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121-514: Presidency Family Portrayals Legacy [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Under President Nasser, proponents of statism and a command economy with limited private investment, dominated the political scene. However, by the 1970s, critics believed Egypt's economy, with its large public sector , had evolved into a " Soviet -style system" of "inefficiency, suffocating bureaucracy , and waste." Sadat also wanted to turn Egypt away from its focus on war with Israel and devotion of resources to

242-593: A condominium in which sovereignty would be shared between Egypt and the United Kingdom . Once established, the condominium witnessed ever-decreasing Egyptian control, and would for most of its existence be governed in practice by the United Kingdom through the Governor-General in Khartoum. For the remainder of his reign, this would be one of the flashpoints between the nationalist Khedive Abbas II and

363-483: A Western-sponsored counter-revolution, domestic religious extremism, potential communist infiltration, and the conflict with the State of Israel were all cited as reasons compelling severe and longstanding restrictions on political opposition, and the prohibition of a multi-party system. These restrictions on political activity would remain in place until the presidency of Anwar Sadat from 1970 onwards, during which many of

484-414: A brutal sectarian Muslim-Copt fight in the poor al-Zawaiyya Al Hamra district of Cairo , Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya was dissolved by the state their infrastructure was destroyed and their leaders arrested." According to interviews and information gathered by journalist Lawrence Wright , the radical Islamist group Egyptian Islamic Jihad was recruiting military officers and accumulating weapons, waiting for

605-582: A civilian government. The first issue was regarding the 1923 constitution. Ali Maher's argument that "immediate return of constitutional procedure" would "leave the country saddled with a defective constitution, an unsuitable electoral system, and an inefficient, party-ridden administration" was understood by the junta. A three-man regency was created to oversee palace affairs consisting of Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim , Wafdist Bahey El Din Barakat Pasha and Colonel Rashad Mehanna . The six principles of

726-610: A diplomatic offensive and by the fall of 1973 had support for a war of more than a hundred states, including most of the countries of the Arab League , Non-Aligned Movement , and Organization of African Unity . Syria agreed to join Egypt in attacking Israel. Egypt's armed forces achieved initial successes in the Crossing and advanced 15 km, reaching the depth of the range of safe coverage of its own air force. Having defeated

847-538: A dramatic election in the officers club, opposition candidates were elected to the Officers Club governing board. In mid-July, Farouk responded by annulling the election and appointing his own men to the board. With a crisis brewing, Sirri offered the War Ministry to General Muhammad Naguib , who was elected club president. When he refused, Sirri resigned on July 20, after failing to persuade Farouk to adopt

968-572: A final agreement with Britain were the pressing issues of the day. A faction known as the 'Wafdist Vanguards', attempted to push reform. A new law limited landowning to 50 feddans , but was not applicable to retroactive land gains and retained ministerial immunity. Wafd politician Fuad Sirageddin Pasha told the U.S. ambassador "I own 8000 feddans. Do you think I want Egypt to go communist ?". The CIA attempted to pressure King Farouk to adopt reforms suitable to American interests, but failed. Reformers in

1089-792: A highly unpopular roundup of more than 1,500 people, including many Jihad members, but also the Coptic Pope and other Coptic clergy, intellectuals and activists of all ideological stripes. All non-government press was banned as well. The round up missed a Jihad cell in the military led by Lieutenant Khalid Islambouli , who succeeded in assassinating Anwar Sadat that October. Sadat was succeeded by his Vice president Hosni Mubarak. Egyptian revolution of 1952 Coup successful President (1956–1970) Prime Minister (1954–(March)1954,(April)1954–1962,1967–1970) Deputy prime minister (1953–1954) [REDACTED] The Egyptian revolution of 1952 (Arabic: ثورة 23 يوليو ), also known as

1210-598: A large military establishment. He believed capitalist economic policies would build a substantial private sector , and alliance with the United States and the West would lead to prosperity ( rakhaa رخاء ) and eventually democratic pluralism. Infitah was not only ideologically but also politically motivated: by aligning himself with the capitalist West, and the rich and powerful members of Egyptian society, Sadat differentiated himself from his predecessor Nasser while at

1331-520: A list of nominees to appoint for cabinet positions, which Maher refused. Maher, a landowner himself, instead believed that land redistribution would damage the economy by lowering productivity and discouraging foreign investment. He proposed a revised progressive tax structure on land and a 500 feddan limit, whereby excess land would be taxed at 80%. The landowners suggested a 1,000 feddan limit, with additional exemptions of 100 feddans per wife and son and 50 feddans per daughter. A 2024 study found that in

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1452-518: A long term in office and had many changes in mind for Egypt; by some astute political moves, he was able to institute a "corrective revolution" (announced on 15 May 1971 ) that purged the government, political, and security establishments of the most ardent Nasserists . Sadat encouraged the emergence of an Islamist movement which had been suppressed by Nasser. Seeing Islamists as socially conservative, he gave them "considerable cultural and ideological autonomy" in exchange for political support. Following

1573-596: A major cash crop in Egypt. Under Isma'il the Magnificent , Egypt went through massive modernization programmes and campaigns of military expansion in Sudan and East Africa. Isma'il greatly accelerated the enfranchisement of the Egyptian peasantry and middle class, who had been politically and economically marginalized by the wealthy elites of Egyptian society. It was during this time that an Egyptian intelligentsia

1694-407: A mandate to further his reforms. The 'illegal-gains' legislation was to be expanded to root out corruption, and 'purge-committees' were created to 'purify' the parties. Maher refused to recall parliament or announce new elections; instead favoring martial law for at least half a year. However, Maher came into conflict with the officers. The junta was skeptical of traditional politicians, and gave Maher

