List of forms of government
113-405: A provisional government , also called an interim government , an emergency government , a transitional government or provisional leadership , is a temporary government formed to manage a period of transition, often following state collapse , revolution , civil war , or some combination thereof. Provisional governments generally come to power in connection with a grave crisis that has caused
226-602: A bloodless coup . Conté assumed the role of president, with Traoré serving as prime minister, until December. Conté denounced the previous regime's record on human rights, releasing 250 political prisoners and encouraging approximately 200 thousand more to return from exile. He made explicit the turn away from socialism. In 1992, Conté announced a return to civilian rule, with a presidential poll in 1993, followed by elections to parliament in 1995 (in which his party—the Party of Unity and Progress —won 71 of 114 seats). In September 2001,
339-458: A coup , declaring himself head of a military junta . Protests against the coup became violent, and 157 people were killed when, on 28 September 2009, the junta ordered its soldiers to attack people gathered to protest Camara's attempt to become president. The soldiers went on a rampage of rape, mutilation, and murder, which caused some foreign governments to withdraw their support for the new regime. On 3 December 2009, an aide shot Camara during
452-678: A disputed succession to the throne can cause the 'utter collapse of royal authority'. The Wars of the Roses ended the Lancastrian dynasty at the battle of Tewkesbury in 1471; and led to the downfall of Richard III and the Yorkist line at the battle of Bosworth in 1485. In Angola in the 1980's, aid from the USSR was the 'principal cause of collapse', turning the ruling elite into unpopular 'worshippers of foreign divinities'. Soon afterwards
565-425: A puppet state in northern Italy, he "divided Italy in two and initiated 18 months of terrible civil war." Ken Livingstone has compared Slobodan Milosevic to Hitler for his racism and expansionist goals. Saddam Hussein , who also suffered from a Messiah complex, was similar: "Hitler was not one of a kind. As long as millions of people passionately long for his return, it is only a matter of time until their wish
678-426: A " Masada complex" that may drive fanatics to a suicidal, violent last-ditch stand. In a totalitarian state or an ideocracy , individuals may develop a closed mind and an authoritarian personality , making them more likely to resist threats to the incumbent regime. According to psychologist Erich Fromm it is possible for an entire nation, if they all share the same vices and errors, to become insane—a "folie
791-470: A "Christ in the image of the rejected and agonizing monarchy". Few political scientists credibly predicted the collapse of the Soviet Union or agreed on its causes: in hindsight, Leonid Fituni lists 'poverty, hunger, regional conflicts, ethnic wars, deindustrialisation, foreign debt, elite corruption, disease epidemics, refugee problems, environmental issues' as causes. Armed forces may take over
904-581: A "constitutional" resolution of the situation. China (which relies on Guinea for half of its aluminium ore, facilitated by connections to ousted President Condé) openly opposed the coup. Guinea's armed forces are divided into 5 branches—army, navy, air force, the paramilitary National Gendarmerie and the Republican Guard—whose chiefs report to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff who
1017-494: A ' Promised land ', but because he leads them away from their unwanted selves". When collapse threatens he may insist on a "fight to the finish". Hitler, according to Walter Langer had a Messiah complex and saw himself as the "Saviour of Germany" who performed "miracles" with the economy. He was unnaturally fond of his mother, to the extent that Germany became a "mother symbol". His drive to destroy (the Jews, communism, Europe)
1130-555: A collapsing state by coup d'etat . Some military regimes are able to reverse a downward spiral, but if they fail to do so, must rely ever more on coercion and control. The regime 'falls into the vacuum it has created'. This occurred in Uganda under Idi Amin in 1979; and in Somalia in 1991. Legitimacy refers to popular belief in, or acceptance of, an authority; thus it includes any leader achieving popularity at any given moment. When
1243-884: A convention of delegates from 13 British colonies on the east coast of North America became the provisional government of the United States in 1776, during the American Revolutionary War . The government shed its provisional status in 1781, following ratification of the Articles of Confederation , and continued in existence as the Congress of the Confederation until it was supplanted by the United States Congress in 1789. The practice of using "provisional government" as part of
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#17327723823521356-428: A democracy can also collapse "if voters don't get what they want and merely affirm the status quo." In these circumstances, voters deprived of real choice may opt for the least democratic option. In a divided, collapsing country lacking civil institutions, or in a closed country attempting reform and openness, the process of democratisation is 'dangerous' and may hasten collapse. In the USSR and Apartheid South Africa,
1469-602: A dispute over the rampage in September. Camara went to Morocco for medical care. Vice-president (and defense minister) Sékouba Konaté flew from Lebanon to run the country. After meeting in Ouagadougou on 13 and 14 January 2010, Camara, Konaté and Blaise Compaoré , President of Burkina Faso , produced a formal statement of 12 principles promising a return of Guinea to civilian rule within 6 months. The presidential election of 27 June brought allegations of fraud, and
1582-534: A dynamic model of the causes of state collapse. In their article in Global Change, Peace & Security , they argue that a state collapse happens when 1) opposition groups arm themselves and mobilise against the government; 2) political transitions such as decolonisation or regime change cause existing power structures to be questioned; 3) politics prolong power struggles and undermine existing institutions; 4) repression causes extreme distrust between rulers and
