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93-454: They are focused on history, especially genealogical and family history. They reflect the struggle and conflict that arose within the societies of the early generations of Icelandic settlers. The Icelandic sagas are valuable and unique historical sources about medieval Scandinavian societies and kingdoms, in particular regarding pre-Christian religion and culture and the heroic age. Eventually, many of these Icelandic sagas were recorded, mostly in

186-538: A drápa in praise of the king. Æthelstan rewards Egill with yet two more gold arm-rings as well as an expensive cloak that the king himself had worn. At Egill's parting, Æthelstan expresses a wish that he would stay permanently in his service, an offer which Egill declines. Egill married his brother Thorolf's widow, Asgerd. Some time later, Asgerd's father Bjorn the Wealthy died in Norway, but she received no inheritance,

279-572: A Viking leader who seized what is now Normandy in 879, and formally in 911 when Charles the Simple of West Francia granted him the Lower Seine. This became a precursor to the Viking expansion that established important trade posts and agrarian settlements deep into Frankish territory, English territory, and much of what is now European Russian territory. The Vikings had taken control of most of

372-565: A battleship. The fast design of Viking ships was essential to their hit-and-run raids. For instance, in the sacking of Frisia in the early 9th century, Charlemagne mobilized his troops as soon as he heard of the raid, but found no Vikings by the time he arrived. Their ships gave the Vikings an element of surprise. Travelling in small bands, they could easily go undetected, swiftly enter a village or monastery, pillage and collect booty, and leave before reinforcements arrived. Vikings understood

465-462: A close advisor to Harald Eiríksson , to whom Egill composed a poem. Egill's son Bodvar (Böðvar) died in a shipwreck. Egill composed a poem in his honor. Egill's son Thorsteinn has many feuds with Steinar, son of Onund Sjoni (Önundr sjóni Ánason), over land and cattle grazing. Egill became frail and blind. His one last wish was to travel to the Althing and toss silver he received from King Æthelstan for

558-979: A coast and to navigate rivers in Britain and on the Continent, with raids reported far up rivers such as the Elbe , the Weser , the Rhine , the Seine and the Loire , the Thames , and many more. Vikings also navigated the extensive network of rivers in Eastern Europe, but they would more often engage in trade than in raiding. Depending on local resources, the ships were mainly built from strong oak, though some with pine, but all with riven (split) and then hewn planks that preserved

651-465: A conflict is the 882 siege of Asselt which ended with emperor Charles the Fat paying the Vikings 1,094 kg (2,412 lb) of gold and silver, as well as granting them land and allowing them to sail back to Scandinavia with an alleged two-hundred captives. While naval Viking battles were not as common as battles on land, they did occur. As they had little to fear from other European countries invading

744-469: A deeper hull for transporting goods, but what they added in hull depth and durability they sacrificed in speed and mobility. These cargo ships were built to be sturdy and solid, rather than Drakkar warships which were built to be fast. There is a mention of the Knörr being used as warships in poems written by skalds . Specifically, the poem "Lausavisor" by Vígfúss Víga-Glúmsson describes a Knörr being used as

837-419: A difficult text populated by characters with similar or identical names, living out various permutations of very similar stories. The two handsome Thorolfs (Þórólfs) die heroic deaths, while their brothers Skallagrim and Egill both die in old age after spitefully burying their wealth in the wilderness. The descendants of Kveldúlfr find themselves involved in two complicated inheritance feuds, at one time rejecting

930-569: A dispute. As a natural consequence, violence was a common feature of the Norse legal environment. This use of violence as an instrument regarding disputes was not limited to a man, but extended to his kin . Personal reputation and honour was an important value among Norsemen , and so actionable slander was also a legal category, in addition to physical and material injuries. Honour could be shamed from mere insults, where Norsemen were legally allowed to react violently. With this prevalence of violence came

1023-433: A duel of honour that was supposed to resolve the issue. This challenge would take place either on a small island or marked off area. A square with sides between 9–12 ft would be marked off with an animal hide placed inside the square. Each man was allowed three shields and a shield-bearer who carried the shield during battle. The helper could replace or carry shields for the combatant. The person who had been challenged

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1116-949: A duel with Atli the Short on behalf of his wife Asgerd. Along the way Egill stayed with Arinbjorn, whom he convinces to go to King Hákon on his behalf. Hákon denied Egill's claim, so Arinbjorn compensated Egill with forty marks of silver. Egill and Arinbjörn went raiding in Saxony and Frisia, after which they stayed with Thorstein Thoruson (Þorsteinn Þóruson). King Hakon requested Thorstein to collect tribute in Värmland or be sentenced to outlawry. Egill went in Thorsteinn's place. Egill traveled with some of King Hákon's men to Värmland and fought battles, Egill killing many times more foes than his companions. Egill lived to be an old age. Arinbjörn became

