Minority: Christianity , Judaism
135-542: French Algeria (19th–20th centuries) Algerian War (1954–1962) 1990s– 2000s 2010s to present The Hammadid dynasty ( Arabic : الحماديون , romanized : Al-Hāmmādiyūn , lit. 'children of Hammad '), also known as the Hammadid Emirate or the Kingdom of Bejaia , was a medieval Islamic kingdom located in the central Maghreb , encompassing present-day Algeria . It
270-738: A punitive expedition , the August 1816 bombardment of Algiers . The Dey was forced to sign the Barbary treaties , because the technological advantage of U.S., British, and French forces overwhelmed the Algerians' expertise at naval warfare . Following the conquest under the July monarchy , France referred to the Algerian territories as "French possessions in North Africa". This was disputed by
405-460: A favorable peace treaty the next year. The treaty of Tafna gained conditional recognition for Abd al Qadir's regime by defining the territory under its control and salvaged his prestige among the tribes just as the shaykhs were about to desert him. To provoke new hostilities, the French deliberately broke the treaty in 1839 by occupying Constantine . Abd al Qadir took up the holy war again, destroyed
540-673: A few months before being assassinated by his paternal cousin, An-Nasir ibn Alnas , who succeeded him as emir. The Hammadid dynasty peaked during al-Nasir's reign. Under his reign the Hammadids established their control across large parts of the Maghreb . Al-Nasir captured Constantine and Algiers , then established Hammadid influence far to the east in Sfax , where the local ruler acknowledged Hammadid suzerainty, as well as in Susa and Tripoli . At
675-496: A large sea gate reportedly survives. The Bab al-Bahr (gate of the sea) was built during an-Nasirs reign along with five other gates with the purpose of protecting the town. It is now a ruin consisted of a pointed arch constructed with solid bricks. The Bab al-Bunud was also built in Béjaïa during an-Nasirs reign with hexagonal towers and its two ogival-arch gates. In Béjaïa drawings of a facade of two palaces with ground plans by one of
810-455: A lesson for all cities and created a significant obstacle for Hammad due to his own policies. In contrast, Badis remained faithful to those who trusted and allied with him. As a result, many of Hammad's supporters, including Zenata and Sanhadja tribes, abandoned him. When Hammad reached Achir , his city where his subject Khalaf al-Himyari resided, Khalaf prevented him from entering and declared his allegiance to Badis, further demonstrating
945-558: A long siege by Badis. They then proceeded to sack the city of Dkama not far from M'sila . The city had already submitted to Badis, which angered Hammad. He ultimately killed three hundred men, took all their supplies, and returned to his fortress. Meanwhile, Badis continued eastward and arrived in M'Sila on 13 November 1015 AD. He received an envoy from his uncle Ibrahim, delivering apologies and reminding Badis of Hammad's past services. Badis likely set conditions deemed unfair, such as unconditional surrender. He left his army encircling
1080-820: A long-serving lieutenant of the Zirid emirs, had successfully divided the Zenata tribes and prevented them from establishing a foothold in Central Maghreb. For his victorious campaigns in the west, Hammad was granted overlordship over the city of Achir as well as the Central Maghreb and was permitted to build a fortified city that would serve as his base of operations. However, this greatly elevated his status, igniting feelings of envy and jealousy among his enemies, who began to slander him and incite Badis against him. The final break between Hammad and his nephew Badis occurred around 405/1014. When Badis' son al-Mansur
1215-572: A mixed system of "total domination and total colonization" whereby French military would wage total war against civilian populations while a colonial administration would provide rule of law and property rights to settlers within French occupied cities. Some governments and scholars have called France's conquest of Algeria a genocide . For example, Ben Kiernan , an Australian expert on Cambodian genocide wrote in Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur on
1350-581: A mysterious man arrived in Kabiliya. He presented himself as Mohamed ben Abdallah (the name of the Prophet ), but is more commonly known as Sherif Boubaghla . He was probably a former lieutenant in the army of Emir Abdelkader , defeated for the last time by the French in 1847. Boubaghla refused to surrender at that battle, and retreated to Kabylia. From there he began a war against the French armies and their allies, often employing guerrilla tactics. Boubaghla