1695-739: A formal name can be traced to Talleyrand 's government in France in 1814. In 1843, American pioneers in the Oregon Country , in the Pacific Northwest region of North America established the Provisional Government of Oregon —as the U.S. federal government had not yet extended its jurisdiction over the region—which existed until March 1849. The numerous provisional governments during the Revolutions of 1848 gave
1808-457: A majority of the votes cast to be elected president. The president governs Guinea, assisted by a council of 25 civilian ministers , appointed by him. The government administers the country through 8 regions, 33 prefectures , over 100 subprefectures , and districts (known as communes in Conakry and other cities and villages, or quartiers in the interior). District-level leaders are elected;
1921-672: A military coup and authoritarian military rule. According to Sabrina Ramet , regenerative changes occurred in Yugoslavia in the 1980s when the communist ideology was replaced by a nationalist drive for a Greater Serbia and by an anti-bureaucratic revolution in support of Slobodan Milosevic . The Young Turk coup of 1908, the 1991 Soviet coup d'etat attempt , and the financial/industrial reforms of Sergei Witte in Imperial Russia, were all aimed at regenerating causes which were nearing collapse. Marina Ottaway discusses
2034-546: A millions" . Inhumane treatment by the rulers inevitably leads to collapse; Despots and ruling cliques can succeed in dominating and exploiting their fellow man ... but their subjects react ... with apathy, impairment of intelligence, initiative and skills ... or they react by the accumulation of such hate and destructiveness as to bring about an end to themselves, their rulers and their system. ... if man lives under conditions contrary to his nature and to human growth and sanity, he cannot help reacting.' Mark Blyth alleges that
2147-479: A new government can be appointed. Caretaker governments operate entirely within the existing constitutional framework and most countries tightly circumscribe their authority, in contrast to provisional governments, which often operate in the absence of any elected legislature and usually enjoy expansive, if temporary, powers. In opinion of Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz, provisional governments can be classified to four groups: The establishment of provisional governments
2260-579: A period of several months". According to Call, between 1995 and 2005, the main examples of collapsed states included Somalia , which had a sustained collapse from 1990 to 2004; the Soviet Union in 1991; Yugoslavia in 1992; and possibly Afghanistan from 1992 to 1995. Recent scholarship has focused on identifying measurable dimensions of state capacity, building on the institutionalist approach associated with Max Weber . Daniel Lambach, Eva Johais, and Markus Bayer have thus defined state collapse as
2373-495: A population of 1,675,069 ranks as a special zone. Guinea is a republic. The president is directly elected by the people and is the head of state and the head of government . The unicameral National Assembly is the legislative body of the country, and its members are directly elected by the people. The judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court of Guinea [ fr ] , the highest and final court of appeal in
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#17327723823522486-403: A public appearance in Conakry. His opponents claimed that he was a "tired dictator", whose departure was inevitable, whereas his supporters believed that he was winning a battle with dissidents. According to Foreign Policy , Guinea was in danger of becoming a failed state . In 2000, Guinea suffered as rebels crossed the borders from Liberia and Sierra Leone . Some thought that the country
2599-595: A raid on Conakry by several hundred exiled Guinean opposition forces. Among their goals, the Portuguese military wanted to kill or capture Sekou Touré due to his support of PAIGC , an independence movement and rebel group that had carried out attacks inside Portuguese Guinea from their bases in Guinea. After some fighting, the Portuguese-backed forces retreated. Guinea was elected as a non-permanent member of
2712-529: A regular political process, which is generally an election . They may be involved with defining the legal structure of subsequent regimes, guidelines related to human rights and political freedoms , the structure of the economy , government institutions , and international alignment. Provisional governments differ from caretaker governments , which are responsible for governing within an established parliamentary system and serve temporarily after an election, vote of no confidence or cabinet crisis , until
2825-505: A second election was held on 7 November. Voter turnout was "high", and the elections went "relatively smoothly". Alpha Condé , leader of the opposition party Rally of the Guinean People (RGP), won the election, promising to reform the security sector and review mining contracts. In February 2013, political violence erupted after street protests over the transparency of the upcoming May elections . The protests were fueled by
2938-454: A sovereign and independent republic, with Sékou Touré as president. Later, Opération Persil was planned by Jacques Foccart ; they planned to create large quantities of forged Guinean francs to hyperinflate Guinea's economy and to arm Touré's opposition figures. However, the operation was leaked, and soon, the Guinean was issuing a number of official complaints. In 1960, Touré declared
3051-456: A viable government results. Services are absent and national borders are unprotected, as in Haiti , Somalia , Yemen and South Sudan . A failed state can fragment, be taken over by outside forces, or descend into chaos. The Mongol Empire was able to conquer and unite the various kingdoms and empires spanning China into one state again in 1279, due to a lack of centralised state authority over
3164-420: Is believed that the first case was Emile Ouamouno, a 2-year-old boy in the village of Meliandou . He fell ill on 2 December 2013 and died on 6 December. On 18 September 2014, 8 members of an Ebola education health care team were murdered by villagers in the town of Womey . As of 1 November 2015, there had been 3,810 cases and 2,536 deaths in Guinea. Mass civil unrest and violent protests broke out against