1815-426: A more conciliatory pose toward the army. al-Hilali returned as prime minister on July 22, with the promise of total freedom to select a cabinet. However, when Farouk nominated his own brother-in-law war minister, al-Hilali resigned the next day. The modern Egyptian army was established as a result of the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty, which allowed the Egyptian army to expand from 398 officers to 982. Nasser applied at

1936-443: A new Egypt beyond petty party politics and street violence. The earliest reforms were populist but symbolic of a new era: the elimination of the government's summer recess to Alexandria, ending the subsidization of private automobiles for cabinet ministers, and the abolition of the honorific titles bey and pasha . Others were more economic, such as tax reforms, pay raises for the military and decreases in rent. The pressing issue of

2057-564: A party program. Anyone facing corruption charges was automatically ineligible for membership. The RCC refused to accept the Wafd's certification so long as Nahhas, who had refused to meet with Naguib so long as Sergeddin remained in prison, was listed as party president and founder. The Egyptian lawyer Sulayman Hafez summed up the RCC's feelings on Nahhas when he called him a "tumor in the body politic". The September prisoners were released on December 6,

2178-500: A perception heightened by his repressive policies. Discontent with Tewfik's rule ignited the Urabi Revolt of 1881, led by nationalist soldiers under Ahmed Urabi . Urabi came from a peasant family, and his rise through the ranks of the military in spite of his humble background had been made possible by the reforms of Isma'il—reforms which he saw as being under attack by Tewfik. The prospect of revolutionary instability in Egypt, and

2299-539: A proud nationalist, citing his order to the Ismalia police not to surrender their weapons in 1951. In the end, he received a fifteen-year sentence, but was released in 1956. When political parties were banned, RCC formed the Liberation Rally , a movement that would subsume all of the preexisting political movements. While it was effective at rallies and speeches, it did not have the same institutional power as

2420-508: A republic, end the British occupation of the country, and secure the independence of Sudan (previously governed as a condominium of Egypt and the United Kingdom ). The revolutionary government adopted a staunchly nationalist , anti-imperialist agenda, which came to be expressed chiefly through Arab nationalism , and international non-alignment . The Revolution was faced with immediate threats from Western imperial powers, particularly

2541-542: A result. ... As such, it was an unrealistically rapid developmental program that was doomed to fail." In 1977, negative public reaction to Infitah policies led to massive spontaneous riots involving hundreds of thousands of Egyptians when the state announced that it was retiring subsidies on basic foodstuffs. On 6 October 1981, Sadat was assassinated during a military parade in Cairo. History of Egypt under Anwar Sadat The history of Egypt under Anwar Sadat covers

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2662-604: A separate court system known as the Mixed Courts . Isma'il also established Egypt's first parliament. This period of intellectualism in Egypt, and the Arab world as a whole, later became known as the Nahda . Coupled with Isma’il's powerful espousal of Egyptian statehood, this contributed to the growth of Egyptian nationalism , particularly within the army. However, the war with Ethiopia ended in disaster, only further exasperating

2783-462: A small guerrilla war on the canal; 'liberation battalions' battled British forces. The government was rapidly losing control over the situation, as students on the Islamist right and socialist left ignited an inferno of non-violent strikes and violent battles. On January 25, 1952, seven thousand British troops ordered the Egyptian police at Ismalia to surrender their weapons. When the police refused,

2904-699: A small middle class, these reforms had little effect upon the average Egyptian who began to grow dissatisfied with Sadat's rule. In 1977, Infitah policies led to massive spontaneous riots ('Bread Riots') involving hundreds of thousands of Egyptians when the state announced that it was retiring subsidies on basic foodstuffs. Infitah has been criticized as bringing "wild rents, land speculations, inflation, and corruption." During Sadat's presidency, Egyptians began to receive more of their income from abroad. Between 1974 and 1985, more than three million Egyptians—construction workers, labourers, mechanics, plumbers, electricians as well as young teachers and accountants—migrated to

3025-526: A three-man Regency Council was appointed. The former king's departure into exile came on 26 July 1952 and at 6 o'clock that evening he set sail for Italy with protection from the Egyptian army . The Revolution Command Council (RCC), made up of the previous nine-member command committee of the Free Officers in addition to five more members, chaired by Naguib, was formed. Ali Maher was asked to form

3146-477: A unity government with the Wafd, but they denied his offer of several cabinet positions. His dealings with the Wafd, such as advocating a unity government , alienated his allies to the right and motivated Farouk to deal with him as soon as possible. He was pressured to produce a report on the Cairo Fire that implicated the Wafd as responsible, but refused. The king adjourned parliament and two palace loyalists in

3267-486: A very popular Egyptian writer, Dr. Mustafa Mahmud , who had formerly been a staunch believer in scientific positivism , human engineering , and materialism . Another prominent ex-secularist convert was Khalid Muhammad Khalid. ) The revival led to greater attendance in prayer and growth of non-state-controlled neighborhood mosques, but also to at least some conflict with the minority Coptic Christians of Egypt, an example being Islamist castigation of Muslim participation in

3388-587: A year later ordered Soviet advisers to leave. Soviets were engaged in détente with the United States and discouraged Egypt from attacking Israel. Sadat favored another war with Israel in hopes of regaining the Sinai peninsula and reviving a country demoralized from the 1967 war. He hoped that at least a limited victory over the Israelis would alter the status quo. In the months before the war Sadat engaged in

3509-564: Is the guardian of success"]. With his British support network now neutralized, King Farouk sought the intervention of the United States, which was unresponsive. By the 25th, the army had occupied Alexandria , where the King was in residence at the Montaza Palace . Terrified, Farouk abandoned Montaza and fled to Ras Al Teen Palace on the waterfront. Naguib ordered the captain of Farouk's yacht, al-Mahrusa , not to sail without orders from

