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88-489: Jacob ben Abraham Faitusi (died July 1812 in Algiers ) was a Tunisian Jewish scholar. He settled in the later part of his life at Jerusalem , whence he was sent as a collector of alms to Italy and Algeria. Faitusi was the author of Berit Ya'aqob (Livorno, 1800), the contents of which were as follows: sermons; Bezalel Ashkenazi 's "Shittah Mequbbetzet" on Sotah , with the editor's notes, entitled "Yagel Ya'aqob"; glosses of

176-586: A vassal state of the Abbasids ) 800 AD–909   Fatimid Caliphate 909–972   Zirid dynasty (As a vassal state of the Fatimid Caliphate ) 972–1014   Hammadid dynasty 1014–1082   Almoravid Empire 1082-1151   Almohad Caliphate 1151–1235 [REDACTED] Thaaliba , ( tributary of the Tlemcen ) 1235-1516 [REDACTED] Regency of Algiers , ( tributary of

264-503: A breathtaking monument that sits above the Martyrs National Museum. Other landmarks include Djamaa el Djazaïr , the 3rd biggest mosque in the world; Botanical Garden Hamma ; Culture Palace Moufdi Zakaria; Grande Poste d'Alger , located adjacent to Kilometre zero ; Ketchaoua Mosque ; Notre-Dame d'Afrique ; Emir Abdelkader Square as well as Martyr's Square. The city also contains a UNESCO World Heritage Site ,

352-531: A decade. On December 11, 2007, two car bombs exploded in Algiers . One bomb targeted two United Nations office buildings and the other targeted a government building housing the Supreme Court of Algeria . The death toll was at least 62, with over two hundred injured in the attacks. However, only 26 remained hospitalized the following day. As of 2008 , it is speculated that the attack was carried out by

440-509: A heated moment later referred to as "fly-whisk incident", the Dey struck the French consul in the face with the handle of a fly-whisk . In an attempt by Charles X of France to increase his popularity amongst the French, he sought to bolster patriotic sentiment , and turn eyes away from his domestic policies, by treating the incident as a public insult and demanded an apology. Failure to respond

528-687: A levy intended to suppress the Barbary pirates . In 1516, the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the corsair brothers Oruç Reis and Hayreddin Barbarossa to expel the Spaniards . Oruç Reis came to Algiers, ordered the assassination of Selim, and seized the town and ousted the Spanish in the Capture of Algiers (1516) . Hayreddin, succeeding Oruç after the latter was killed in battle against

616-462: A means of expression, where forms previously exclusive to European elites are used by new social groups or for generating anti-monumental artifacts that directly challenge the state and the ruling classes. In conflicts, therefore, it is not so much the monument which is relevant but rather what happens to the communities that participate in its construction or destruction and their instigation of forms of social interaction. The word "monument" comes from

704-600: A minority of " Pieds-noirs ", Jews and European settlers due to laws and regulations put by the French government that granted French citizenship to them under the Crémieux Decree while releasing Code de l'indigénat giving inferiority to the "Arabs" and "Muslims" which were getting forcibly removed from their land in favor of building settlements. Many parts of the city were only accessible by settlers in an attempt to separate "Alger" by race , religion and language . Many Europeans settled in Algiers, and by

792-569: A monument needs to be open to the public, which means that its spatial dimension, as well as its content can be experienced by the public, and be sustainable. The former may be achieved either by situating the monument in public space or by a public discussion about the monument and its meaning, the latter by the materiality of the monument or if its content immediately becomes part of the collective or cultural memory. The social meanings of monuments are rarely fixed and certain and are frequently 'contested' by different social groups. As an example: whilst

880-697: A pivotal role in the Algerian War (1954–1962), a bloody independence struggle in which hundreds of thousands (estimates range between 350,000 and 1,500,000) died (mostly Algerians but also French and Pieds-Noirs ). In particular, it saw the Battle of Algiers when the 10th Parachute Division of the French Army, starting on January 7, 1957, and on the orders of the French Minister of Justice François Mitterrand (who authorized any means "to eliminate

968-725: A political entity dominated by religious conservatives called the Islamic Salvation Front engaged in a political test of wills with the authorities. In the 1992 elections for the Algerian National Assembly, the Islamists garnered a large amount of support in the first round. Fearing an eventual win by the Islamists, the army canceled the election process, setting off the civil war between the State and armed religious conservatives which would last for