3277-552: Is frequently tied to the implementation of transitional justice . Provisional governments may be responsible for implementing transitional justice measures as part of the path to establishing a permanent government structure. The early provisional governments were created to prepare for the return of royal rule. Irregularly convened assemblies during the English Revolution , such as Confederate Ireland (1641–49), were described as "provisional". The Continental Congress ,
3390-497: Is fulfilled." Nicolae Ceaușescu "went mad" as early as 1971 according to John Sweeney , when, "blind to his own Messianism", he attempted to recreate North Korean totalitarianism in Romania . He "played the king" and the role of "chosen one" and "saviour". Managerial incapacity, failing to meet popular needs, causes dissatisfaction. If the government avoids necessary choices, practices only defensive politics, and represses
3503-463: Is home to 5 ecoregions: Guinean montane forests , Western Guinean lowland forests , Guinean forest-savanna mosaic , West Sudanian savanna , and Guinean mangroves . It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.9/10, ranking it 114th globally out of 172 countries. The southern part of Guinea lies within the Guinean Forests of West Africa Biodiversity hotspot , while
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3616-684: Is illegal in Guinea. The prime minister declared in 2010 that he does not consider sexual orientation a legitimate human right. Guinea has one of the world's highest rates of female genital mutilation (FGM, sometimes referred to as 'female circumcision') according to Anastasia Gage, an associate professor at Tulane University , and Ronan van Rossem, an associate professor at Ghent University . Female genital mutilation in Guinea had been performed on more than 98% of women as of 2009 . In Guinea "almost all cultures, religions, and ethnicities" practice female genital mutilation. The 2005 Demographic and Health Survey reported that 96% of women have gone through
3729-452: Is now Guinea either bordered or was situated within a series of historic African empires before the French arrived in the 1890s and claimed the terrain as part of colonial French West Africa . Guinea declared independence from France on 2 October 1958. From independence until the presidential election of 2010, Guinea was governed by multiple autocratic rulers. What is now Guinea sat on
3842-489: Is one of the emerging regional producers of apples and pears. There are plantations of grapes, pomegranates, and more recent years have seen the development of strawberry plantations, based on the vertical hydroponic system. Guinea has 25% or more of the world's known bauxite reserves. It has diamonds, gold, and other metals. Bauxite and alumina are the most major exports. Guinea possesses over 25 billion tonnes (metric tons) of bauxite —and perhaps up to one half of
3955-523: Is roughly the size of the United Kingdom. There are 320 km (200 mi) of coastline and a total land border of 3,400 km (2,100 mi). It lies mostly between latitudes 7° and 13°N , and longitudes 7° and 15°W , with a smaller area that is west of 15°. Guinea is divided into 4 regions: Maritime Guinea , also known as Lower Guinea or the Basse-Coté lowlands, populated mainly by
4068-804: Is subordinate to the Minister of Defence. In addition, regime security forces include the National Police Force (Sûreté Nationale). The Gendarmerie, responsible for internal security, has a strength of several thousand. The army, with about 15,000 personnel, is by far the largest branch of the armed forces and is mainly responsible for protecting the state borders, the security of administered territories, and defending Guinea's national interests. Air force personnel total about 700. Its equipment includes several Russian-supplied fighter planes and transports. The navy has about 900 personnel and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Homosexuality
4181-727: The African National Congress , and other political organizations, resulting in South Africa's first non-racial election , which was won by the African National Congress . 'Misbegotten wars, when serving as culmination points of more general national decline, can be fatal', says Robert Kaplan. Participation in World War I was a decisive factor in the collapse of Ottoman Turkey, the Austro-Hungarian empire and Russia in 1917. In an absolute monarchy,
4294-631: The Allies . As of 2024 in Europe, only Belarus , South Ossetia , and the Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine have provisional governments. The former two were established by the opposition in parallel with the government of the Republic of South Ossetia–State of Alania and the government of the Republic of Belarus , while the latter exists as a Russian puppet government in opposition to
4407-520: The Battle of Kirina in c. 1235 . The Mali Empire was ruled by Mansa (Emperors), including Kankou Moussa , who made a hajj to Mecca in 1324. After his reign, the Mali Empire began to decline and was ultimately supplanted by its vassal states in the 15th century. The Songhai Empire expanded its power in about 1460. It continued to prosper until a civil war, over succession, followed
4520-547: The Democratic Party of Guinea the country's only legal political party, and for the next 24 years, the government and PDG were one. Touré was re-elected unopposed to four 7-year terms as president, and every 5 years voters were presented with a single list of PDG candidates for the National Assembly. On 22 November 1970, Portuguese forces from neighbouring Portuguese Guinea staged Operation Green Sea ,
4633-609: The Republic of Guinea ( French : République de Guinée ), is a coastal country in West Africa . It borders the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Guinea-Bissau to the northwest, Senegal to the north, Mali to the northeast, Côte d'Ivoire to the southeast, and Sierra Leone and Liberia to the south. It is sometimes referred to as Guinea-Conakry , after its capital Conakry , to distinguish it from other territories in
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4746-624: The State of Palestine under both Fatah (detailed above) and Hamas , Syria , and Yemen currently have provisional governments. The Syrian provisional governments are opposition groups in rebellion against their internationally recognized government. Afghanistan's provisional government is unrecognized, but is de facto the country's sole governing body. Myanmar and Yemen have both ruling and opposition provisional governments. Provisional governments were also established throughout Europe as occupied nations were liberated from Nazi occupation by