1209-549: A feast was held by Yngvar (Egill's maternal grandfather). Egill defiantly rode a horse to attend, following his father and company from afar, and composed his first skaldic verse . At the age of seven while playing in the ball games ( knattleikr ), he committed his first murder (axe-killing an older boy who outclassed him in the sport). By the time Egill was twelve very few grown men could compete with him in games, but when he and his friend challenged his father one day, Skallagrim manifested such strength at nightfall that he slammed

1302-457: A large inheritance. Þorsteinn, Arinbjorn and Egill made plans to sail to Norway to claim Thorsteinn's share. Before they leave, King Æthelstan convinced Egill to move to England and command his armies after their task is completed. Egill returned to Iceland and spent a few years with his family. During this time, both Kings Æthelstan and Eirik Bloodaxe died, leaving Eirik's brother Hakon ruler of Norway. Egill returned to Norway to claim lands won in

1395-595: A line of spearmen who defended against a mounted attack." One bow found in an Irish grave was of yew with a rounded rectangular cross section flattened toward the tips, which had been heat bent toward the belly's side. Other bows, either complete or in pieces, were made of yew and elm, as found in Hedeby . Viking arrows have been found in pieces,ancient arrow shafts were made from light and strait woods such as ash, pine, poplar and spruce. Three feathers were used for fletching. "The Viking's long arrows are meant to be drawn to

1488-437: A man of wisdom. He earned the nickname Kveldulf (Kveldúlfr, "Evening Wolf") because of his erratic temper at nightfall, and reputation for manifesting the so-called "shape-shifter" ( hamrammr ) abilities, explained in later chapters to be comparable (or equatable) with berserk fury. Extreme personal traits like these are manifested by his son Skallagrim and his grandson Egill as well. King Harald Fairhair (Haraldr Hárfagri)

1581-484: A meter in length. The popularity of the axe is often misunderstood in modern culture. The battle-axe was not seen as a superior weapon to the spear, and historical evidence shows that its use was rather limited. These axes had a wooden shaft, with a large, curved iron blade. They required less swinging power than expected, as the heads, while large, usually weighed only 0.8–0.9 kg, and as such were light and fast weapons, not depending on gravity and momentum to do most of

1674-653: A scorn-pole ( Nithing pole ) with a horse head mounted on top, laying a curse that the nature spirits drive King Eirik and Queen Gunnhild away from Norway. The hoped-for outcome of the curse does become reality. The saga makes note of the death of Skallagrim, Egill's father. Eirik ruled just 1 year before being ousted as Norwegian king by his brother Hakon the fosterling of King Æthelstan in England. Eirik left Norway with his family, and eventually appointed king over Northumbria by Æthelstan of England. Two years later, Egill sailed to England intending to see Æthelstan and

1767-413: A secondary weapon when fighting had fallen out of formation or their primary weapon was damaged. While there were many variations of swords, the Vikings used double-edged swords, often with blades 90 centimetres long and 15 centimetres wide. These swords were designed for slashing and cutting, rather than thrusting, so the blade was carefully sharpened while the tip was often left relatively dull. A sword

1860-404: A ship and killed many men. Later, in chapter 38, Skallagrim composes an insulting poem about King Eirik after the king had given Skallagrim a gift not commensurate with his worth. In chapters 55 and 81, Egill composes two powerful poems that show how grief-stricken he is when his brother Thorolfr and his son Bodvar die. These poems are also meant to honor the two. These are only a few examples of

1953-666: A taunting poem to the King. In the battle, Kveldulf displayed his "frenzy" ( hamrammr or hamremi ), which left him severely weakened. When the family emigrated to Iceland, Kveldulf did not survive the trip, and his coffin was set adrift. Near the spot where the coffin washed ashore in Iceland, Skallagrim established his settlement, which he named Borg . He took up a peaceful livelihood as a farmer and blacksmith, and raised his sons, Thorolf (named Þórólfr after his slain brother), and Egill (the titular hero). The saga then proceeds to describe

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2046-472: A tenuous tenure in Norway, but Egill is outlawed and they roam Scandinavia and serve the king of England . Egill tries to reclaim property back in Norway (as his wife's inheritance), but this is blocked, and Egill develops a personal vendetta against the King. There are also vivid descriptions of his other fights and friendships, his relationship with his family (highlighted by his jealousy, as well as fondness for his older brother Thorolf), his old age, and

2139-510: A time of oral tradition . Poetry was used to establish a person's reputation for good or evil, and a great poem could make its characters immortal. Rulers valued poets for their ability to make or break a man, increasing his fame or besmirching his good name. As a poet, Egill was a powerful and valued man. One of the first negative poems in Egill's saga is a threatening poem in chapter 27 that displays Skallagrim's power after he had just plundered