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1056-413: A publication now in the public domain :  Gotthard Deutsch and Isaac Broydé (1901–1906). "Faitusi, Jacob ben Abraham" . In Singer, Isidore ; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia . New York: Funk & Wagnalls. Algiers The city contains the largest infrastructure facilities in the country; railway and highway connections with neighbouring cities and international links via

1144-485: A social group as a part of their remembrance of historic times or cultural heritage, due to its artistic, historical, political, technical or architectural importance. Examples of monuments include statues, (war) memorials, historical buildings, archaeological sites, and cultural assets. If there is a public interest in its preservation, a monument can for example be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Cultural Heritage and Conflict gives

1232-531: Is divided into aisles by columns joined by Moorish arches. The New Mosque ( Jamaa-el-Jedid الجامع الجديد), dating from the 17th century, is in the form of a Greek cross , surmounted by a large white cupola, with four small cupolas at the corners. The minaret is 27 metres (89 ft) high. The interior resembles that of the Grand Mosque. The church of the Holy Trinity (built in 1870) stands at

1320-472: Is often used to describe any structure that is a significant and legally protected historic work, and many countries have equivalents of what is called in United Kingdom legislation a Scheduled Monument , which often include relatively recent buildings constructed for residential or industrial purposes, with no thought at the time that they would come to be regarded as "monuments". Until recently, it

1408-549: Is sheltered from all winds. There are two harbours, both artificial—the old or northern harbour and the southern or Agha harbour. The northern harbour covers an area of 95 hectares (235 acres). An opening in the south jetty affords an entrance into Agha harbour, constructed in Agha Bay. Agha harbour has also an independent entrance on its southern side. The inner harbour was begun in 1518 by Khair-ad-Din Barbarossa (see History, below), who, to accommodated his pirate vessels, caused

1496-706: The Al Qaeda cell within the city. Indigenous terrorist groups have been actively operating in Algeria since around 2002 . Algiers is located in the north-central part of Algeria , extending along the Bay of Algiers and into the Mitidja plain and on top of and around the "Sahel of Algiers" and the Bouzaréah massif . It sits at roughly 2 m above sea level, while the highest point is at 407 m. The Oued El Harrach meets

1584-635: The Battle of Cirta , Numidia got a hold of the town along with its neighboring regions at around 202 BC, after which the Punic wars started weakening the Berber nation. On 104 BC, following the capturing of Jughurta and executing him in Rome , the western half of his nation was given to Mauretania under the rule of Bocchus I . At around 42 AD, Claudius divided Mauretania into two provinces, Mauretania Caesariensis that included Icosium as one of its towns;

1672-576: The Casbah or citadel, that is a prominent example of Casbah and Medina. This metropolis has hosted many sports events such as the 1975 Mediterranean Games , the 1990 African Cup of Nations alongside Annaba , the 1978 All-Africa Games and 2007 All-Africa Games , the 2018 African Youth Games , the 2022–23 CAF Confederation Cup , the 2023 Arab Games with 4 other cities; the 2022 African Nations Championship with 3 other cities. Sonatrach Petroleum Corporation and Air Algérie are headquartered in

1760-758: The Eastern Roman Empire , making Icosium a part of the empire. In the early 7th century, "Beni Mezghenna" who are a Berber tribe belonging to the Sanhaja as cited by Ibn Khaldoun , settled on the plains of Icosium and the surrounding areas. Shortly after, in the late 7th century, the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb brought the Umayyad Caliphate into the region, but were faced with resistance from Berber forces led by Kahina and Kusaila in

1848-602: The French Republic " according to a formal annexation declared on June 22, 1834. France focused their interest into areas inhabited by locals, this in turn was the French conquest of Algeria that shared goals with its pacification efforts; Establishing a European cultural , economic and political presence in Africa without considering the indigenous population 's lifestyle or connection to their land. The city had

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1936-513: The Geonim on the Talmudical treatises Nedarim and Nazir , with the editor's notes; commentaries on Nazir by Abraham ben Musa ; "Sha'are Tzedeq," a commentary, attributed to Levi ben Gershon , on the thirteen hermeneutic rules of Rabbi Ishmael ; novellæ on Chullin and Pesachim; and poems, entitled "Qontres Acharon." Faitusi wrote also Yerek Ya'aqob (Livorno, 1842), sermons arranged in