1485-498: A number of palaces. The Hammadid kingdom had therefore at this point two capitals joined by a royal road." Renamed al-Nasiriya to honor the emir, Béjaïa developed into a sophisticated trading city; under al-Nasir and his son and successor al-Mansur ibn Nasir , large gardens, palaces, a Great Mosque , and other landmarks were constructed in the town. An-Nasir corresponded with Pope Gregory VII and expanded commercial opportunities for Italian traders in Béjaïa. The city since flourished as
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#17327660838131620-571: A policy of penetration." —Ben Kiernan, Blood and Soil When France recognized the Armenian genocide , Turkey accused France of having committed genocide against 15% of Algeria's population. On 1 December 1830, King Louis-Philippe named the Duc de Rovigo as head of military staff in Algeria. De Rovigo took control of Bône and initiated colonisation of the land. He was recalled in 1833 due to
1755-638: A resourceful warrior. From his capital in Tlemcen , Abd al Qadir set about building a territorial Muslim state based on the communities of the interior but drawing its strength from the tribes and religious brotherhoods. By 1839, he controlled more than two-thirds of Algeria. His government maintained an army and a bureaucracy, collected taxes, supported education, undertook public works, and established agricultural and manufacturing cooperatives to stimulate economic activity. The French in Algiers viewed with concern
1890-1155: A servant among his servants more committed to his service than me.' He pledged that his journey would not take more than twenty days. Badis, on the advice of someone close to him, was advised to detain Ibrahim, preventing him from traveling until Hammad's obedience and promptness to his orders could be confirmed. But ultimately, he said to Ibrahim, 'Go to your brother Hammad. If you are truthful in what you said and fulfill your promises, then proceed. Otherwise, do what you intend.' Ibrahim left with Hashim bin Jaafar on 11 April 1015 AD, accompanied by 400,000 dinars in gold and all his treasures, men, and slaves . Badis did not obstruct him, otherwise, his departure with all his wealth and men would have indicated otherwise. Hashim ibn Jaafar sensed that Ibrahim might betray him when they got closer to his brother. Shortly after, Ibrahim excused himself to attend to an urgent matter in Béja , promising to catch up quickly. As soon as Ibrahim reached Tamdit, which
2025-574: A southern expedition, during which he expelled the Ibadi from Sedrata and ended a revolt in Ouargla by replacing its governor. His successor Al Mansur would later combat the Almoravids in the west, who continued to raid Hammadid territories. He gathered over 20,000 fighters and marched on Tlemcen , which, after a victorious battle against the armies of Ibn Tachufin , resulted in an agreement where
2160-725: A trading port and a prominent intellectual centre where even Abu Madyan and the Andalusian Shaykh Abu Ali Hassan bin Ali Muhammad taught. Leonardo Fibonacci had also studied in Béjaïa, his father was appointed as collector of customs in Béjaïaand he brought Leonardo along with him where he was taught. It was in Béjaïa where Fibonacci was introduced to the Arabic numerical system and computational method, he later introduced this numerical system to Europe. He
2295-461: A war erupted against the ruler of Fes . The latter swiftly backtracked and declared submission to the Hammadids. Under the reign of Sultan Buluggin ibn Muhammad , campaigns were conducted in the west to subdue the Zenata tribes. He defeated the Zenata and entered Tlemcen in 1058. At the same time, the governor of Biskra revolted against the Hammadids, but the rebellion was swiftly suppressed, and
2430-449: Is a two-day journey from Laribus , he wrote to Hammad to inform him of his plans. Hammad arrived with an entourage of thirty thousand horsemen. They united their forces and renounced their allegiance. When Hammad reached Béja on his way to meet Badis, the people of the city sought his protection, and he assured them of their safety. However, once he entered the city, he started killing, looting , and taking their wealth. This served as
2565-485: Is estimated that by 1875, approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians were killed. Various scholars describe the French conquest as genocide . Algeria was ruled as a colony from 1830 to 1848, and then as multiple departments, an integral part of France , with the implementing of the Constitution of French Second Republic on 4 November 1848, until Algerian independence in 1962. For a period between 1860 and 1870,
2700-582: Is for their part that civilization is situated." French forces deported and banished entire Algerian tribes. The Moorish families of Tlemcen were exiled to the Orient, and others were emigrated elsewhere. The tribes that were considered too troublesome were banned, and some took refuge in Tunisia, Morocco and Syria or were deported to New Caledonia or Guyana. Also, French forces also engaged in wholesale massacres of entire tribes. All 500 men, women and children of