4859-630: The Susu ethnic group; the cooler, more mountainous Fouta Djallon that run roughly north–south through the middle of the country, populated by Fulas; the Sahelian Haute-Guinea to the northeast, populated by Malinké ; and the forested jungle regions in the southeast, with several ethnic groups. Guinea's mountains are the source for the Niger, the Gambia, and Senegal Rivers, and rivers flowing to
4972-561: The U.S. Bill of Rights , New Deal social legislation, the liberal constitutions of several European states and even the Soviet Union." Collapse may be followed by formal or informal efforts at justice, such as the Nuremberg trials and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa) . Slobodan Milosevic and Saddam Hussein were also tried in court. Germany has faced up to its German collective guilt and 'legacy of 'shame' for
5085-661: The UN Security Council 1972–73. In 1977, a declining economy and a ban on all private economic transactions led to the Market Women's Revolt , a series of anti-government riots started by women working in Conakry's Madina Market . Touré vacillated from supporting the Soviet Union to supporting the United States. The late 1970s and early 1980s saw some economic reforms. After the election of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing as French president, trade increased and
5198-501: The United Nations . According to a February 2009 U.S. Department of State statement, Guinea's foreign relations, including those with its West African neighbours, had improved steadily since 1985. The Department's October 2018 statement indicated that although "the U.S. condemned" Guinea's "2008 military coup d'etat," the U.S. had "close relations" with Guinea before the coup, and after "Guinea's presidential elections in 2010,
5311-435: The eponymous region , such as Guinea-Bissau and Equatorial Guinea . Guinea has a population of 14 million and an area of 245,857 square kilometres (94,926 sq mi). Formerly French Guinea , it achieved independence in 1958. Guinea has a history of military coups d'état . After decades of authoritarian rule, it held its first democratic election in 2010. As it continued to hold multi-party elections,
5424-509: The government of Ukraine . State collapse State collapse is a sudden dissolution of a sovereign state . It is often used to describe extreme situations in which state institutions dissolve rapidly. When a new regime moves in, often led by the military, civil society typically fails to rally around the central government, and societal actors fend for themselves at the local level. Neighboring states interfere politically, sometimes harboring dissidents within their borders, and
5537-539: The 1990's. In the case of post-WW1 Austria, the loss of pre-war markets in the Austro-Hungarian empire encouraged fears of economic decline, thus the idea of Anschluss with Germany, and Austria's downfall by German invasion in 1938. In the Soviet Union, the dramatic drop of the price of oil in 1985 and 1986 and the Reagan administration's escalation of the arms race ('they can't sustain military spending
5650-517: The 1990s, when its six socialist republics broke apart to become separate countries; though Slovenia seceded peacefully, civil wars broke out in Croatia , Bosnia and Kosovo , then part of Serbia , due to nationalist elites manipulating communal tensions. The ethnic discrimination of the apartheid system in South Africa ended through negotiations between the governing National Party ,
5763-524: The 2021 coup, and some of Guinea's allies condemned the coup. The African Union and West Africa's regional bloc ( ECOWAS ) both threatened sanctions, while some analysts expect the threats to be of limited effect because Guinea is not a member of the West African currency union and is not a landlocked country. ECOWAS promptly suspended Guinea's membership and demanded the unconditional release of President Condé, while sending envoys to Conakry to attempt
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#17327723823525876-738: The Austrian Anschluss of 1938. The partition of India in 1947 led to the creation of two independent nations, India and Pakistan. When Ottoman Turkey collapsed at the end of World War I , it lost territory, including what became Syria , Iraq and Palestine ; the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire gave rise to Czechoslovakia , Hungary and the Austrian Republic, while Slovenia and Croatia became part of Yugoslavia . Nazi Germany in 1945 fragmented into East and West Germany, while Pomerania and Silesia became part of Poland. The USSR breakup led to regional wars in
5989-625: The Hitler years in such media portrayals as Downfall . Denial has been a common reaction in post-collapse nations. In post-apartheid South Africa, white liberals were more likely to feel guilt feelings than conservatives. Some have refused to accept responsibility for massacres, as in Holocaust denial , the Myth of the clean Wehrmacht and the Armenian genocide denial ; a fictitious explanation for
6102-512: The Soviet Union led to state collapse in Georgia , Bosnia-Herzegovina , and Tajikistan . Other cases of state collapse included Laos, following an attack backed by the United States which led to partitioning of the country into spheres of influence; Lebanon, which went through a full-scale civil war; and Afghanistan, where insurgents challenged the communist regime and moved against Soviet intervention. In 2020, Johais, Bayer and Lambach proposed
6215-678: The USSR itself collapsed, in part due to the 'demands of the main sponsor', the USA. The 2010 Haiti earthquake caused a surge in aid which: created a huge parallel government run by NGOs and contractors; destroyed weak institutions; inflated wages, rents, and prices beyond the reach of local businesses; and gave the Haitian government no incentive to undertake necessary reforms. Either the incumbent regime itself, or an extremist reactionary group dissatisfied with its performance, may attempt to postpone or avoid collapse by regenerating popular support; 'At