2024-622: The Houari Boumediene Airport and Algiers Ferry Terminal. Algiers possesses notable mass transit options, that includes the Algiers Metro , the city's subway system that recorded about 46 million passengers in 2023, alongside the Algiers tramway and several Gondola lift lines helping with the difference in elevation , in addition to many bus lines connecting the suburbs and major population centers. Algiers houses many museums, art galleries and cultural centers,

2112-783: The Kingdom of Tlemcen in 1235 AD. The town once again came under the dominion of the Ziyanid sultans of the Kingdom but experienced a large measure of independence under Thaaliba amirs who settled the Mitidja plain at around 1200 AD. The Kingdom of Tlemcen was the target of the Spanish Empire 's and the Portuguese Empire 's campaigns and conquests against its coasts, beginning in 1501 AD. However, Algiers continued to be of comparatively little importance until after

2200-770: The Kingdom of the Netherlands , destroying the corsair fleet harboured in Algiers. France and the Regency of Algiers had a commercial–political conflict called the Bakri-Busnach affair which has been bothering both nations in the 19th century. On April 29, 1827, foreign consuls and diplomatic agents gathered in the Palace of the Dey for a conference with the Regency of Algiers ruler Hussein Dey . Tensions were high because of France 's failure to pay outstanding debts. In

2288-653: The Maghrawa forces there and their leader; He pressed on and by 1082 AD he had captured "Jazaʾir Banī Mazghanna". In 1151 AD, Abd al-Mu'min launched an expedition to the east, conquering Bejaia in August 1152, the capital of the Hammadids; on their way, Beni Mezghanna did not succumb and was now under the Almohad Caliphate 's control. The caliphate suffered from states breaking out of its rule, most notably,

2376-682: The Maghreb resulted in the breaking of two nations, the Idrisid dynasty and the Aghlabid Emirate but acted as agents of the Abbasids in Baghdad . Icosium fell into the hands of Aghlabids and abandoned the town. They were then overthrown by the Fatimids in 909 AD, who went on to control all of Ifriqiya by 969 AD. The present city was re-founded in 972 AD by Buluggin ibn Ziri , who

2464-528: The Mediterranean Sea aids in moderating the city's temperatures. As a result, Algiers usually does not see the extreme temperatures that are experienced in the adjacent interior. Algiers on average receives roughly 600 millimetres (24 in) of rain per year, the bulk of which is seen between October and April. The precipitation is higher than in most of coastal Mediterranean Spain , and similar to most of coastal Mediterranean France , as opposed to

2552-523: The Ottoman Empire ) 1516–1830 [REDACTED] France , ( French Algeria ) 1830–1962 [REDACTED]   Algeria 1962–present The city's history is believed to date back to 1200 BC, but it was a small settlement without any significance until around the 3rd century BC when "Ikosim" became a small port town in Carthage where Phoenicians were trading with other Mediterranean ports. After

2640-463: The expulsion of the Moors from Spain, many of whom sought asylum in the city, after which the Spanish led by Pedro Navarro established a fortified base and garrison on one of the islets off the coast of Algiers, and named it "Peñón de Argel" or Peñón of Algiers, . By that time, Algiers had an emir , Salim al-Thumi who had to "swear obedience and loyalty" to Ferdinand II of Aragon who also imposed

2728-473: The 16th century Algiers turned to piracy and ransoming. Due to its location on the periphery of both the Ottoman and European economic spheres, and depending for its existence on a Mediterranean that was increasingly controlled by European shipping, backed by European navies, piracy became the primary economic activity. Repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in

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2816-608: The 1998 and 2008 Censuses: There are many public buildings of interest, including the whole Kasbah quarter, Martyrs Square ( Sahat ech-Chouhada ساحة الشهداء), the government offices (formerly the British consulate), the " Grand ", " New ", and Ketchaoua Mosques, the Roman Catholic cathedral of Notre Dame d'Afrique , the Bardo Museum , the old Bibliothèque Nationale d'Alger —a moorish palace built in 1799–1800 and

2904-432: The 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report , Algiers is one of 12 major African cities ( Abidjan , Alexandria , Algiers, Cape Town , Casablanca , Dakar , Dar es Salaam , Durban , Lagos , Lomé , Luanda and Maputo ) which would be the most severely affected by the future sea level rise . It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of U$ 65 billion under RCP 4.5 and US$ 86.5 billion for