2835-534: Is said to have been the largest mosque constructed in North Africa prior to the twentieth century and it features the typical Maghreb style square minaret. Architecture in Qal'at Bani Hammad featured adornments of " porcelain mosaics of many-colored faience , sculpted panels and plaster, enameled terra-cotta stalactites ; building and pottery ornamentation consisted of geometric designs and stylized floral motifs." Ibn Hamdis wrote two different poems describing one of
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#17327660838132970-475: The Algerian War (1954-1962), the French used deliberate illegal methods against the Algerians, including (as described by Henri Alleg , who himself had been tortured, and historians such as Raphaëlle Branche) beatings, torture by electroshock, waterboarding , burns, and rape. Prisoners were also locked up without food in small cells, buried alive , and thrown from helicopters to their death or into
3105-743: The Count of Villèle , an ultra-royalist , President of the council and the monarch's heir, opposed any military action. The Bourbon Restoration government finally decided to blockade Algiers for three years. Meanwhile, the Berber pirates were able to exploit the geography of the coast with ease. Before the failure of the blockade, the Restoration decided on 31 January 1830 to engage a military expedition against Algiers. Admiral Duperré commanded an armada of 600 ships that originated from Toulon , leading it to Algiers. Using Napoleon 's 1808 contingency plan for
3240-456: The Diwan al-Insha , the Hammadids had the Diwan al-Bareed (from Arabic : ديوان البريد ), as the emir needed to correspond with other sultans , kings , and caliphs . The communication system was advanced during the era of the emirate , and mountain fire signals became built in a wise manner, as reflective mirrors were installed in lighthouses to reflect lights and throw them far away. Thus,
3375-569: The French army . One by one, the amir's strongholds fell to the French, and many of his ablest commanders were killed or captured so that by 1843 the Muslim state had collapsed. Abd al Qadir took refuge in 1841 with his ally, the sultan of Morocco , Abd ar Rahman II , and launched raids into Algeria. This alliance led the French Navy to bombard and briefly occupy Essaouira ( Mogador ) under
3510-516: The Genoese also raided Béjaïa (1136) and the Kingdom of Sicily occupied the settlement of Djidjelli and destroyed a pleasure palace that had been built there. Tunis, whose Khurasanid rulers had previously vacillated between recognizing Zirid and Hammadid authority, was annexed in 1128 and controlled by Hammadid governors until 1148. Yahya tried to establish good relations with the Fatimids in
3645-467: The Marquesas Islands or elsewhere. In one word, annihilate everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs. Whatever initial misgivings Louis Philippe's government may have had about occupying Algeria, the geopolitical realities of the situation created by the 1830 intervention argued strongly for reinforcing French presence there. France had reason for concern that Britain , which
3780-594: The Mediterranean were foiled by the Normans , who by the 12th century had conquered Sicily and had also occupied a number of settlements on the coast of Tunisia and Algeria. However, Abd al-Aziz did expel the Hilalians from Hodna and capture Jerba . The last dynastic emir was Yahya ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 1121–1152). Yahya repulsed Bedouin incursions and subdued uprisings by Berber clans, but during his reign
3915-462: The Mitidja Plain and envisioned the large-scale production there of cotton . As governor-general (1835–36), he used his office to make private investments in land and encouraged army officers and bureaucrats in his administration to do the same. This development created a vested interest among government officials in greater French involvement in Algeria. Commercial interests with influence in
4050-602: The Ottoman Empire , then led by Mahmud II but enjoyed relative independence. The Barbary Coast was the stronghold of Berber pirates, who carried out raids against European and American ships. Conflicts between the Barbary States and the newly independent United States of America culminated in the First (1801–05) and Second (1815) Barbary Wars. An Anglo-Dutch force, led by Admiral Lord Exmouth , carried out
4185-513: The Prince de Joinville on August 16, 1844. A French force was destroyed at the Battle of Sidi-Brahim in 1845. However, Abd al Qadir was obliged to surrender to the commander of Oran Province, General Louis de Lamoricière , at the end of 1847. Abd al Qadir was promised safe conduct to Egypt or Palestine if his followers laid down their arms and kept the peace. He accepted these conditions, but