3630-551: The 1952 coup d'état ( Arabic : انقلاب 1952 ) and 23 July Revolution , was a period of profound political, economic, and societal change in Egypt . On 23 July 1952 the revolution began with the toppling of King Farouk in a coup d'état by the Free Officers Movement . This group of army officers was led by Mohamed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser . The Revolution ushered in a wave of revolutionary politics in

3751-594: The Arab World , and contributed to the escalation of decolonisation , and the development of Third World solidarity during the Cold War . Though initially focused on grievances against King Farouk, the movement had more wide-ranging political ambitions. In the first three years of the Revolution, the Free Officers moved to abolish the constitutional monarchy and aristocracy of Egypt and Sudan , establish

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3872-567: The Naqab desert , a successful Israeli counter-offensive left Egypt with just the Gaza Strip . During the Faluja pocket , a young Egyptian officer called Gamal Abdel-Nasser made a name for himself as a hero for holding out until the 1949 armistice agreement . Anger over corruption in the war, such as rumors of gun-smuggling leading to Egyptian troops being underequipped for battle. Returning from

3993-685: The Oriental Crisis . As a result of these wars, Egypt was expelled from the Levant , but allowed to keep its Sudanese territory. After Muhammad Ali's death, his successors Abbas I and Sa'id attempted to modernize Egypt, such as starting construction of the Suez Canal . Due to conscription, taxes were raised on nobles in exchange for more land and peasants ( fellahin in Arabic). Peasants continued to lose access to their land as cotton became

4114-749: The Ottoman Sultan . Within a matter of decades, Muhammad Ali transformed Egypt from a neglected Ottoman province to a virtually independent state that temporarily rivalled the Ottoman Empire itself for dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean, and the Mashreq . Muhammad Ali conquered the Sudan , invaded East Africa , and led Egypt during both the First Egyptian–Ottoman War and Second Egyptian-Ottoman War , triggering

4235-516: The Uganda–Tanzania War . In his first public speech after Egypt's defeat at the hand of the Israel, Sadat's predecessor Abdul Nasser called for religion to play a more important role in society. The line is said to have drawn "an exceptionally enthusiastic roar of applause" by the Egyptian audience, and three years later when the 1970s began, religiosity was ascendant in Egypt (as in much of

4356-533: The United Kingdom , which had occupied Egypt since 1882, and France , both of whom were wary of rising nationalist sentiment in territories under their control throughout Africa , and the Arab World . The ongoing state of war with Israel also posed a serious challenge, as the Free Officers increased Egypt's already strong support of the Palestinians . These two issues converged in the fifth year of

4477-636: The middle class under the Nasser regime through education and jobs as doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, journalists for the government or parastatals , were left stuck in an "increasingly marginalized, stagnant and low-paying public sector," under Infitah. Infitah was a shock to the Nasser-era middle class, reversing the socialist principles of Nasserism, seeming to revoke policies of free education, social equality, abolition of feudalism , nationalization of land and industry, and progressive taxation . At

4598-522: The 19th and early 20th centuries was defined by the vastly different reigns of successive members of the Muhammad Ali dynasty and the gradually increasing intrusion into Egyptian affairs of the Great Powers , particularly the United Kingdom . From 1805, Egypt underwent a period of rapid modernisation under Muhammad Ali Pasha , who declared himself Khedive in defiance of his nominal suzerain,

4719-593: The 200 feddan limit. At first the Egyptian legal scholar Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri was considered to fill in Maher's shoes, but American concerns over Sanhuri's signature in the Stockholm appeal of 1951 led to Naguib's appointment as prime minister. Rashad al-Barawi was also considered, but the American ambassador Jefferson Caffery rejected this idea, calling al-Barawi a 'commie'. The junta pressed for party reform,

4840-667: The British high representative in Cairo exercising more power than the Khedive himself. In 1888, at the Convention of Constantinople, the United Kingdom won the right to protect the Suez Canal with military force, giving Britain a permanent base from which to dominate Egyptian politics. In 1899, the United Kingdom forced Tewfik's successor as Khedive, the nationalist Abbas II , to transform Sudan from an integral part of Egypt into

4961-409: The Egyptian people to try to push through vast economic reforms that ended the socialistic controls of Nasserism . Sadat introduced greater political freedom and a new economic policy, the most important aspect of which was the infitah or "openness". This relaxed government controls over the economy and encouraged private investment. While the reforms created a wealthy and successful upper class and

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5082-630: The Egyptian treasury. The Caisse de la Dette Publique (Public Debt Commission) was founded as a way for Egypt to pay its debts. Isma'il's grand policies were ruinously expensive, and financial pressure eventually compelled him to sell Egypt's shares in the Universal Company of the Maritime Canal of Suez , the company that owned the 99-year lease to manage the Suez Canal . The sale of the Canal mere years after it had been constructed at

5203-461: The Israeli forces to this extent, Egyptian forces, rather than advancing under air cover, decided to immediately penetrate further into the Sinai desert. In spite of huge losses they kept advancing, creating the chance to open a gap between army forces. That gap was exploited by a tank division led by Ariel Sharon , and he and his tanks managed to penetrate onto Egyptian soil, reaching Suez city. In

5324-501: The Muslim world). Beards on men and hijab on women became more popular. Religious programs appeared on state TV and radio. Islamic preachers (such as Sheikh Muhammad Metwally Al Shaarawy ) began to take prominence as symbols of popular Egyptian culture. Novels, plays, science-fiction, philosophy books singing the praises of Islam, often by converts from secularism. (An example being My Itinerary from Doubt to Belief , an autobiography by