6328-442: The United States re-established strong diplomatic relations with the government." The statement indicated support for the "legislative elections in 2013 and a second presidential election in 2015" as signs of "democratic reform." A March 2021 report by the U.S. Department of State blasted extensive human rights violations by the government, security forces and businesses in Guinea. The report cited extensive international criticism of
6441-512: The armies of Samori Touré , Mansa (or Emperor) of the Ouassoulou state and leader of Malinké descent, in 1898 gave France control of what today is Guinea and adjacent areas. France negotiated Guinea's present boundaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the British for Sierra Leone , the Portuguese for their Guinea colony (now Guinea-Bissau ), and Liberia . Under the French,
6554-565: The arms trafficking, set up a justice system and rebuild the economy, all against the opposition of warlords, extremists and smugglers. In 1946, the Diet ratified a new Constitution of Japan The new constitution drafted by Americans allowed access and control over the Japanese military through MacArthur and the Allied occupation on Japan. "The political project drew much of its inspiration from
6667-567: The army refused to fight in the civil war. State collapse is prevalent in much of post-colonial Africa and has occurred in two waves: in the 1980's, the second decade of independence, in Chad, Uganda and Ghana; and a decade later, in Somalia and Liberia . Collapse is marked by the loss of control of political space. Neighbour states may intervene directly in a collapsing state; or they may host dissident movements. The collapse of Afghanistan in 2021
6780-455: The central power. The Japanese philosopher Hajime Tanabe points to the quasi-religious role of the state to mediate between mortal individuals and the eternal universe, so that states regularly collapse; like religious figures, they must undergo a process of death and resurrection . In his view this may account for the perennial popularity of states because they regularly demonstrate their ability to transcend death. Psychologists speak of
6893-538: The civil administration with its military counterpart. The United Nations , European Union , African Union , ECOWAS (which suspended Guinea's membership), and La Francophonie denounced the coup, and called for President Condé's unconditional release. Similar responses came from some neighboring and Western countries (including the United States ), and from China (which relies on Guinea for half of its aluminum ore, facilitated by its connections to President Condé). Despite these, on 1 October 2021, Mamady Doumbouya
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#17327723823527006-494: The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Ottoman Empire in 1918, British India in 1947, the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the collapse of South Africa's white supremacist government in 1993, of Czechoslovakia the following year, and of Yugoslavia . State collapse is 'not necessarily anarchy'. If attempts at restructuring from within or without are unsuccessful, a long-term absence of
7119-728: The collapse of the German Empire in 1918 was found in the Stab-in-the-back myth . The collapse of the Ottomans in 1918 had long-term consequences, 'triggering most of the problems that plague the Middle East today'. Hegemony in the Middle East has been subject to quarrels between British, French, Israeli, American, Arab nationalist, Saudi and Iranian interests ever since. Guinea Guinea ( / ˈ ɡ ɪ n i / GHIN -ee ), officially
7232-415: The colonies the choice of autonomy in a new French Community or immediate independence in the referendum of 28 September 1958. Guinea voted overwhelmingly for independence. It was led by Ahmed Sékou Touré , whose Democratic Party of Guinea-African Democratic Rally (PDG) had won 56 of 60 seats in the 1957 territorial elections. The French later withdrew, and on 2 October 1958, Guinea proclaimed itself
7345-652: The country formed the Territory of Guinea within French West Africa , administered by a governor general resident in Dakar . Lieutenant governors administered the individual colonies, including Guinea. In 1958, the French Fourth Republic collapsed due to political instability and its failures in dealing with its colonies, especially Indochina and Algeria . The French Fifth Republic gave
7458-410: The country in the following weeks. Existing civil and economic unrest in the country temporarily worsened as a result, with several confrontations between protestors and police in Conakry, increased fuel and travel costs, and general price inflation throughout the country. Guinea shares a border with Guinea-Bissau to the northwest , Senegal to the north , Mali to the northeast , Ivory Coast to
7571-403: The country still faces ethnic conflicts, corruption, and abuses by the military and police. In 2011, the United States government claimed that torture by security forces and abuse of women and children (including female genital mutilation ) were ongoing human rights issues. In 2021, a military faction overthrew president Alpha Condé and suspended the constitution. Muslims represent 90% of
7684-412: The country. The National Assembly of Guinea , the country's legislative body, did not meet from 2008 to 2013, when it was dissolved after the military coup in December. Elections have been postponed multiple times since 2007. In April 2012, President Condé postponed the elections indefinitely, citing the need to ensure that they were "transparent and democratic". The 2013 Guinean legislative election
7797-449: The death of Askia Daoud in 1582. The empire fell to invaders from Morocco in 1591, but the kingdom later split into smaller kingdoms. After the fall of some of the West African empires, various kingdoms existed in what is now Guinea. Fulani Muslims migrated to Futa Jallon in Central Guinea, and established an Islamic state from 1727 to 1896 with a written constitution and alternate rulers. The Wassoulou or Wassulu Empire (1878–1898)
7910-612: The death toll in the Armenian genocide vary between 300,000 and 1.5 million. The partition of India displaced between 10 and 12 million Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims, creating overwhelming refugee crises; there was large-scale violence, with estimates of loss of life accompanying or preceding the partition disputed and varying between several hundred thousand and two million. In the former Yugoslavia collapse led to state failure, and ethnic cleansing and genocide erupted. State collapse in most cases incurs humanitarian tragedies, ending in massive outflows of refugees and others. Africa leads