2992-485: The 680s, who opposed the advancing Islamic armies. However, Hassan ibn al-Nu'man and Musa ibn Nusayr later defeated both Berber leaders, killing Kusaila at the Battle of Mamma (688) and killing Dihya at the Battle of Tabarka (702), leading to the subjugation of the Berber tribes, bringing Islamic rule into North Africa. The Abbasid Caliphate succeeded Umayyad Caliphate at around 750 AD. Independence movements across

3080-654: The European and African residents of the city, describing a situation in which "the 'civilised' live like rats in holes" whereas "the 'barbarians' live in solitude, in well-being". However, these plans were ultimately ignored by the French administration. During World War II , Algiers was the first city to be seized from the Axis by the Allies in Operation Terminal , a part of Operation Torch . Algiers also played

3168-451: The Latin " monumentum ", derived from the word moneo , monere , which means 'to remind' or 'to warn', suggesting a monument allows us to see the past thus helping us visualize what is to come in the future. In English the word "monumental" is often used in reference to something of extraordinary size and power, as in monumental sculpture , but also to mean simply anything made to commemorate

3256-594: The Spaniards in the 1518 fall of Tlemcen , was the founder of the pashaluk , which subsequently became the beylik , of Algeria. Barbarossa lost Algiers in 1524 but regained it with the 1529 Capture of Peñón of Algiers , and then formally invited the Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to accept sovereignty over the territory and to annex Algiers to the Ottoman Empire . Algiers from this time became

3344-537: The area. Led by Mazdali ibn Tilankan , the army defeated the Banu Ya'la in battle near the valley of the Moulouya River and executed their commander, the son of Tlemcen's ruler. However, Mazdali ibn Tilankan did not push to Tlemcen right away as the city of Oujda was too strong to capture. Instead, Ibn Tashfin himself returned with an army in 1081 AD that captured Oujda and then conquered Tlemcen, massacring

3432-461: The authorities (more than 300 dead), but the movement constituted a turning point in the political history of modern Algeria. The 1989 Algerian constitutional referendum took place and a new constitution was adopted that put an end to the one-party rule and saw the creation of more than fifty political parties, as well as official freedom of the press. The city became the theatre of many political demonstrations of all descriptions until 1993. In 1991,

3520-645: The case of the Great Wall of China , or because an event of great importance occurred there such as the village of Oradour-sur-Glane in France . Many countries use ' ancient monument ' or similar terms for the official designation of protected structures or archeological sites which may originally have been ordinary domestic houses or other buildings. Monuments are also often designed to convey historical or political information, and they can thus develop an active socio-political potency. They can be used to reinforce

3608-602: The chief seat of the Barbary pirates . In October 1541 in the Algiers expedition , the King of Spain and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor sought to capture the city, but a storm destroyed a great number of his ships, and his army of some 30,000, chiefly made up of Spaniards, was defeated by the Algerians under their pasha , Hassan. Formally part of the Ottoman Empire but essentially free from Ottoman control, starting in

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3696-566: The city. The city's name is derived via French and Catalan Alger from the Arabic name al-Jazāʾir ( الجزائر ), "The Islands". This name refers to the four former islands which lay off the city's coast before becoming part of the mainland in 1525. Al-Jazāʾir is itself a truncated form of the city's older name Jazaʾir Banī Mazghanna ( جزائر بني مزغانة ), "islands of Banu Mazghanna", used by early medieval geographers such as Muhammad al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi . The name

3784-520: The coasts of today's Tunisia and Algeria . The Western Roman Empire that was ruling the area allowed the Vandals to settle when it became clear that they could not be defeated by Roman military forces. Though the city was damaged again due to the fighting between the two armies, the town was still slowly growing in population. In 534 AD, the Vandal kingdom was subjugated by the general Belisarius of

3872-898: The dead, as a funerary monument or other example of funerary art . A formalist interpretation of monuments suggests their origins date back to antiquity and even prehistory. Archaeologists like Gordon Childe viewed ancient monuments as symbols of power. Historians such as Lewis Mumford proposed that the practice began with Paleolithic landmarks, which served as sites for communication with ancestral spirits. However, these perspectives often project modern uses of monuments onto ancient structures. In art history, monuments are seen as significant sculptural forms; in architecture and urban planning, they are crucial for city organization and mapping. These contemporary interpretations have been retroactively applied to ancient and non-Western structures. This modern concept of monuments aligns with how past constructions are labeled as monuments today. Françóise Choay highlights