2232-462: A work of literature, Egill's Saga is generally considered to be amongst the best of the Icelandic sagas , along with Njáls saga , Gísla saga Súrssonar , and Laxdæla saga . A detailed family tree connecting major and minor characters through blood and marriage can be found here Viking raid warfare and tactics The term " Viking Age " refers to the period roughly from 790s to

2325-589: Is in need of warriors. The brothers and their men sail to England to join the armies of the English king, are placed in charge of the Scandinavian contingent of Æthelstan's forces. The saga here displays contact with English historical tradition, correctly providing Æthelstan's lineage and offering only one of two instances of King Alfred being called 'the Great' outside of English sources. The battle that follows

2418-465: Is in reality a man of many virtues which are central to his character. He values honor, loyalty, respect, and friendship above all other things. He takes it as a great personal insult when someone breaks any of these values and as a result he typically destroys that person either through physical force or through poetry. His reactions are usually on a grand scale to the point where they are often outrageous and entertaining. The value code by which Egill lived

2511-409: Is killed on the second day of battle. In the aftermath of the conflict, Æthelstan gives Egill two chest of silver in compensation for Thorolf's death, intending that they be passed on to Skallagrim. Egill, however, keeps the silver for himself along with an arm-ring that the king passes him at sword-point at the victory feast. Egill stays at Æthelstan's court for the winter, during which time he composes

2604-418: Is little evidence. Another piece of defensive equipment used by warriors was a shield. The shield itself was round and easy to maneuver with; however, if on horseback, it left the legs exposed. Shields were made out of wooden boards and held together by a rim of either leather or thin iron fittings. Shields also appears to have been covered in thin leather, preventing them from splintering. In addition to this,

2697-577: Is still portrayed in the Norwegian coat of arms . Viking swords were pattern welded and most commonly decorated with copper inlays and icons, featuring a fuller down the centre of the blade in order to reduce the weight of the blade; a few single-bladed swords around a meter in length have been unearthed but the most commonly found swords in Viking graves are double-edged with blades measuring around 90 cm long and 15 cm wide. Viking Age swords were common in battles and raids. They were used as

2790-427: Is thought that a number of sagas are now lost, including the supposed Gauks saga Trandilssonar – The saga of Gaukur á Stöng. In addition to these, the texts often referred to as the "Tales of Icelanders" ( Íslendingaþættir ) such as "Hreiðars þáttr" and "Sneglu-Halla þáttr" of the kings' saga Morkinskinna could be included in this corpus, as well as the contemporary sagas (written in the 13th century and dealing with

2883-448: Is unknown, but some have suggested that the increase in trade created a growth in piracy. Viking tactics were unconventional by wider European standards at the time and this element of "otherness" brought with it a tactical advantage. They also attacked holy sites far more regularly than Frankish and other Christian armies did, and they never arranged battle times. Deceit, stealth, and ruthlessness were not seen as cowardly. During raids,

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2976-426: The 13th and 14th centuries. The 'authors', or rather recorders, of these sagas are largely unknown. One saga, Egil's Saga , is believed by some scholars to have been written by Snorri Sturluson , a descendant of the saga's hero, but this remains uncertain. The standard modern edition of Icelandic sagas is produced by Hið íslenzka fornritafélag ('The Old Icelandic Text Society'), or Íslenzk fornrit for short. Among

3069-509: The 860s, the formation of the Great Heathen Army brought about a more organized type of warfare for the Vikings. Large squads of raiders banded together to attack towns and cities, landing from fleets comprising hundreds of ships. Viking raiders would anchor their largest warships before storming a beach. "It has been suggested that Sö 352 depicts an anchor and rope...It is perhaps more plausibly an anchor-stone...". However, it

3162-673: The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms like Wessex and others by the 870s, which was after the time of the Great Heathen Army that swept the Anglo-Saxon rulers away from power in 865. This army focused not on raiding, but on conquering and settling in Anglo-Saxon Britain, being composed of small bands that were already in Britain and Ireland that worked together for a period of time to accomplish their goals. The Vikings were also able to establish an extended period of economic and political rule of much of Ireland, England, and Scotland during

3255-519: The Bald of West Francia created from 848 to 877. These boats have a shallow draft of around a metre of water. Viking longships were built with speed and flexibility in mind, which allowed Norse builders to craft strong yet elegant ships. Close to 28 metres long and five metres wide, the Gokstad ship is often cited as an example of a typical Viking ship. Variants of these longships were built with