5445-642: The Nasser era. President Sadat shifted Egypt from a policy of confrontation with Israel to one of peaceful accommodation through negotiations. Following the Sinai Disengagement Agreements of 1974 and 1975, Sadat created a fresh opening for progress by his dramatic visit to Jerusalem in November 1977. This led to the invitation from President Jimmy Carter of the United States to President Sadat and Israeli prime minister Begin to enter trilateral negotiations at Camp David. The outcome

5566-403: The Nasser era. Sadat tried to expand participation in the political process in the mid-1970s but later abandoned this effort. In the last years of his life, Egypt was wracked by violence arising from discontent with Sadat's rule and sectarian tensions, and it experienced a renewed measure of repression including extra judicial arrests. In foreign relations Sadat also launched momentous change from

5687-629: The Obassia Military College, Egypt's leading cadet school, in 1937. Anwar Sadat graduated from the Egyptian Military Academy in 1938. Sadat had been trying to form an anti-British uprising since the 1940s, but was arrested after meeting with two Nazi spies in 1942. The humiliating 1942 British coup and the disaster in Palestine motivated the creation of a secret cell of revolutionary Egyptian officers. After

5808-690: The Ottoman Empire in 1517, was re-established with Hussein Kamal as Sultan . Despite the restoration of the nominal sultanate, British power in Egypt and Sudan was undiminished, as the United Kingdom declared Egypt to be a formal protectorate of the United Kingdom. Whilst Egypt was not annexed to the British Empire, with the British King never becoming sovereign of Egypt, Egypt's status as a protectorate precluded any actual independence for

5929-463: The Persian Gulf region. Remittances from these workers allowed families in Egypt to buy "refrigerators, TV sets, video recorders, cars and flats." Liberalization also included the reinstitution of due process and the legal banning of torture. Sadat dismantled much of the existing political machine and brought to trial a number of former government officials accused of criminal excesses during

6050-414: The RCC as dedicated to "the struggle against imperialism and the Egyptian traitors who served it cause". Traitors were spreading rumors intending to destabilize the economy and cause hatred towards the army, especially through the universities. While he did not name anyone directly, a mocking imitation of a party leader kissing the King's hand was unmistakably evoking al-Nahhas. Salim's speech best exemplifies

6171-405: The RCC were: The officers did not want to simply remove the king and then retreat into a civilian government. The RCC believed that the entire Egyptian system needed to be overhauled, to remove 'reactionary' elements and restore stability. The RCC were not Marxists, but were receptive to the socialist critique of the traditional system. The officers moved to purge their opponents in Egypt to create

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6292-638: The RCC's mentality that student protesters and workers strikes were a part of a counter-revolutionary conspiracy. Within a week of the speech, the government arrested eleven politicians, and placed Nahhas and his wife under house arrest. The trial of former prime minister and Sa'adist leader Ibrahim Abdel Hady over corruption and the murder of Hasan al-Banna lasted only a week before the court sentenced him to death, later commuted to life imprisonment three day later. Most defendants either received 10–15 year sentences, were stripped of property, or were fined. The most severe sentences were for British collaborators in

6413-552: The Revolution when Egypt was invaded by the United Kingdom, France, and Israel in the Suez Crisis of 1956 (known in Egypt as the Tripartite Aggression ). Despite enormous military losses, the war was seen as a political victory for Egypt, especially as it left the Suez Canal in uncontested Egyptian control for the first time since 1875, erasing what was seen as a mark of national humiliation. This strengthened

6534-520: The Sadat regime) from a minority group to being "in complete control of the universities" with the leftist organizations being driven underground. In the late 1970s, he began calling himself "The Believer President" and signing his name Mohammad Anwar Sadat. He ordered Egypt's state-run television to interrupt programs with the adhan (call to prayer) on the screen five times a day and to increase religious programming. Under his rule local officials banned

6655-486: The Suez insurgency – of the thirteen tried, eleven were convicted, four were hanged, one got a life sentence and the others were sentenced to 10–15 years. The trial of Fouad Serageddin was more than just the charges – a £EP 5,000 bribe, arms racketeering during the 1948 war, allowing the king to transfer funds outside the country, illegally benefiting from road paving as transport minister in 1945, and conspiring to monopolize

6776-614: The United Kingdom to recognise Egyptian independence in 1922 as the Kingdom of Egypt . However, Britain still retained the rights over the Sudan, its empire in Egypt and foreigners: The leading party after the revolution was the Wafd Party , led by Sa'ad Zaghoul and his successor Mostafa al-Nahhas . The resulting 1923 Egyptian constitution created a proper – albeit flawed – constitutional monarchy. Universal male suffrage allowed Egyptians to vote in parliamentary elections, however

6897-494: The United Kingdom, with Abbas seeking to arrest and reverse the process of increasing British control in Egypt and Sudan. Egyptians nationalism was brewing under the harsh economic policies of the British. Nationalist activists such as Mostafa Kamil Pasha , Abdullah an-Nadeem and Yaqub Sanu fought for greater autonomy for Egypt. The phrase "Egypt for the Egyptians" was a popular rallying cry among nationalists in protest to

7018-406: The aftermath of the coup, officials that were senior and had connections with the deposed monarch were more likely to be purged, while experienced bureaucrats and those with university education were more likely to be retained as part of the government. On September 7, Ali Maher was dismissed, and 64 other politicians, including Foaud Sergeddin, were arrested. The following day the government decreed

7139-426: The all-Egyptian spring holiday Sham el-Nessim . The picnicking festival, which has pre-Islamic roots, was attacked as a means for bringing about the "destruction of Islam in Egypt". Observers trace the revival to disenchantment with Arab Nationalism , as exemplified by Egypt's "shattering" 1967 defeat; the perceived victory of the 1973 war with its pious battle cry of Allahu Akbar ("Land, Sea and Air" had been