3960-486: The debate touches on the social mechanisms that combine with Remembrance. These are acceptance of the monument as an object, the conveyed contents and the impact of these contents. Monuments are frequently used to improve the appearance of a city or location. Planned cities such as Washington, D.C. , New Delhi and Brasília are often built around monuments. For example, the Washington Monument 's location

4048-551: The distinction between these views: "The historic monument is a precisely datable invention of the West... exported and diffused beyond Europe from the late nineteenth century." Basically, the definition framework of the term monument depends on the current historical frame conditions. Aspects of the Culture of Remembrance and cultural memory are also linked to it, as well as questions about the concepts of public sphere and durability (of

4136-433: The early 20th century they formed a majority of the city's population. During the 1930s, the architect Le Corbusier drew up plans for a complete redesign of the colonial city. Le Corbusier was highly critical of the urban style of Algiers, describing the European district as "nothing but crumbling walls and devastated nature, the whole a sullied blot". He also criticised the difference in living standards he perceived between

4224-482: The foot of the Casbah, was before independence in 1962 the cathedral of St Philippe, itself made in 1845 from a mosque dating from 1612. The principal entrance, reached by a flight of 23 steps, is ornamented with a portico supported by four black-veined marble columns. The roof of the nave is of Moorish plaster work. It rests on a series of arcades supported by white marble columns. Several of these columns belonged to

4312-609: The former East German socialist state may have seen the Berlin Wall as a means of 'protection' from the ideological impurity of the west, dissidents and others would often argue that it was symbolic of the inherent repression and paranoia of that state. This contention of meaning is a central theme of modern 'post processual' archaeological discourse. While many ancient monuments still exist today, there are notable incidents of monuments being intentionally or accidentally destroyed and many monuments are likely to have disappeared through

4400-457: The high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050. Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$ 137.5 billion in damages, while the additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to $ 187 billion for the "moderate" RCP 4.5, $ 206 billion for RCP 8.5 and $ 397 billion under

4488-484: The high-end ice sheet instability scenario. Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures. The Casbah is on a list of 10 African World Heritage Site most threatened by sea level rise. The city (and province) of Algiers is composed of 13 administrative districts, sub-divided into 57 communes listed below with their populations at

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4576-456: The insurrectionists" ), led attacks against the Algerian fighters for independence. Algiers remains marked by this battle, which was characterized by merciless fighting between FLN forces which carried out a guerrilla campaign against the French military and police and pro-French Algerian soldiers, and the French Army which responded with a bloody repression, torture and blanket terrorism against

4664-421: The interior North African semi-arid or arid climate. Snow is very rare; in 2012, the city received 100 millimetres (4 in) of snowfall, its first snowfall in eight years. A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5 , a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~2.5–3 °C (4.5–5.4 °F) by 2100, the climate of Algiers in

4752-427: The island on which was Fort Penon to be connected with the mainland by a mole . The lighthouse which occupies the site of Fort Penon was built in 1544. Algiers was a walled city from the time of the deys until the close of the 19th century. The French, after their occupation of the city (1830), built a rampart , parapet and ditch , with two terminal forts, Bab Azoun باب عزون to the south and Bab-el-Oued اد to

4840-412: The lower city (al-Wata, or 'the plains') which was the administrative, military and commercial centre of the city, mostly inhabited by Ottoman Turkish dignitaries and other upper-class families. On August 27, 1816, the Bombardment of Algiers took place city by a British squadron under Lord Exmouth (a descendant of Thomas Pellew, taken in an Algerian slave raid in 1715 ), assisted by men-of-war from

4928-471: The monuments in their jurisdiction, there are institutions dedicated on the efforts to protect and preserve monuments that considered to possess special natural or cultural significance for the world, such as UNESCO 's World Heritage Site programme and World Monuments Fund . Cultural monuments are also considered to be the memory of a community and are therefore particularly at risk in the context of modern asymmetrical warfare. The enemy's cultural heritage

