploughshare”. Prepositions, possessive complements and

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