7260-493: The anniversary of the beginning of the October War. After Nasser's death, another of the original revolutionary " Free Officers ," then-Vice President Anwar el-Sadat , was elected President of Egypt. Nasser's supporters in government settled on Sadat as a transitional figure that—they believed—could be manipulated easily. Sadat lacked Nasser's charisma and popularity and "inspired neither awe nor envy." However, he enjoyed

7381-406: The appeal of the revolution in other Arab countries. Wholesale agrarian reform , and huge industrialisation programmes were initiated in the first decade and half of the Revolution, leading to an unprecedented period of infrastructure building, and urbanisation . By the 1960s, Arab socialism had become a dominant theme, transforming Egypt into a centrally planned economy . Official fear of

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7502-434: The army, we will not deal harshly with them, but will release them at the appropriate time. I assure the Egyptian people that the entire army today has become capable of operating in the national interest and under the rule of the constitution apart from any interests of its own. I take this opportunity to request that the people never permit any traitors to take refuge in deeds of destruction or violence because these are not in

7623-420: The army. Debate broke out among the Free Officers concerning the fate of the deposed king. While some (including Gen. Naguib and Nasser) thought that the best course of action was to send him into exile , others argued that he should be put on trial or executed. Finally, the order came for Farouk to abdicate in favour of his son, Crown Prince Ahmed Fuad – who was acceded to the throne as King Fuad II – and

7744-489: The army. They appointed a commander who is either ignorant or corrupt. Egypt has reached the point, therefore, of having no army to defend it. Accordingly, we have undertaken to clean ourselves up and have appointed to command us men from within the army whom we trust in their ability, their character, and their patriotism. It is certain that all Egypt will meet this news with enthusiasm and will welcome it. As for those whose arrest we saw fit from among men formerly associated with

7865-537: The cabinet resigned. The British ambassador refused to meet with Maher, forcing his resignation. Nagib al-Hilali succeeded Maher, taking a much more active approach. He decreed new anti-corruption laws and created 'purge-committees' to overhaul the bureaucracy. Hilai ordered Fuad Sirageddin under house arrest. A week later, he dissolved parliament, announcing new elections in May. By April, they were postponed indefinitely. The Egyptian journalist Ihsan Abdel Quddous criticized

7986-559: The closing weeks of the war, however, its territory became a battlefield between the Allies and Axis Powers. In 1942, the refusal of Egypt's young King Farouk to appoint al-Nahhas prime minister led by the Abdeen Palace Incident , where the British military surrounded Farouk's palace, and ordered him at gunpoint to appoint al-Nahhas. Though nationalist army officers, including Mohamed Naguib , appealed to Farouk to resist,

8107-404: The cost of some 80,000 Egyptian lives was seen as a national humiliation, particularly as it effectively granted the purchaser, the United Kingdom , a basis for interfering in Egyptian affairs. Shortly thereafter, the United Kingdom, along with the other Great Powers, deposed Isma'il in favour of his son, Tewfik Pasha . Tewfik was seen as a puppet of the foreign powers who had deposed his father,

8228-610: The cotton industry – the entire Wafd institution was effectively on trial. The prosecution focused mostly on Serageddin's rise to power within the Wafd and his personal failings in the 1950 government. Serageddin's rivals, the who's who of Egypt's liberal government, took the stand to air out personal grievances. Witnesses included former prime ministers ( Naguib al-Hilali , Hussein Sirri , Ali Maher ), Mohammed Hussein Heikal , and Makram Ebeid . In his defence, Serageddin positioned himself as

8349-412: The day was land reform . A ceiling on landholding of 200 feddans was agreed, to lower the price of land and therefore decrease rents. However, the junta butted heads with Ali Maher. Maher believed, like most in the political climate of Egypt, that a complete overhaul of the state was needed. By this time, many Egyptians believed that the 1923 system needed to be completely rebuilt. Maher assumed office with

8470-476: The deployment of British tanks and artillery outside the Royal palace forced the King to concede. This incident permanently damaged the prestige of both King Farouk's conservative clique and al-Nahhas' Wafd. The surrender to British convinced many Egyptian nationalists that only the removal of the entire 1923 system could bring an end to the United Kingdom's occupation of Egypt. The historian Selma Botman describes

8591-414: The disastrous Six-Day War of 1967, Egypt waged a War of Attrition in the Suez Canal zone. In 1971, four years into this war, Sadat endorsed in a letter the peace proposals of UN negotiator Gunnar Jarring , which seemed to lead to a full peace with Israel on the basis of Israel's withdrawal to its pre-war borders. This peace initiative failed, as neither Israel nor the United States of America accepted

8712-658: The domestic and foreign policy ideology that had defined Egyptian politics since the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 . In addition to abandoning many of Nasser's economic and political principles via the Infitah policy, Sadat ended Egypt's strategic partnership with the Soviet Union in favor of a new strategic relationship with the United States , initiated the peace process with the State of Israel in exchange for

8833-407: The eleven year period of Egyptian history from Anwar Sadat 's election as President of Egypt on 15 October 1970, following the death of President Gamal Abdel Nasser , to Sadat's assassination by Islamist fundamentalist army officers on 6 October 1981. Though presenting himself as a Nasserist during his predecessor's lifetime, upon becoming president, Sadat broke with many of the core tenets of

8954-408: The enmity of most other Arab states, however. Egypt was suspended from the Arab League , and in 1977 it fought a short border war with Libya. In October 1978, Sadat reportedly offered Ugandan President Idi Amin aid in form of military equipment, as his country invaded Tanzania . According to researcher Mark Yared, Egypt was one of the countries which provided Uganda with "multiform aid" during

9075-421: The evacuation of all Israeli military forces and settlers from Egyptian territory, and instituted a form of politics in Egypt that, whilst far removed from Egypt's pre-revolution democratic system, allowed for some multi-party representation in Egyptian politics. Sadat's tenure also witnessed a rise in governmental corruption, and a widening of the gulf between rich and poor, both of which would become hallmarks of