5016-472: The most notable of which are Algiers Opera House , the Algerian National Theater Mahieddine Bachtarzi , Bardo National Museum (Algiers) , the National Museum of Fine Arts of Algiers , The National Museum of Antiquities and Islamic Art ; the "National Museum of Miniatures, Illumination and Calligraphy" located inside of Dar Mustapha Pacha ; " Palais des Rais "; Algerian Admiralty Museum; the Central Military Museum adjacent to Maqam Echahid (Martyrs Memorial),

5104-478: The native population. The demonstrations of May 13 during the crisis of 1958 provoked the fall of the Fourth Republic in France, as well as the return of General de Gaulle to power. Algeria achieved independence on July 5, 1962, with Algiers as its capital. Since then, despite losing its entire pied-noir population, the city has expanded massively. It now has about five million inhabitants, or 10 percent of Algeria's population—and its suburbs now cover most of

5192-402: The need for their conservation, given that a fundamental component of state action following the construction or declaration of monuments is litigating vandalism and iconoclasm. However, not all monuments represent the interests of nation-states and the ruling classes; their forms are also employed beyond Western borders and by social movements as part of subversive practices which use monuments as

5280-458: The new National Library , built in a style reminiscent of the British Library . The main building in the Kasbah was begun in 1516 on the site of an older building, and served as the palace of the deys until the French conquest. A road has been cut through the centre of the building, the mosque turned into barracks , and the hall of audience allowed to fall into ruin. There still remain a minaret and some marble arches and columns. Traces exist of

5368-403: The new name of Icosium was absorbed into the Hammadid dynasty who in 1067 AD relocated to Bejaia and carried on a lively trade while most of North Africa was under a state of anarchy . In 1079 AD, Ibn Tashfin , a Sanhaja leader of the Almoravid Empire sent an army of 20,000 men from Marrakesh to push towards what is now Tlemcen to attack the "Banu Ya'la", the Zenata tribe occupying

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5456-434: The next definition of monument: Monuments result from social practices of construction or conservation of material artifacts through which the ideology of their promoters is manifested. The concept of the modern monument emerged with the development of capital and the nation-state in the fifteenth century when the ruling classes began to build and conserve what were termed monuments. These practices proliferated significantly in

5544-411: The nineteenth century, creating the ideological frameworks for their conservation as a universal humanist duty. The twentieth century has marked a movement toward some monuments being conceived as cultural heritage in the form of remains to be preserved, and concerning commemorative monuments, there has been a shift toward the abstract counter monument. In both cases, their conflictive nature is explicit in

5632-401: The north. The forts and part of the ramparts were demolished at the beginning of the 20th century, when a line of forts occupying the heights of Bouzareah بوزريعة (at an elevation of 396 metres (1,299 ft) above the sea) took their place. Notre Dame d'Afrique , a church built (1858–1872) in a mixture of the Roman and Byzantine styles, is conspicuously situated overlooking the sea, on

5720-404: The one memorized) and the form and content of the monument (work-like monument). From an art historical point of view, the dichotomy of content and form opens up the problem of the "linguistic ability" of the monument. It becomes clear that language is an eminent part of a monument and it is often represented in "non-objective" or "architectural monuments", at least with a plaque. In this connection,

5808-855: The order of the Sabbatical sections, with an appendix entitled "Ya'ir Kokab mi-Ya'aqob," containing novellæ and responsa . He also edited Mizbach Kapparah of Nachmanides ; Bezalel Ashkenazi's Shittah Mequbbetzet on Zebachim and various tosafot of Rabbi Perez , Eliezer of Touques , and others on several Talmudical treatises, with an appendix entitled "Ranenu le-Ya'aqob" (Livorno, 1810) containing Talmudic novellæ and sermons by Jacob (republished with additions by Saul ha-Levi, Lemberg, 1861); "Sefer Mar'eh ha-Ofannim" (Livorno, 1810), containing Asher ben Jehiel 's novellæ on Sotah, Aaron ha-Levi 's "Shittah" on Betzah , and an appendix entitled "Yagel Ya'aqob," containing novellæ on Pesachim , Betzah, Rosh Hashanah , Mo'ed Katan , Avodah Zarah , and Makkot . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

5896-443: The original mosque. In one of the chapels was a tomb containing the bones of Geronimo . The building seems a curious blend of Moorish and Byzantine styles. Algiers possesses a college with schools of law, medicine, science and letters. The college buildings are large and handsome. The Bardo Museum holds some of the ancient sculptures and mosaics discovered in Algeria, together with medals and Algerian money. The port of Algiers