3348-735: The British Isles, the Viking Age proper is characterized by extensive raiding, entering history by being recorded in various annals and chronicles by their victims." The Annals of St. Bertin and the Annals of Fulda contain East and West Frankish records (respectively) of Viking attacks, as does Regino of Prum's Chronicle - which was written as a history of the Carolingian Empire in its final years. These raids continued for

3441-474: The Nordic world. In the early Viking Age, during the late 8th century and most of the 9th, Norse society consisted of minor kingdoms with limited central authority and organization, leading to communities ruled according to laws made and pronounced by local assemblies called things . Lacking any kind of public executive apparatus—e.g. police—the enforcement of laws and verdicts fell upon the individual involved in

3534-527: The Norse Ivarr Dynasty that started in the late 9th century and lasted until 1094. In Ireland, coastal fortifications known as longphorts were established in many places after initial raidings, and they developed into trading posts and settlements over time. Quite a few modern towns in Ireland were founded in this way, including Dublin , Limerick and Waterford. Much of the Vikings' success

3627-432: The Viking Age. These principal values and convictions were displayed in the tactics of Viking raids and warfare. As in most societies with limited mechanisms for projecting central power, Norse society also shared traits of bonding through mutual gift-giving to ensure alliances and loyalty. One of the reasons many Norse went on such expeditions was the opportunity to gather loot and wealth by trading and raiding. This wealth

3720-567: The Vikings limited their attacks to "hit-and-run" raids. However, they soon expanded their operations. In the years 814–820, Danish Vikings repeatedly sacked the regions of Northwestern France via the Seine River and also repeatedly sacked monasteries in the Bay of Biscay via the Loire River. Eventually, the Vikings settled in these areas and turned to farming. This was mainly due to Rollo ,

3813-435: The Vikings targeted religious sites because of their vulnerability, often killing or taking the clergy at these sites prisoner, to then be either ransomed or taken as slaves. Norsemen who sailed back to Scandinavia after raiding brought back their loot as a symbol of pride and power. "The Viking chieftains Sigfrid and Gorm 'sent ships loaded with treasure and captives back to their country' in 882". Additionally, 'overwintering'

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3906-467: The advantages of the longships' mobility and used them to a great extent. Viking fleets of over a hundred ships did occur, but these fleets usually only banded together for one single—and temporary—purpose, being composed of smaller fleets each led by its own chieftain, or of different Norse bands. This was most often seen in the Francia raids between 841 and 892. They can be attributed to the fact that it

3999-518: The back of the ships protected by a shield wall formation constructed in the front of the ship. Depending on the size of the defending fleet, some would attack from smaller craft to flank the bigger ships. These very small fleets brutally effectively scared locals and made it difficult for English and Frankish territories to counter these alien tactics. Sprague compares these tactics to those of contemporary western Special Forces soldiers, who "attack in small units with specific objectives." Later in

4092-606: The brothers' arrival in England, named Vínheiðr in the text, is widely accepted as being the same as the Battle of Brunanburh , from which Æthelstan emerged victorious in 937. The saga identifies the primary antagonist at Vínheiðr as "Olaf the Red of Scotland", who appears to be a conflation of the Æthelstan's historical opponents, Constantine II of Scotland and Olaf Guthfrithson , a Hiberno-Norse Uí Ímair dynast. Egill and Thorolf are instrumental in Æthelstan's victory; however, Thorolf

4185-440: The claims of illegitimate children of a second marriage, and at another time claiming land on behalf of another illegitimate child born to similar circumstances. At times in Egill's saga Egill comes across as a brute who often acts quickly and irrationally for no reason. He appears to be a shallow creature and in many instances the only time he appears to put much thought into anything is when he composes and recites poetry. Egill

4278-723: The ear for instinctive shooting, meaning that the archer does not sight on or even look at his arrow." The axe overtook the spear as the most common weapon in the turbulent Migration Age, which saw much internal raiding and warfare in Scandinavia. It was the first "siege weapon" for raiding enemy farmhouses, where a spear or a sword could do little damage. The axe was commonly used for all kinds of farm labour and logging, as well as in construction and shipbuilding, and eventually adapted for use in Viking raids. Axes varied in size from small handheld broadaxes that could be used both for raids and in farming, to Danish axes that were well over

4371-566: The entire estate having been claimed by Berg-Onund, married to Gunnhild Bjarnardottir (Asgerd's half-sister). Egill wanted to claim half-share for his wife, but the prospect was bleak because Berg-Onund was a favorite of Eirik and his consort Gunnhild. The case was argued at the Gulaþing assembly, where Berg-Onund asserted that Asgerd as a slave-woman entitled to no share (due to the circumstance that her mother eloped without her kinsmen's consent). Asbjorn countered with witnesses swearing that Asgerd