8023-434: The dynasty." Group feeling ( asabiyyah , groupthink ) disappears as the dynasty grows senile. After three generations a new invading clique, "restless, alert and courageous", will cause the old dynasty to collapse in accordance with the principle in the Book of Exodus , chapter 20, verse four: God "visits the sins of the fathers onto their children, even unto the third and fourth generation of those that hate Him". Ibn Khaldun
8136-741: The east , Sierra Leone to the southwest and Liberia to the south . The nation forms a crescent as it curves from its southeast region to the north and west, to its northwest border with Guinea-Bissau and southwestern coast on the Atlantic Ocean. The sources of the Niger River , the Gambia River , and the Senegal River are all found in the Guinea Highlands . At 245,857 km (94,926 sq mi), Guinea
8249-404: The end of a dynasty there often appears some show of power giving the impression that the dynasty's senility has been made to disappear. It lights up brilliantly just before it is extinguished, like a candle which leaps up brilliantly just before it is put out'. To do so they may have to take 'heroic' measures; 'Throughout history there have always been in the event of defeat two paths of action;
8362-532: The eyes of the people'. In the USSR the 1991 Soviet coup d'etat attempt was foiled, not by the Gorbachev regime but by Boris Yeltsin and other reformers: Gorbachev never recovered from this blow to his legitimacy Such states are especially vulnerable to collapse as the people may not accept or understand the principles of legitimacy or nationhood. In Mozambique , the FRELIMO government lost legitimacy when
8475-648: The fringes of various West African empires. The earliest, the Ghana Empire , grew on trade and ultimately fell after repeated incursions of the Almoravids . It was in this period that Islam first arrived in the region by way of North African traders. The Sosso Empire came and stayed from 12th to 13th centuries; later, the Mali Empire came when Soundiata Kéïta defeated the Sosso ruler Soumangourou Kanté at
8588-417: The help of multilateral organizations and bilateral donors. State reconstruction involves five basic elements; 1) a central political authority, 2) control of borders, 3) control of national territory, 4) sufficient control and supply of resources to maintain the state, 5) availability of state agents sufficient to execute policy. Anyone attempting this in Somalia would have to; disarm thousands of gunmen, stop
8701-463: The illusion of power." Discussing how the "powerless" Mahatma Gandhi brought about the collapse of militarily "powerful" British India , Galbraith reflects that power, mostly seen as a possession of states and their leaders, would be better viewed as a flow, into and away from "those instruments that enforce it". Martin Wight deplored the "demonic concentrations of power" of the defeated countries in
8814-487: The inability to make and enforce binding rules; maintain a monopoly on violence ; and collect taxes. Using this framework, Lambach et al. identified 17 collapsed states between 1960 and 2007. The majority of cases were in sub-Saharan Africa , involving armed rebellions in countries including Chad , Uganda , Liberia , Somalia, Angola , Zaire , Guinea-Bissau , and Sierra Leone , plus Congo-Kinshasa, which collapsed following decolonization from Belgium. The dissolution of
8927-438: The informal economy becomes dominant, operating beyond the control of the state and further undermining potential reconstruction. While the definitions of " failed state " and " fragile state " have been contested for being "too broad and too vague", foreign policy experts such as Charles T. Call have advocated focusing on extreme cases of "collapsed states" instead, defined as "countries whose state apparatus ceases to exist for
9040-468: The largest are Susu , Pular , and Maninka , which dominate respectively in Maritime Guinea, Fouta Djallon, and Upper Guinea, while Guinée forestière is ethnolinguistically diverse. Guinea's economy is mostly dependent on agriculture and mineral production. It is the world's second-largest producer of bauxite and has deposits of diamonds and gold. As of the most recent survey in 2018, 66.2% of
9153-559: The mid-15th century to refer to the lands inhabited by the Guineus , a generic term for the black African peoples south of the Senegal River , in contrast to the "tawny" Zenaga Berbers above it, whom they called Azengues or Moors . In 1978, the official name became the People's Revolutionary Republic of Guinea. In 1984, the country was renamed the Republic of Guinea after the death of the first president, Ahmed Sékou Touré. The land that
9266-499: The newly created states of Tajikistan , Moldova , Azerbaijan and Georgia . The prospect, and chaos, of state collapse provides fearful elites with motive and opportunity to kill en masse (though the planning and implementation of genocide may be hampered by reduced resources). When defeat appeared inevitable, Hitler ordered the killing of invalids, Gypsies, Russians and Jews in the Final solution . In Ottoman Turkey, estimates for
9379-512: The north-east is characterized by dry savanna woodlands. Declining populations of some animals are restricted to uninhabited distant parts of parks and reserves. Species found in Guinea include the following: The Republic of Guinea covers 245,857 square kilometres (94,926 sq mi) of West Africa, about 10 degrees north of the equator. It is divided into 4 natural regions: Guinea is divided into 8 administrative regions which are subdivided into 33 prefectures . The capital Conakry with
9492-452: The one aims at saving enough of the substance as possible. the other at leaving behind a stirring legend'. According to Piekalkiewicz and Penn, they may rethink or adapt the ideology, or replace it by a completely new set of ideals. For example, in Poland, according to Piekalkiewicz and Penn, communist ideocracy failed in 1980; the recognition of Lech Walesa 's Solidarity Trade Union led to
9605-423: The operation. As of the most recent survey in 2018, 66.2% of the population is affected by multidimensional poverty and an additional 16.4% vulnerable to it. The agriculture sector at some point employed approximately 75% of the country. The rice is cultivated in the flooded zones between streams and rivers. The local production of rice is not sufficient to feed the country, so rice is imported from Asia. Guinea