5984-414: The passage of time and natural forces such as erosion. In 772 during the Saxon Wars , Charlemagne intentionally destroyed an Irminsul monument in order to desecrate the pagan religion. In 1687 the Parthenon in Athens was partially destroyed by a Venetian mortar round, which set off the store of gunpowder kept there by the Turkish defenders. A recent archeological dig in central France uncovered

6072-435: The period. The primary source for knowledge of Algiers of this period, since there are no contemporary local sources, is the Topografía e historia general de Argel (1612, but written earlier), published by Diego de Haedo, but whose authorship is disputed. This work describes in detail the city, the behavior of its inhabitants, and its military defenses, with the unsuccessful hope of facilitating an attack by Spain so as to end

6160-419: The piracy. A significant number of renegades lived in Algiers at the time, Christians converted voluntarily to Islam , many fleeing the law or other problems at home. Once converted to Islam, they were safe in Algiers. Many occupied positions of authority, such as Samson Rowlie , an Englishman who became Treasurer of Algiers. The city under Ottoman control was enclosed by a wall on all sides, including along

6248-463: The primacy of contemporary political power, such as the column of Trajan or the numerous statues of Lenin in the Soviet Union . They can be used to educate the populace about important events or figures from the past, such as in the renaming of the old General Post Office Building in New York City to the James A. Farley Building , after James Farley , former Postmaster General of the United States . To fulfill its informative and educative functions

6336-510: The remains of a Megalithic monument that had been previously destroyed "Like some monuments, including Belz in Morbihan , the menhirs of Veyre-Monton were knocked down in order to make them disappear from the landscape. Pushed into large pits, sometimes mutilated or covered with earth, these monoliths have been destroyed. 'object of iconoclastic gestures, a sort of condemnation perhaps linked to some change of community or beliefs " The term

6424-524: The sea while crossing near El Harrach , a neighbourhood of the city hence the name, while Mazafran River ends near the far western suburbs dividing Algiers Province and Tipaza Province ; Both of these are called "Widan" which help in supplying agricultural needs in "Mitidja" which borders the Tell Atlas mountain range which could be spotted from the city. Algiers has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ). Its proximity to

6512-537: The seafront. In this wall, five gates allowed access to the city, with five roads from each gate dividing the city and meeting in front of the Ketchaoua Mosque. In 1556, a citadel, Palace of the Dey was constructed at the highest point in the wall. A major road running north to south divided the city in two: The upper city (al-Gabal, or 'the mountain') which consisted of about fifty small quarters of Andalusian , Jewish , Moorish and Kabyle communities, and

6600-509: The second province was Mauretania Tingitana and were deemed as Roman Municipiums , additionally they were given Latin rights by the emperor Vespasian . In 371-373 AD, Mauretania revolted with the help of Firmus in hopes of installing an independent State and Icosium was raided and damaged. Some clues show the presence of bishops in the region at this time. In 435 AD, the Vandal Kingdom took control of northern Africa along

6688-552: The shoulder of the Bouzareah hills, 3 km (2 mi) to the north of the city. Above the altar is a statue of the Virgin depicted as a black woman. The church also contains a solid silver statue of the archangel Michael , belonging to the confraternity of Neapolitan fishermen. Monument A monument is a type of structure that was explicitly created to commemorate a person or event, or which has become relevant to

6776-676: The southern end of the rue d'Isly near the site of the demolished Fort Bab Azoun باب عزون. The interior is richly decorated with various coloured marbles. Many of these marbles contain memorial inscriptions relating to the British residents (voluntary and involuntary) of Algiers from the time of John Tipton, the first English consul, in 1580 (NB Some sources give 1585). One tablet records that in 1631 two Algerine pirate crews landed in Ireland , sacked Baltimore , and enslaved its inhabitants. The Ketchaoua Mosque ( Djamaa Ketchaoua جامع كتشاوة), at

6864-573: The surrounding Mitidja plain. Run by the FLN that had secured independence, Algiers became a member of Non-Aligned Movement during the Cold War . In October 1988, one year before the fall of the Berlin Wall , Algiers was the site of demonstrations demanding the end of the single-party system and the creation of a real democracy baptized the "Spring of Algiers". The demonstrators were repressed by