9196-450: The first communiqué of the coup d'état in the name of Gen. Naguib to the Egyptian people. It attempted to justify the coup , which was also known as the "Blessed Movement". The person reading the message was Free Officer and future president of Egypt Anwar Sadat . The coup was conducted by less than a hundred officers   —   almost all of which were drawn from junior ranks   —   and prompted scenes of celebration in

9317-411: The governing board of the Officers Club dissolved, causing the officers to fear their arrest was imminent. On the 23rd, infantry united seized general headquarters and blocked roads leading to Cairo. Nasser and Abdel Hakim Amr , as the higher level leaders, took a car ride to visit every unit in Cairo. After arresting his commanding officer, Muhammad Abu al-Fadl al-Gizawi answered several phone calls as

9438-459: The government, writing "Corruption does not mean corruption of the Wafd government alone". Rumors that the King Farouk was going to sack al-Hilali led him to resign on July 2. Huseinn Sirri moved as prime minister to lift Sirageddin's house arrest, though he did not promise new elections or to lift martial law. However, events in the military soon were spiraling out of control. In January, in

9559-582: The group's reconstitution). In 1971, the concentration camps where Islamists were held were closed, and the regime began to gradually release the imprisoned Muslim Brothers, though the organisation itself remained illegal; the last of those still behind bars regained their freedom in the general amnesty of 1975. Sadat also considered Islamists, particularly al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya , a "useful counterweight" to his Marxist and Arab leftist opposition, student groups being particularly vocal and active. From 1973 to 1979 al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya grew (in part with help from

9680-537: The holiest day in the Jewish calendar, which coincided with the Islamic holy month of Ramadan. Egyptian and Syrian forces separately crossed ceasefire lines into Egypt's Sinai Peninsula , and Syria's Golan Heights respectively, enjoying major successes in the first half of the war. The second half of the war saw a successful Israeli counterstrike, with Egypt and Syria sustaining heavy casualties. The ceasefire which ended

9801-504: The inferred danger to the Suez Canal, prompted the United Kingdom to intervene militarily in support of Tewfik. After the Anglo-Egyptian War , the United Kingdom was left in de facto control over the country, a state of affairs that became known as the veiled protectorate . In the years that followed, the United Kingdom would cement its political and military position in Egypt, and subsequently in Egypt's domains in Sudan, with

9922-474: The interest of Egypt. Should anyone behave in such ways, he will be dealt with forcefully in a manner such as has not been seen before and his deeds will meet immediately the reward for treason. The army will take charge with the assistance of the police. I assure our foreign brothers that their interests, their personal safety [lit. "their souls"], and their property are safe, and that the army considers itself responsible for them. May God grant us success [lit. "God

10043-412: The king had the power to dismiss cabinets, dissolve parliament and appoint prime ministers. Politics in Egypt were divided between the liberal Wafdists versus the conservative monarchical establishment. The Wafd had little to offer outside of defending the liberal framework and negotiating for greater autonomy; Wafdist elites were still wealthy land-owning capitalists who did not offer a radical program in

10164-479: The last day they could be held without charge. The case over the recertification of the Wafd went to the State Council on January 10, 1953. On the 17th, the junta announced the abolition of all political parties, where Naguib would rule in a three-year transitional period. The junta justified its decree because of the resistance to 'purification' and the opposition to land reform. The officers had underestimated

10285-452: The last of its troops from the west side of the Suez Canal, and 12 days later Arab oil ministers announced the end of the embargo against the United States. Sadat and many Egyptians saw the war as a victory, as the initial Egyptian successes restored Egyptian pride, and led to peace talks with the Israelis that eventually led to Egypt regaining the entire Sinai peninsula in exchange for a peace agreement. Sadat used his immense popularity with

10406-507: The man he just arrested to assure high command that everything was calm. By 3:00   a.m, Muhammad Naguib arrived at headquarters in Cairo. By 7:00   p.m, Sadat   —   who was at the movies during the coup   —   announced on the radio that the Free Officers had taken over; Egypt was now governed by the Revolutionary Command Council . At 7:30 a.m., a broadcasting station issued

10527-530: The meantime, the United States initiated a strategic airlift to provide replacement weapons and supplies to Israel and appropriate $ 2.2 billion in emergency aid. OPEC oil ministers, led by Saudi Arabia retaliated with an oil embargo against the US. A UN resolution supported by the United States and the Soviet Union called for an end to hostilities and for peace talks to begin. On 4 March 1974 Israel withdrew

10648-480: The mess and chaos in Egypt. The three governments of Ali Maher (January 27 – March 1), Ahmad Nagib al-Hilali (March 2 – July 2) and Hussein Sirri Pasha (July 2 – July 20) each failed to solve the situation. Maher moved quickly to restore order and calm the economic situation. He created a ministry of rural affairs to study proposals for land reform and lifted curfew restrictions by February. He tried to create

10769-440: The mid-1960s to the end of the 1970s. According to author Tarek Osman "Infitah's main fault was that it was over ambitious. It failed to recognize the complexities of Egypt's socio-economic conditions ... It ignored the limitations of the country's administrative system and the power of the military establishment ... the mismatch between the skills of the Egyptian middle class and the various economic opportunities springing up as

10890-550: The need for politicians to negotiate full independence. These protests very quickly took an antisemitic turn, evolving into a prolonged pogrom of Alexandria's and Cairo's Jewish communities , often accompanied with chants of " death to the Jews " and antisemitic conspiracy theories that Jews were receiving beneficial treatment over " real Egyptians ." Prime Minister Ismail Sidky and British secretary of foreign affairs Ernest Bevin entered negotiations. However, issues over