9718-510: The opposition coalition's decision to step down from the elections in protest of the lack of transparency in the preparations for elections. Nine people were killed during the protests, and around 220 were injured. Some deaths and injuries were caused by security forces using live ammunition on protesters. The violence led to ethnic clashes between the Malinke and Fula , who supported and opposed President Condé, respectively. On 26 March 2013,
9831-404: The opposition leader Alpha Condé was imprisoned for endangering state security and pardoned 8 months later. Subsequently, he spent time in exile in France. In 2001, Conté organized and won a referendum to lengthen the presidential term, and in 2003, began his third term after elections were boycotted by the opposition. In January 2005, Conté survived a suspected assassination attempt while making
9944-514: The opposition party backed out of negotiations with the government over the election, saying that the government had not respected them, and had broken all agreements. On 25 March 2014, the World Health Organization stated that Guinea's Ministry of Health had reported an outbreak of Ebola virus disease in Guinea. This initial outbreak had 86 cases, including 59 deaths. By 28 May, there were 281 cases, with 186 deaths. It
10057-720: The population is affected by multidimensional poverty , and an additional 16.4% are vulnerable to it. The country was at the core of the Western African Ebola virus epidemic . Guinea is named after the Guinea region which lies along the Gulf of Guinea . It stretches north through the forested tropical regions and ends at the Sahel . The English term Guinea comes directly from the Portuguese word Guiné which emerged in
10170-674: The population. The country is divided into four geographic regions: Maritime Guinea on the Atlantic coast, the Fouta Djallon or Middle Guinea highlands, the Upper Guinea savanna region in the northeast, and the Guinée forestière region of tropical forests. French, the official language of Guinea, is a language of communication in schools, government administration, and the media. More than 24 indigenous languages are spoken, and
10283-708: The president appoints officials to all other levels of the centralized administration. Former President Alpha Condé derived support from Guinea's second-largest ethnic group, the Malinke . Guinea's opposition was backed by the Fula ethnic group, who account for around 33.4% of the population. Guinea is a member of the African Union , Agency for the French-Speaking Community , African Development Bank , Economic Community of West African States , World Bank , Islamic Development Bank , IMF , and
10396-430: The presidential palace, Lieutenant Colonel Mamady Doumbouya seized control of state television and declared that President Alpha Conde 's government had been dissolved and the nation's borders closed. By the evening, the putschists had declared control of all of Conakry and the country's armed forces. According to Guinée Matin , by 6 September, the military fully controlled the state administration and started to replace
10509-518: The previous century of disunity. The gradual weakening and collapse of the Byzantine empire starting in the 11th century led to territory being occupied by European and Ottoman powers, accelerating the total failure of the state. The collapse in authority and failure of other states such as the Golden Horde led to their territorial occupation by other states, in this case Russia. As in
10622-414: The previous government to suddenly and irreversibly collapse, such as economic collapse , civil war , defeat in a foreign war , revolution , or the death of a long-serving authoritarian ruler. Questions of democratic transition and state-building are often fundamental to the formation and policies of such governments. Provisional governments maintain power until a new government can be appointed by
10735-576: The protests with tyranny, the state is likely to implode. This was the case in Chad when it collapsed in 1980, and in Ghana in 1981. Czar Nicholas II , crowned at an early age, 26, was untrained in governance. Grand Duke Vladimir's son Cyril was a rival candidate for the throne. Liberals and revolutionaries challenged his autocracy. By 1916 he had become apathetic, dominated by the Czarina and Rasputin ,
10848-400: The recent national elections, which yielded "President Alpha Conde's re-election (despite disputed results) [...] following a controversial March referendum amending the constitution and allowing him to run for a third term." The department condemned the 2021 coup. The U.S. called for "national dialogue to address concerns sustainably and transparently". The United Nations promptly denounced
10961-532: The rest of society; 5) factionalism obstructs strengthening of state policies; 6) loss of cohesion within the ruling elite erodes the monopolisation of violence, rule-making, and tax collection; and 7) external interventions contribute to destabilisation. Islamic scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) produced a general theory of state collapse, transforming the study of history into a "new science". In his eyes, dynasties repeatedly become "sedentary, senile, coercive, pompous, subservient to desire ... liable to divisions in
11074-418: The rule of Alpha Conde on 14 October 2019, against constitutional changes. More than 800 were killed in clashes. After the 2020 Guinean presidential election , Alpha Condé's election to a third term was challenged by the opposition, who accused him of fraud. Condé claimed a constitutional referendum from March 2020 allowed him to run despite the 2-term limit. On 5 September 2021, after hours of gunfire near
11187-711: The sea on the west side of the range in Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast. The highest point in Guinea is Mount Nimba at 1,752 m (5,748 ft). While the Guinean and Ivorian sides of the Nimba Massif are a UNESCO Strict Nature Reserve , the portion of the so-called Guinean Backbone continues into Liberia , where it has been mined for decades; the damage is evident in the Nzérékoré Region at 7°32′17″N 8°29′50″W / 7.53806°N 8.49722°W / 7.53806; -8.49722 . Guinea