6952-411: The vaults in which were stored the treasures of the dey. Djamaa el Kebir ( Jamaa-el-Kebir الجامع الكبير) is the oldest mosque in Algiers. It was first built by Yusuf ibn Tashfin , but reconstructed many times. The pulpit ( minbar منبر) bears an inscription showing that the building existed in 1097. The minaret was built by the sultan of Tlemcen , in 1324. The interior of the mosque is square and

7040-523: The western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Iceland. By the 17th century, up to 40% of the city's 100,000 inhabitants were enslaved Europeans. The United States fought two wars (the First and Second Barbary Wars ) over Algiers' attacks on shipping. Among the notable people held for ransom was the future Spanish novelist, Miguel de Cervantes , who was held captive in Algiers for almost five years, and wrote two plays set in Algiers of

7128-502: The western coast of the Regency near what is today Sidi Fredj on June 14, 1830. The Algerian forces met their French opponents in the "Battle of Sidi Fredj" on June 19, 1830, to which the Dey 's forces were defeated, this enabled the colonial army to advance into the city and made Hussein Dey surrender to French General de Bourmont on 5 July 1830. Under French rule, Algiers became the capital of French Algeria , "an integral part of

7216-595: The year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Perth in Australia . The annual temperature would increase by 2.6 °C (4.7 °F), and the temperature of the warmest month by 1.9 °C (3.4 °F), while the temperature of the coldest month would be 3.8 °C (6.8 °F) higher. According to Climate Action Tracker , the current warming trajectory appears consistent with 2.7 °C (4.9 °F), which closely matches Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5. Moreover, according to

7304-864: Was Latinized as Icosium under Roman rule . The Greeks explained the name as coming from their word for "twenty" ( εἴκοσι , eíkosi ), supposedly because it had been founded by 20 companions of Hercules when he visited the Atlas Mountains during his labors . Algiers is also known as el-Behdja ( البهجة , "The Joyous") or "Algiers the White" (French: Alger la Blanche ) for its whitewashed buildings.   Phoenicia and Punicia pre 202 BC   Numidia 202 BC–104 BC   Mauretania 104 BC-42 AD   Roman Empire 42-435   Vandal Kingdom 435–534   Byzantine Empire 534-700s   Umayyad Caliphate 700s–750   Abbasid Caliphate 750 AD-800   Aghlabids (As

7392-758: Was appointed by the Faṭimid caliph al-Muʿizz as governor of al-Qayrawān and any other territory his nation, the Zirid Dynasty might reclaim from its enemies, the Zenata tribesmen. His state accordingly expanded its boundaries westward. In approximately 1014 AD, under the reign of Badis ibn al-Mansur , the dynasty was divided between the Zirids at al-Qayrawan in the east, and the Hammadids at Qal'at Bani Hammad ; "Jazaʾir Banī Mazghanna", commonly known as "Algiers" as

7480-593: Was conceived by L'Enfant to help organize public space in the city, before it was designed or constructed. Older cities have monuments placed at locations that are already important or are sometimes redesigned to focus on one. As Shelley suggested in his famous poem " Ozymandias " (" Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair! "), the purpose of monuments is very often to impress or awe. Structures created for other purposes that have been made notable by their age, size or historic significance may also be regarded as monuments. This can happen because of great age and size, as in

7568-475: Was customary for archaeologists to study large monuments and pay less attention to the everyday lives of the societies that created them. New ideas about what constitutes the archaeological record have revealed that certain legislative and theoretical approaches to the subject are too focused on earlier definitions of monuments. An example has been the United Kingdom 's Scheduled Ancient Monument laws. Other than municipal or national government that protecting

7656-524: Was given by Buluggin ibn Ziri after he established the city on the ruins of the Phoenician city of Icosium in 950. During Ottoman rule, the name of the capital, al-Jazā'ir, was extended over the entire country, giving it the English name Algeria derived from the French name Algérie. In classical antiquity , the ancient Greeks knew the town as Ikósion ( Ancient Greek : Ἰκόσιον ), which

7744-562: Was met by operations against the dey. A naval siege on the port of Algiers by the French Navy began the following days which lasted 3 years and impacted the French and Algerian economies due to their former extensive trade treaties. Tensions only continued rising while the French Armed Forces were preparing for the 1830 invasion of Algiers . The naval fleet departed from Touron on May 25, 1830, and successfully reached

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