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4320-547: The Shi'a Fatimid caliphs to the Sunni Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad . The Zirids failed to quash the rebellion and recognized Hammadid legitimacy in 1017, in a peace with al-Mu'izz that was sealed by Hammad's son and successor, Qaid ibn Hammad ( r. 1028–1054 ). The peace was further sealed by marriage, with al-Mu'izz's sister marrying one of Hammad's sons. According to historian Hady Roger Idris, it appears that
4455-469: The Shi'a in his domains. By changing the state creed so abruptly and violently, Hammad was proclaiming his complete independence from the Zirid court. Badis could not let such a challenge go unpunished and personally led an expedition to chastise his uncle. Badis consulted Ibrahim ibn Buluggin , who on the same occasion was the brother of Hammad, on who should deliver the letter to Hammad. Ibrahim eagerly volunteered, saying, 'Our master will not find
4590-613: The Three Glorious Days of July 1830, and his cousin Louis-Philippe , the "citizen king ," was named to preside over a constitutional monarchy . The new government, composed of liberal opponents of the Algiers expedition, was reluctant to pursue the conquest begun by the old regime, but withdrawing from Algeria proved more difficult than conquering it. Alexis de Tocqueville 's views on Algeria were instrumental in its brutal and formal colonization. He advocated for
4725-786: The capture of Algiers in 1516 by the Ottoman admirals, brothers Ours and Hayreddin Barbarossa , Algeria had been a base for conflict and piracy in the Mediterranean basin. In 1681, Louis XIV asked Admiral Abraham Duquesne to fight the Berber pirates . He also ordered a large-scale attack on Algiers between 1682 and 1683 on the pretext of assisting and rescuing enslaved Christians, usually Europeans taken as captives in raids. Again, Jean II d'Estrées bombarded Tripoli and Algiers from 1685 to 1688. An ambassador from Algiers visited
4860-533: The locust plagues of 1866 and 1868, as well as by a rigorous winter in 1867–68, which caused a famine followed by an epidemic of cholera . The French began their occupation of Algiers in 1830, starting with a landing in Algiers . As occupation turned into colonization, Kabylia remained the only region independent of the French government. Pressure on the region increased, and the will of her people to resist and defend Kabylia increased as well. In about 1849,
4995-576: The 11th century, the Hammadids came under increasing pressure from the Banu Hilal, who had settled in the Plains of Constantine and increasingly threatened Qal'at Bani Hammad. While initially allied to the Bedouins, the Hammadids later became their puppets, allocating half of their harvest yields to them and buying off tribesmen in order to secure the safety of trade routes. Over time, Qal'at Bani Hammad
5130-403: The Algerian population. Colonel Lucien de Montagnac stated that the purpose of the pacification was to "destroy everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs" The scorched earth policy, decided by Governor General Thomas Robert Bugeaud , had devastating effects on the socio-economic and food balances of the country: "we fire little gunshot, we burn all douars, all villages, all huts;
5265-687: The Almohad minarets and the Torre Pisana in Palermo which it predates. The Hammadid palaces are also noted to contain the first or one of the first documented use of shadirwan. The excavations in the Qal'at Beni Hammad also discovered the first reference corpus of Islamic ceramics. The production of ceramics in Al-Andalus during the taifa and Almoravid periods reflect a strong and direct Hammadid influence. The technique of luster-painting on pottery
5400-517: The Banu Sindi, both subject to Sultan Al Nacer. The city of Sfax was assigned to Hammu Ibn Malil. Al Nacer also had a governor in Ouargla whose name is not known. Qal'at Beni Hammad , the dynasty's capital, was described by Al-Bakri in the 11th century as a large and powerful military stronghold and a centre of commerce that attracted caravans from all over the Maghreb, Iraq, Syria, Egypt and
5535-524: The Central Maghrib , their ancestral homeland. Nearly a year had elapsed since Hammad's conflict with Kurama, al-Muizz's uncle, in Achir . Taking advantage of every fleeting opportunity, Hammad managed to defeat Kurama , partly due to the plundering of Kurama's treasury by his own men. Despite Kurama's advantage of seven thousand men compared to Hammad's fifteen hundred, and the fact that all
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5670-800: The Court in Versailles, and a treaty was signed in 1690 that provided peace throughout the 18th century. During the Directory regime of the First French Republic (1795–99), the Bacri and the Busnach, Jewish merchants of Algiers, provided large quantities of grain for Napoleon's soldiers who participated in the Italian campaign of 1796. But Bonaparte refused to pay the bill, claiming it