4464-416: The entirety of the Viking Age and Vikings would target monasteries along the coast, raid the towns for their booty , and were known to set fires in their wake. While there is evidence that Viking arson attacks did occur, more recent scholarship has cast doubt on quite how severe the physical damages (rather than their psychological impact) truly were. Regino of Prum’s Chronicle records that the palace of Aachen

4557-607: The establishment of important agricultural spaces and commercial trading-hubs across Europe through rudimentary colonization . Vikings' tactics in warfare gave them an enormous advantage in successfully raiding (and later colonising), despite their small population in comparison to that of their enemies. Vikings, according to Clare Downham in Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland , are "people of Scandinavian culture who were active outside Scandinavia ... Danes , Norwegians , Swedish, Hiberno-Scandinavians, Anglo-Scandinavians , or

4650-411: The expectation of fearlessness. Norsemen believed that the time of death for any individual is predetermined, but that nothing else in life is. Considering this, Norsemen believed there to be two possibilities in life: "success with its attendant fame; or death." The necessity of defending honour with violence, the belief that time of death was preordained, adventure and fearlessness were core values to

4743-400: The extreme qualities of his family, a family of men who are either ugly or astoundingly handsome; a family which includes 'shape-shifters', who become suddenly mad, violent and cruel, though they may at other times be deliberate and wise; a family which neither submits to the will of kings, nor stands in open rebellion. His character is also reflected in the storytelling conventions of the text,

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4836-401: The fate of his own son Thorstein (Þorsteinn, who was baptized once Roman Catholicism came to Iceland) and his children, who had many children of their own. The saga ends around the year 1000 and spans many generations. Ulf (Kveldulf) had Hallbjorn Halftroll as his maternal uncle, and was known for his surpassing size and strength. He had accrued land and property from viking raids , and was

4929-527: The friend dead against the ground. Egill's life was only saved when Egill's fostra (a female slave that had acted as Egill's nurse as a child) tried to calm Skallagrim down and was killed instead. Egill got so upset that he killed one of his father's favorite slaves in return, and as a result the two were not on speaking terms for the following winter. The summer after Egill's father killed his friend, Thorolf came home to visit Iceland. Egill forcibly insisted on accompanying Thorolf back to Norway, although Thorolf

5022-487: The inhabitants of any Scandinavian colony who affiliated themselves more strongly with the culture of the colonizer than with that of the indigenous population." Parts of the tactics and warfare of the Vikings were driven by their cultural belief, themselves rooted in Norse culture and religion , and vividly recalled in the later Icelandic sagas written in the 13th-14th centuries; after the Christianisation of

5115-480: The inhospitable regions of Scandinavia, most naval battles were fought amongst Vikings themselves, "Dane against Norwegian, Swede against Norwegian, Swede against Dane." Most Viking-on-Viking naval battles were little more than infantry battles on a floating platform. Viking fleets would lash their boats together, their prows facing the enemy. When they got close enough, the fighters would throw ballast stones, spears and use their longbows . Archers would be positioned in

5208-416: The king is. We see a very different side of Egill in chapter 56 when he declares his secret love for his future wife, in a love poem. In chapters 60–62, Egill is confronted with a situation where he must greet King Eirik, with whom he is on bad terms. King Eirik wants Egill dead and at the urging of his friend Arinbjorn, Egill composes a drápa (one of the most complicated forms of poetry) of 20 stanzas praising

5301-457: The king. Thanks to the poem, named Höfuðlausn (Head-Ransom) Egill is allowed to leave Eiríkr's court alive, since killing him would make Eiríkr look like a fool. In chapter 80, Egill composes another praise poem of 25 stanzas expressing his gratitude towards his lifelong friend Arinbjörn for saving his life in his meeting with King Eiríkr. These more positive poems show us a kinder side to the typically rough and violent people of Egill's saga . As

5394-645: The late 11th century in Europe, though the Norse raided Scotland's western isles well into the 12th century. In this era, Viking activity started with raids on Christian lands in England and eventually expanded to mainland Europe, including parts of present-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine . While maritime battles were very rare, Viking bands proved very successful in raiding coastal towns and monasteries due to their efficient warships, and intimidating war tactics, skillful hand-to-hand combat, and fearlessness. What started as Viking raids on small towns transformed into

5487-403: The late Roman Iron Age (ending c. 500 CE), the Norse were reputed for their preference of and prowess with the light spear. The wooden shaft of the Viking spear was between two and three meters long. There were two types of spears; one was made for throwing while the other was generally used for thrusting. The shafts were similar, but the tips of throwing spears were roughly thirty centimetres while