11011-423: The negotiations, condemned the agreement, and suspended Egypt from the Arab League , beginning a period of near complete regional isolation for Egypt. Domestic opposition to the treaty was immense across all sectors of Egyptian society, however, the most vociferous denunciation was from Islamists, a group of whom from within Egypt's own armed forces plotted and executed Sadat's assassination several years later on

11132-416: The officers at this time, though the historian Said Aburish argues that America did not know about the coup until two days beforehand but did not move to stop it after verifying it was not communist. By the spring of 1952, the Free Officers began plotting their coup. They had planned to overthrow the monarchy in early August, but events soon made them accelerate their plans. On July 16, King Farouk ordered

11253-599: The party passed reformist legislation between 1942 and 1944 or 1950 and 1952, it could no longer convince the majority of the population that it held the country's best interests in mind. Instead, in these years of growing politicization of the people, many believed that the Wafd harbored the fear that the nationalist movement would become too radical and go beyond the existing framework of acceptable political and economic discourse. After decades of pseudo-independence, elitist infighting and deteriorating economic conditions, more radical politics consumed Egypt. The Muslim Brotherhood

11374-455: The party were not strong enough of pass the legislation needed to avoid a total revolution. Stubbornness and corruption made the Wafd incapable of delivering to the Egyptian people. The strategic value of the Suez Canal was too valuable for Britain in the Cold War to completely surrender. In a dramatic move, the Wafd abrogated the 1936 treaty in 1951. Anti-British demonstrations morphed into

11495-514: The policies of the Revolution were scaled back or reversed. The early successes of the Revolution encouraged numerous other nationalist movements in other countries, such as Algeria , where there were anti-imperialist and anti-colonial rebellions against European empires. It also inspired the toppling of existing pro-Western monarchies and governments in the MENA region. The Revolution is commemorated each year on 23 July. The history of Egypt during

11616-566: The pre-existing opposition. Members took a vow of secrecy with one hand on the Koran and the other on a revolver, and published anonymous leaflets and articles criticizing the higher command and the government as a whole for corruption. By 1952, it grew so large that few members knew the identities of the leaders of the conspiracy: Colonel Nasser and General Naguib. The founder of the CIA , Miles Copeland Jr. , claimed to have established contacts with

11737-527: The presidency of his successor, Hosni Mubarak . On 6 October 1973, Egypt under Sadat, and Syria under Hafez al-Assad , initiated the October War to liberate Egyptian and Syrian territory that had been under Israeli occupation since the Six Day War of 1967. The war was fought entirely within the borders of Egypt and Syria, and was launched via a coordinated surprise assault at 2pm on Yom Kippur,

11858-618: The privileges of foreigners. It was during this time that the five major points of contentions among nationalists were crystallized: Following the Ottoman Empire's entry in to the First World War as a member of the Central Powers in 1914, the United Kingdom deposed Abbas II in favour of his pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamal . The legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty was terminated, and the Sultanate of Egypt , destroyed by

11979-451: The removal of traditional corrupt elements within establishment parties. The Wafd hastily formed a "purge committee", expelling fourteen members, only one of which had any significant power. Old-guard Wafdists resisted the call for purification, while the younger elements supported the removal of the old-guard. On September 9, all parties were dissolved and had to apply for recertification with a list of founding members, financial statements and

12100-412: The resistance by the liberal establishment, and sought to end the 'reactionary mentality' of the old system. On February 21, Naguib created the constitutional committee of fifty. Ali Maher served as president, who then divided the committee into five subcommittees and appointed a five-man executive committee. By March they had approved the creation of a Republic, ending the regency. However, the committee

12221-399: The resulting Battle of Ismalia left 56 Egyptians and 13 British dead. The next day, a series of riots engulfed Cairo. The Egyptian masses torched 750 foreign-owned stores, causing around 40-50 million Egyptian Pounds worth of damage. Black Saturday was the end for the Wafd; al-Nahhas was dismissed on the next day. After al-Nahhas, three independent politicians were appointed to clean up

12342-478: The right moment to launch "a complete overthrow of the existing order" in Egypt, killing the main leaders of the country, capturing the crucial headquarters of regime institutions, spreading news of the Islamic coup, which they hoped would unleash a popular uprising against secular authority all over the country." In February 1981, Egyptian authorities were alerted to El-Jihad's plan by the arrest of an operative carrying crucial information. In September, Sadat ordered

12463-494: The sale of alcohol except at places catering to foreign tourists in more than half of Egypt's 26 governorates. However, Islamists came to clash with Sadat who supported women's rights and opposed compulsory hijab . Most particularly they opposed what they called his "shameful peace with the Jews," aka the Camp David Accords with Israel. By the late 1970s the government turned against Islamism. In June 1981, after

12584-557: The same time securing his position in power. The implementation of Infitah is generally considered to have been flawed in its over-ambitiousness and its appearance of having abandoned "solidarity with the poor." The government rewarded its cronies and allies (many of whom became quite rich), and built a power base loyal to the regime with concessions on land, goods and commodities; mandates and contracts to agencies and dealerships, but did little to create free markets and an open economy. The millions of previously poor Egyptians who had joined

12705-479: The same time the public sector continued to dominate the economy. The proportion of the population working for the state grew from 3.8% at the height of the Nasserite era, to 10% (about 35% of the country's entire labor force) after the full thrust of Infitah in the early 1980s. Despite promotion of foreign private investment, the "state's contribution to the formation of investment capital" (72%), barely changed from

12826-489: The slogan of the 1967 war); and "to the missionary zeal" of Saudi Wahhabism , "fueled by petrodollars in the wake of the oil shock of 1974-5 ." Another change Sadat made from the Nasser era was a bow towards the Islamic revival. Sadat loosened restrictions on the Muslim Brotherhood, allowing it to publish a monthly magazine, al-Dawa, which appeared regularly until September 1981 (although he did not allow