5805-537: The El Oufia tribe were killed in one night, while all 500 to 700 members of the Ouled Rhia tribe were killed by suffocation in a cave. The Siege of Laghouat is referred by Algerians as the year of the "Khalya ," Arabic for emptiness, which is commonly known to the inhabitants of Laghouat as the year that the city was emptied of its population. It is also commonly known as the year of Hessian sacks, referring to
5940-677: The Fatimids and changed his allegiance to the Abbasids. The Fatimid caliph, al-Mustansir , sent Bedouin Arab allies, the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym , into a mass migration and invasion of the lands in present-day Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria , culminating in al-Mu'izz's defeat in 1053 and the subsequent reduction of the Zirids to a small, insignificant territory based in Mahdia . Amidst the chaos,
6075-592: The French Christian troops and to belligerent calls for jihad from the marabouts . Despite the diplomatic rupture between Morocco and the Two Sicilies in 1830, and the naval warfare engaged against the Austrian Empire as well as with Spain , then headed by Ferdinand VII , Sultan Abderrahmane lent his support to the Algerian insurgency of Abd El-Kader . The latter fought for years against
6210-400: The French and their makhzen allies at Oran in 1832. In the same year, jihad was declared and to lead it tribal elders chose Muhyi ad Din's son, twenty-five-year-old Abd al Qadir . Abd al Qadir, who was recognized as Amir al-Muminin (commander of the faithful), quickly gained the support of tribes throughout Algeria. A devout and austere marabout, he was also a cunning political leader and
6345-452: The French army has set foot. Who wants the end wants the means, whatever may say our philanthropists. I personally warn all good soldiers whom I have the honour to lead that if they happen to bring me a living Arab, they will receive a beating with the flat of the saber.... This is how, my dear friend, we must make war against Arabs: kill all men over the age of fifteen, take all their women and children, load them onto naval vessels, send them to
6480-548: The French captured Constantine under Sylvain Charles Valée the following year, on 13 October 1837. Historians generally set the indigenous population of Algeria at 3 million in 1830. Although the Algerian population decreased at some point under French rule, most certainly between 1866 and 1872, the French military was not fully responsible for the extent of this decrease, as some of these deaths could be explained by
6615-457: The French conquest of Algeria : By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830. A long shadow of genocidal hatred persisted, provoking a French author to protest in 1882 that in Algeria, "we hear it repeated every day that we must expel the native and, if necessary, destroy him." As a French statistical journal urged five years later, "the system of extermination must give way to
6750-476: The French during the Algerian War during the 1950s against Algerians include deliberate bombing and killing of unarmed civilians, rape, torture , executions through " death flights " or burial alive , thefts and pillaging. Up to 2 million Algerian civilians were also deported in internment camps. During the Pacification of Algeria (1835-1903) French forces engaged in a scorched earth policy against
6885-409: The French general Jacques Louis César Randon was caught but managed to escape later. On 26 December 1854, Boubaghla was killed; some sources claim it was due to treason of some of his allies. The resistance was left without a charismatic leader and a commander able to guide it efficiently. For this reason, during the first months of 1855, on a sanctuary built on top of the Azru Nethor peak, not far from
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#17327660838137020-500: The French settlements on the Mitidja Plain, and at one point advanced to the outskirts of Algiers itself. He struck where the French were weakest and retreated when they advanced against him in greater strength. The government moved from camp to camp with the amir and his army. Gradually, however, superior French resources and manpower and the defection of tribal chieftains took their toll. Reinforcements poured into Algeria after 1840 until Bugeaud had at his disposal 108,000 men, one-third of
7155-426: The French. Directing an army of 12,000 men, Abd El-Kader first organized the blockade of Oran. Algerian refugees were welcomed by the Moroccan population, while the Sultan recommended that the authorities of Tetuan assist them, by providing jobs in the administration or the military forces. The inhabitants of Tlemcen , near the Moroccan border, asked that they be placed under the Sultan's authority in order to escape