5580-539: The lives of Thorolf and Egill Skallagrimsson, born in Iceland, and eventually making their way to Norway in adulthood. Thorolf visited Skallagrim's old friend in Norway, Thorir the Hersir (Þórir Hróaldsson). Here Thorolf befriended Prince Eirik Bloodaxe , Harald's favorite son and Thorir's fosterling. He approached the prince with a gift of a painted warship that Eirik was admiring, on advice of Bjorn (Björn Brynjólfsson), Thorir's brother-in-law. Afterwards Eirik Bloodaxe

5673-461: The loot from a given target would be stored in a warband's ship that would then sail further upriver while the raiding party proceeded by land to a rendezvous point. By doing this, Vikings could ensure the safety of their plunder from counter-raids, as well as drastically increase the amount they could carry. The most common weapon in the Viking arsenal was the spear . They were inexpensive and effective weapons, and could also be used when hunting. In

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5766-428: The manipulative queen. Egill's movements are under surveillance, and when he appears to leave the country, Berg-Onund dismissed the men he had gathered for protection and traveled not far from his home ( Ask ) to the king's farm at Aarstad . By chance, calm winds force Egill back to shore to the same location. Egill commits massacre, killing Onund, as well as Eirik's 10 year-old prince Rognvald. To top it off, Egill erects

5859-459: The many poems in the saga which portray people in a positive or negative light. There are also poems which show a much softer side to the Icelandic male characters. One of these is in chapter 55 when King Æthelstan acknowledges the death of Egill's brother, Thorolfr, caused by the King's error in judgement. Egill thanks the king with a number of praise poems showing how considerate and generous

5952-690: The mid 9th century. The Norse were born into a seafaring culture. With the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Baltic and North Sea bordering southern Scandinavia, seafaring proved to be an important means of communication for Scandinavians, and a vital instrument for the Vikings. Despite reports since the 5th Century of the presence of seafaring Germanic peoples both in the Black Sea and in Frisia, and archaeological evidence of earlier contact with

6045-408: The people to fight over. When he was denied this, he commanded two enslaved men to help him conceal his silver treasure. After this act, he killed the two men to conceal the location and to punish his son-in-law. near Mosfellsbær , giving birth to the legend of Silfur Egils ("Egill's Silver"). The character of Egill is complex and full of seeming contradictions. His multifaceted nature reflects

6138-540: The queen sent Egill a poisoned drink, but the attempt was foiled by Egill, who inscribed runes on the horn and besmeared it with his own blood, causing the horn to shatter. Egill then went up to Bard and stabbed him to death with his sword. Discovering Egill had fled, Eirik ordered an unsuccessful manhunt to have Egill killed, and lost several men. Despite the affront, Eirik was persuaded by Thorir (his foster-father) to settle this by compensation. While raiding near Frisia, Egill and Thorolf hear that King Æthelstan of England

6231-463: The resource-intensive nature of mustering and maintaining an army, especially when living off the land was not an option. Occupying warbands would then withdraw in early spring before the weather turned against them and armies could be raised again. Warriors could be as young as 12 years old. Various basic physical tests were required to join the Viking forces, but these tests were considered easy to pass. Additionally, during inland raiding campaigns,

6324-428: The same period) incorporated into Sturlunga saga . Egil%27s Saga Egill's Saga or Egil's saga ( Old Norse : Egils saga [ˈeɣels ˈsɑɣɑ] ; Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈeijɪls ˈsaːɣa] ) is an Icelandic saga (family saga) on the lives of the clan of Egill Skallagrímsson (Anglicised as Egill Skallagrimsson), an Icelandic farmer, viking and skald . The saga spans

6417-488: The several literary reviews of the sagas is the Sagalitteraturen by Sigurður Nordal , which divides the sagas into five chronological groups (depending on when they were written not their subject matters) distinguished by the state of literary development: This framework has been severely criticised as based on a presupposed attitude to the fantastic and an over-estimation on the precedence of Landnámabók . It

6510-445: The thrusting spears were close to sixty. Spears were sometimes used as projectile weapons in the occasional naval fight, as well as during raids onshore and in battle. The spear was popular because it was inexpensive and had a longer reach than the sword, making it the most common battlefield weapon all over the world, despite popular belief. Another common weapon in the Viking arsenal was the bow . "In combat, archers formed up behind

6603-423: The wood grain unbroken, resulting in light, but very strong and flexible strakes. Steering was accomplished with a single rudder in the stern . There was a relatively short mast that allowed fast rigging and unrigging. The low mast, built for speed when the winds were favourable, could often easily pass under bridges erected in rivers. These masts were designed to maneuver under the fortified bridges that Charles