11300-489: The state became 'evil or tyrannical... destroying the institutions of civil society'; and in Somalia between 1970 and 1991, Siad Barre changed from 'prophetic rule, to autocracy, to tyranny'. In this context John Kenneth Galbraith regrets the "very slight" amount of research on the nature of political power. Power regularly passes to those who "assert the unknown with the greatest conviction... not necessarily related to intelligence." What we call "power" is, "in practice,
11413-403: The state fails to reward the people with civil rights, participation, accountability and oversight, legitimacy fades and collapse may occur In Afghanistan , the non-inclusive 2004 constitution, the international coalition's focus on power consolidation at the expense of democracy, and president Ashraf Ghani 's narrow circle of support, caused the regime to fall in 2021 as it 'lacked legitimacy in
11526-476: The two countries exchanged diplomatic visits. Sékou Touré died on 26 March 1984 after a heart operation in the United States, and was replaced by Prime Minister Louis Lansana Beavogui , who was to serve as interim president, pending new elections. PDG was due to elect a new leader on 3 April 1984. Under the constitution, that person would have been the only candidate for president. Hours before that meeting, Colonels Lansana Conté and Diarra Traoré seized power in
11639-411: The two world wars. A devout Christian, he saw their "triumphant self-destruction" as "Antichrist moments". According to political scientists, in an ideocracy there must be a ruthless charismatic leader: "the leader is the movement", and all individuals are required to submit to, and worship him. "Followers who lead barren, insecure, frustrated lives obey the leader, not through faith in his vision of
11752-580: The way we can') overstretched the USSR economy: while the economy of apartheid South Africa was weakened by sanctions, banking and other boycotts, divestment and shareholder activism. Loss of territorial control is a 'vital characteristic' of state collapse. If the components of society are neglected they may oppose the centre of power and fend for themselves. If civil war results, the state loses its Monopoly on violence , and force becomes privatised under warlords , paramilitary or guerrilla units. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia collapsed in
11865-554: The word its modern meaning: A liberal government established to prepare for elections. Numerous provisional governments have been established since the 1850s. As of 2024, seven African countries currently have provisional governments: Libya , Sudan , Burkina Faso , Guinea , Mali , Niger and Gabon . As of 2024 in the Americas, only Haiti has a provisional government. As of 2024 in Asia, Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Myanmar ,
11978-865: The world in refugee crises, especially in Somalia and Rwanda, and elsewhere, Bosnia and Haiti . Earlier examples include: the Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944-1950) from areas now part of Poland or Russia; the Revival Process when the People's Republic of Bulgaria collapsed; the White emigres who left Russia after the Czarist regime fell; and the South African diaspora after the collapse of apartheid. Collapsed states are now expected to be rebuilt, territorially intact and along democratic lines, with
12091-521: Was an unconscious attempt to resolve his Oedipus complex and the injustices of his childhood. He "dismantled the German state ... and replaced it with a war machine". He was swept along by a tide of events. Mussolini , according to Denis Mack Smith , "was an actor, playing the part that Italians wanted him to be". He was vindictive, sadistic, impulsive, proud and cruel, full of "demonic wilfulness" and did not know right from wrong. When in 1944 he led
12204-526: Was fatalistic: "This senility is a chronic disease which cannot be cured because it is something natural". Professor Geoff Mulgan discusses Ibn Khaldun in detail and agrees on the timescale: "There are obvious parallels between the lifespans of individuals and those of ruling groups." In the case of the USSR, a Marxist revolutionary wave had formed in which several subordinate regimes in Eastern Europe and Africa collapsed almost simultaneously with
12317-439: Was headed towards a civil war. Conté blamed neighbouring leaders for coveting Guinea's natural resources, and these claims were denied. In 2003, Guinea agreed to plans with her neighbours to tackle the insurgents. The 2007 Guinean general strike resulted in the appointment of a new prime minister. Conté remained in power until his death on 23 December 2008. Several hours after his death, Moussa Dadis Camara seized control in
12430-601: Was held on 24 September. President Alpha Condé 's party, the Rally of the Guinean People (RPG), won a plurality of seats in the National Assembly of Guinea , with 53 out of 114 seats. Cellou Dalein Diallo 's UFDG party won 37 seats, and opposition leaders denounced the official results as fraudulent. The president of Guinea is normally elected by popular vote for a 5-year term; the winning candidate must receive
12543-411: Was led by Samori Toure in the predominantly Malinké area of what is now upper Guinea and southwestern Mali (Wassoulou). It moved to Ivory Coast before being conquered by the French. European traders competed for the cape trade from the 17th century onward and made inroads earlier. Guinea's colonial period began with French military penetration into the area in the mid-19th century. The defeat of
12656-574: Was only possible because the Taliban were sheltered in Pakistan . Idi Amin was forced out of Uganda by Ugandan exiles combined with the invasion by Tanzania . In a collapsing state the economy may shrink because a) the Black economy overshadows the formal, more controlled economy, and b) peripheral areas may prefer to use a neighbour state's currency, as in Chad, Ethiopia in the 1980's and Zaire in
12769-454: Was sworn in as interim president. On 11 May 2023, at least 7 people were shot dead in anti-government demonstrations in cities across Guinea. The anti-government movement became involved in peaceful protests and called on rulers to end military rule in Guinea and transition the country to democracy. On 18 December 2023, an explosion occurred at the country's main oil depot in Conakry, killing 24 people and causing extensive fuel shortages in
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