12947-405: The state of the late Wafd: In contrast to the ideologically defined programs of the nonestablishment parties, the Wafd never developed a comprehensive plan to remedy the deep social and economic problems that troubled the country. As this became increasingly apparent, the population began to lose faith in the party, especially as conditions for consumers deteriorated during wartime. Thus, even when

13068-426: The status of Sudan and British troops ended hopes for a successful discussion. The ire of the nationalists concentrated on two issues, Sudan and the Suez. By flaming the fires of nationalism, the Egyptian elites forced themselves to intervene in the civil war in Palestine . During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war , Egyptian troops fought in the southern front against Israel . Though Egypt quickly gained controlled over

13189-536: The streets by cheering mobs. Egypt has passed through a critical period in her recent history characterized by bribery, mischief, and the absence of governmental stability. All of these were factors that had a large influence on the army. Those who accepted bribes and were thus influenced caused our defeat in the Palestine War [1948]. As for the period following the war, the mischief-making elements have been assisting one another, and traitors have been commanding

13310-559: The sultanate. For all intents and purposes, the Sultanate of Egypt was as much controlled by the United Kingdom as the Khedivate of Egypt had been. After World War I , Egyptian nationalists tried to send a delegation (Arabic: Wafd) to the Paris Peace Conference to renegotiate for Egyptian independence. When Britain refused, nationalist anger at British control erupted into the Egyptian revolution of 1919 , prompting

13431-574: The terms as discussed then. To provide Israel with more incentive to negotiate with Egypt and return the Sinai to it, and also because the Soviets had refused Sadat's requests for more military support, Sadat expelled the Soviet military advisers from Egypt and proceeded to bolster his army for a renewed confrontation with Israel. In 1971, Sadat concluded a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union , but

13552-437: The traditional economic structure of peasants and landlords. While the Wafd enjoyed genuine popularity among the masses, the degrading economic conditions of Egypt beginning the 1930s combined with the failure of the 1923 regime to adequately address these issues sparked the rise of socialist and labor movements. The Wafd believed that through gradual negotiations, it would be able to secure complete Egyptian independence. Egypt

13673-408: The war left Egypt holding newly-liberated land in Sinai on the east bank of Suez Canal , but also with Israeli forces holding newly-captured land on the west bank of the Canal. Notwithstanding the military reversals suffered in the closing stages of the war, Sadat was seen as having restored Egyptian pride following the devastating defeat of 1967, and convinced the Israeli leadership that the status quo

13794-420: The war, an Egyptian commander commented: "The real battle is in Egypt." In 1950, the Wafd formed a government for the last time. After years of martial law and political chaos, the Wafd decisively won the 1950 elections on a mandate of continuing its historic political fight against Britain. al-Nahhas, who was now 70 years old, was no longer the national hero he was in 1919. Genuine economic reforms as well as

13915-534: The witnessing the 1949 Syrian coup , when Syrian military overthrew the government, whispers of a revolt spread throughout the corps. While an exact date is not known, by 1949 meetings and discussions in the homes of the officers started the beginning of the 'Free Officers' movement. While officers met with communists in the DMNL and Islamists in the Muslim Brotherhood , it was an organization independent of

14036-566: Was formed; a social class of educated Egyptians well-read in politics and culture known as the Effendi . Under the education minister Ali Pasha Mubarak , the public education system in Egypt grew the field of educated nationalist effendiyya. It was during this time that Italians , Greeks , French, Armenians , Jews , and other groups immigrated to Egypt, establishing a small but wealthy and politically powerful cosmopolitan community. Foreigners were not subject to Egyptian laws, but went through

14157-582: Was founded in 1928, pushing for an Islamic-revival against colonialism and modernity. Leftist movements like the Egyptian Communist Party , Iskra , and the Democratic Movement for National Liberation rallied growing numbers of striking workers, especially as King Farouk's extravagant lifestyle continued to insult the millions of Egyptians living in poverty. The 1945 riots in Egypt and the 1946 student protests demonstrated

14278-565: Was no longer tenable. Via negotiations brokered by U.S. President Jimmy Carter , Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin signed the Egypt–Israel peace treaty by which Egypt formally recognised the State of Israel in exchange for a complete end to the Israeli occupation of Egypt's Sinai Peninsula, and autonomy for the Palestinian Gaza Strip and West Bank. Hafez al-Assad, and other Arab leaders, refused to participate in

14399-582: Was not a substitute for parliament; it was not taken seriously by the officers, who announced Egypt was a republic and Naguib was selected as president on June 18, without approval from the committee. By September, the Revolutionary Tribunal was formed, composed solely of three officers as judges, Abdel Baghdadi , Anwar Sadat and Hasan Ibrahim . In a speech in at Tahrir Square , Salah Salim described how colonialism in Egypt did not rule with soldiers or arms, but "traitors". Salim described

14520-763: Was successful in abolishing the Mixed courts in 1937, repealing the Public Debt Commission in 1940 , and negotiating the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty . This treaty limited the extent of British troops in Egypt (except with regards to the Suez canal and the Sudan), and the creation of a proper Egyptian military. During the Second World War , Egypt was a major Allied base for the North African campaign . Egypt remained officially neutral under

14641-515: Was the historic Camp David accords , signed by Egypt and Israel and witnessed by the US on 17 September 1978. The accords led to the 26 March 1979, signing of the Egypt–Israel peace treaty , by which Egypt regained control of the Sinai in April 1982. Throughout this period, US–Egyptian relations steadily improved, and Egypt became one of America's largest recipients of foreign aid. Sadat's willingness to break ranks by making peace with Israel earned him

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