6696-490: The work of the same author, Snorri Sturluson . The work is generally referred to as Egla [ˈɛkla] by Icelandic scholars. The saga begins in Norway around 850, with the life of Egill's grandfather Ulf ( Úlfr ) aka Kveldulf or "Evening Wolf", and his two sons Thorolf (Þórólfr) and Skallagrim ( Skalla-Grímr ). Strife with the royal house drive the family out of the country, and they settle in Iceland. The brothers Egill and Thorolf Skallagrimsson are born. They have

6789-403: The work. The axe had points on each tip of the blade where the curve tapered off. This allowed it to be used to hook an opponent, while also doubling as a thrusting weapon. King Magnus of Norway inherited his axe from his patron saint father, Olav Haraldsson . He named this axe Hel , the name of the Norse goddess of death (Christians associated this name with the word Hell ). The axe of Magnus

6882-404: The years c. 850–1000 and traces the family's history from Egill's grandfather to his offspring. Its oldest manuscript (a fragment) dates back to c. 1250 AD. The saga comprises the sole source of information on the exploits of Egill, whose life is not historically recorded. Stylistic and other similarities between Egill's Saga and Heimskringla have led many scholars to believe that they were

6975-476: Was a widely used form of short-term occupation by Viking warbands in which they would descend on "monasteries, towns and royal estates" after the harvests had been gathered and then use the sites as fortified hubs from which they launched raids deeper inland. The Franks rarely, if ever, campaigned during the winter, even under Charlemagne, and once the Vikings had "dug in", as it were, it was incredibly difficult for armies to be raised in order to root them out, due to

7068-491: Was acknowledged as heiress, but the processing was blocked by Queen Gunnhild who ordered a henchmen to disrupt the assembly. Egill made threat against anyone who tried to make use of the disputed farm, and fled by ship. Eirik pursued with a fleet, and a skirmish ensued. Harald Fairhair dies, and Eirik becomes King of Norway, eliminating two of his brothers who were rivals to the crown. Eirik declares Egill an outlaw to be killed on sight, and Egill vows vengeance, especially against

7161-471: Was burned to the ground but there is no archaeological evidence of destruction on such a scale at the site. These attacks caused widespread fear, so much so that the Vikings were thought by some monks to be a punishment from God. There is also the complication of a lack of direct written sources about these raids from the Viking perspective. This leads to biased views of the raiders from Christians who were being attacked in their churches and lands. Initially,

7254-501: Was captured by Eirik Bloodaxe. Eirik was furious, but Arinbjorn Thorisson convinced Eirik to spare Egill's life if he could compose a poem in his honor. Egill succeeded (by reciting Höfuðlausn or "Head Ransom"), and Eirik allowed him to leave on condition that he never appeared again before Eirik's sight. Egill made his way to see King Æthelstan, who was fostering Thorstein (Þorsteinn), a kinsman of Arinbjorn. While visiting, word arrived from Norway that Thorstein's father died leaving him

7347-600: Was considered a personal object amongst Vikings. Warriors named their swords, as they felt such objects guarding their lives deserved identities. A sword, depending on the make, was often associated with prestige and value due to the importance of honour in the Viking Age. While the Vikings used their own swords in battle, they were interested in the Frankish battle swords because of their acclaimed craftsmanship. Weapons often served more than one purpose. If two people were in disagreement, one would often challenge his offender to

7440-406: Was crowned co-king, and as Thorolf headed home to Iceland, the king gave him a gold-inlaid ax as a gift to Skallagrim. Skallagrim abused the ax (named "King's Gift" or konungsnautr ) and shattered it, reciting an insulting poem about it to Thorolf and handing back what was left of the axe, a sooty handle with a rusted blade. Thorolf flung the axe overboard, but reported to King Eirik that his father

7533-608: Was due to the technical superiority of their shipbuilding. Their ships proved to be very fast. Their build was not designed for battle at sea, as this was a form of warfare that the Vikings very rarely engaged in, but these long narrow ships could accommodate 50–60 seamen who powered the ship by rowing, as well as a complement of warriors, and so able to carry sizeable forces at speed to land wherever advantageous. Due to their shallow draft, Viking ships could land directly on sandy beaches rather than docking in well-fortified harbours. Viking ships made it possible to land practically anywhere on

7626-633: Was during this time that the Frankish aristocracy began paying off Vikings and buying mercenaries in return for protection from Viking raids. Thus, there appeared rudimentary structures of Viking armies. Viking ships would rarely try to ram ships in the open sea, due to their construction not allowing for it. Vikings did attack ships, not with the intent to destroy them, but rather to board and seize them. Vikings raided for economic rather than political or territorial gains, and so were eager to enrich themselves through ransom, extortion, and slave trading. A noteworthy examples of ransom/tribute being paid to end

7719-818: Was entitled to the first blow at the shields. The opponent could parry the blow and counter with his own strike; only one strike at a time was allowed. Once all of someone's shields had been destroyed he could continue to defend himself as best he could with a sword. This would continue until someone was injured; if blood fell on the animal hide then that person was required to pay three marks of silver to be set free and have his honour restored. While few intact helmets have been recovered from Viking burial sites (often just fragments of metal), contemporary depictions of Viking warriors do show them wearing helmets which has led some historians, like Anne Pedersen, to suspect that most warriors wore leather helmets rather than metal, something that would offer little protection and of which there

7812-418: Was grateful for the axe, presenting a bolt of longship sail cloth pretended to be from Skallagrim. In this way Thorolf managed to somewhat keep the peace between Skallagrim and King Eirik Bloodaxe. Egill's boyhood foreshadowed his future rebelliousness and poetic prowess. At the age of three, his unbridled behavior when drunk and strength beyond his age earned him a stay at home, ordered by his father, when

7905-492: Was killed by the king who led a band of warriors, and the rift would force Skallagrim and his father Kveldulf to flee Norway to settle in Iceland . Skallagrim journeyed to Harald's court seeking compensation for the death of his brother Thorolf, but offended the king and had to make a hasty exit empty-handed. Skallagrim and Kveldulf then recaptured a boat that had been seized from Thorolf, and after killing everyone on board, sent

7998-518: Was more common practice for Vikings to beach their regular warships on land, where their battle tactics contained elements of surprise. "Vikings were notorious for laying ambushes and using woods to lay in wait for armies approaching along established roads." If confronted by legitimate forces in raids, Vikings would create a wedge formation , with their best men at the front of this wedge. They would throw spears, and rush this wedge through enemy lines where they could engage in hand-to-hand combat , which

8091-514: Was reluctant. On this trip, Thorolf took his prospective wife, Asgerd (Ásgerðr Bjarnardóttir), who had been reared in Iceland, to ask her father Bjorn and uncle Thorir for permission to marry. While staying with Thorir, Egill became attached to Thorir's son Arinbjorn (Arinbjörn Þórisson), an important figure in the saga and Egill's lifelong friend. Egill missed the wedding on account of illness, and joined Thorir's men on an errand in Atloy , where he

8184-417: Was slighted by the king's steward Bard (Bárðr), and wound up killing him. When Bard received Egill's party, he would only serve curd ( skyr ) to drink, pretending ale had run out. But later that night when king and queen arrived for the feast to the dísir , ale was served plentifully. Egill relentlessly jibed Bard about the deceit with sarcastic poetry, and his unquenchable thirst embarrassed the host. Bard and

8277-415: Was the same as that of many Scandinavians at the time of the story's composition. The story is set in a time when many people were migrating, most notably from Norway to Iceland. Life was harsh, particularly during the long, cold winters, when it was crucial for people to get along and work together. Poetry is used throughout most of the saga and Egill is a master of the art. Egill's Saga takes place during

8370-682: Was their forte. Some survivors of sea battles were pressed into guarding the ships during land skirmishes. Sagas of the Viking Age often mention Berserkers . These fabled Viking warriors are said to have spiritual magical powers from the god of war Odin that allowed them to become impervious to injuries on the battlefield. While these stories are exaggerated, the term berserks is rooted in truths about Viking warriors who were able to enter an intense, trance-like state whereupon they would "engage in reckless fighting." These warriors were greatly feared by Christians in Frankish and English regions who viewed such men as satanic . The reason for these raids

8463-524: Was then brought back to Scandinavia and used for political gain; e.g. Olaf Tryggvason and Olaf Haraldsson both led successful raiding campaigns that served their later claims to kingship. This was one reason that monasteries and churches were often targeted, due to their wealth in relics and luxury goods like precious metals, fine cloths, and books such as the Codex Aureus which was stolen by a Viking and then sold to an Anglo-Saxon couple later on (a note

8556-510: Was warring to unite all of Norway. Kveldulf refused to assist the local king of Fjordane , but rebuffed Harald's overtures as well, incurring his wrath. A compromise was mediated by Olvir Hnufa (Ölvir hnúfa or "Olvir Hump"), Kveldulf's brother-in-law and Harald's court poet: Kveldulf was to send his elder son Thorolf, as soon as he returned from viking expedition. Thorolf served the king well, but suspicion fell on him due to his becoming overly successful, exacerbated by words of slanderers. Thorolf

8649-506: Was written inside the book after its recovery "I ealdorman Alfred and Wærburh my wife obtained these books from the heathen army with out pure money, that was with pure gold, and that we did for the love of God and for the benefit of our souls and because we did not wish these holy books to remain longer in heathen possession" ) The Vikings regularly attacked coastal regions due to the difficult nature of defending such regions, as well as utilising rivers and stolen horses to raid deeper inland by

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