7290-403: The Great Mosque of Tlemcen or in Tinmel. The framework of a marble basin and a grey marble fragment document the use of multifoil arches with spiral-form impost decoration. The use of this motif at the Qal'at subsequently spread during the times of the Almoravids and became universal in Almohad buildings. The square rooms surrounded by rampant barrel vaults in the Qasr al-Manar have been compared to
7425-461: The Hammadid palaces which he described having interior courts of marble that looked as if they had been carpeted with crystal and he observed that the grounds looked as if they were strewn with fine pearls. His description mentions that the palace had a pool that was bordered by marble lions with water streaming from their mouths, these lions were likely similar to that of the Alhambra . In the Qal'at Beni Hammad fragments of stucco were discovered from
7560-433: The Hammadids agreed to recognize Fatimid suzerainty again at this time, but at some later point in his reign, perhaps around the same time as the Zirids did in the 1040s, Qa'id ibn Hammad repudiated Fatimid suzerainty again. In 1039, Qaid ibn Hammad was attacked by Hammama, the ruler of Fes, but Hammama soon returned to Fez, requested peace, and declared his submission to the Hammadids. Al-Mu'izz subsequently also broke with
7695-543: The Hammadids extended into Ifriqiya ( Tunisia ), as the governors of Sfax and Tunis , to whom governance was entrusted to the Banu Khurasan , submitted to Al Nacer . The people of Castilia ( Tozeur ) were notably brought under Hammadid rule. Shortly after the submission of these cities, Sultan Al Nacer conquered the city of Laribus near Kef in 1066 before entering Qayrawan , although the latter quickly emancipated itself from Hammadid influence. The cities of Sousse and Tripoli also submitted to Al Nacer . He also conducted
7830-505: The Hammadids for the domination of Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia ). However, the Hammadids would face another challenge on their western borders with the growing force of the Almohad Caliphate , and their emirate would finally be annexed by the Almohads in 1152 after a brief clash with them. In 987 and 989, al-Mansur ibn Buluggin , the emir of the Berber Zirid dynasty , appointed his uncle Hammad ibn Buluggin as governor of Ashir and western Zirid lands. Hammad subsequently defended
7965-489: The Hammadids have been preserved and provide an insight into palatial architecture of the time period of the Hammadids. The first palace consisted of a huge domed hall flanked by smaller domed towers and chambers while the second palace called al-Kukab which was said to have been located where the present day Bordj Moussa is currently situated. al-Kukab consisted of a large centred hall with a gabled roof flanked by side aisles and two small towers. The Great Mosque of Constantine
8100-425: The Hammadids influenced that of the Arabs, Almohads, Almoravids and Normans. Hammadid emirs constructed five palaces, most of which are now destroyed. The keep of the Palace of the Fanal ( Qasr al-Manar ), however, survives to this day. A minaret , 82 feet (25 m) in height, is the only remaining part of the ruined Great Mosque ; the structure bears some resemblance to Seville 's Giralda . The Hammadid mosque
8235-470: The Hammadids reverted their allegiance to the Fatimids and managed to negotiate an alliance with the Bedouin tribes. Although the Hammadids and Zirids entered into an agreement in 1077 in which Zirid ruler Tamim 's daughter married into the Hammadids, this did not end the rivalry between the dynasties. A common pattern was for Hammadids and Zirids to support "rival coalitions of Arab tribes to fight their proxy wars ." The Hammidid–Zirid rivalry also influenced
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#17327660838138370-401: The Head of the State held the title of Emir or Sultan and the governance of the emirate was exclusively within the Hammadid dynasty, they did recognize the spiritual authority of both the fatimid Caliphate at first until the arrival of the Banu Hilal tribes and then the Abbasid Caliphate in different time period. The Qada (from Arabic : القضاء ) or Jurisdiction was separated from
8505-448: The Hejaz. 14th-century Arab historian and philosopher Ibn Khaldun noted that the abundance of travellers was due to the wealth of resources offered to those interested in sciences, commerce and arts. The Qal'at attracted poets, sages and theologians. It was filled with various richly decorated palaces, caravanserai, gardens and what was to be the largest mosque built in North Africa prior to the twentieth century. The art and architecture of
8640-423: The Ottoman Empire, which had not given up its claim. In 1839 Marshal General Jean-de-Dieu Soult , Duke of Dalmatia, first named these territories as "Algeria". The invasion of Algeria against the Regency of Algiers (Ottoman Algeria) was initiated in the last days of the Bourbon Restoration by Charles X , as an attempt to increase his popularity amongst the French people. He particularly hoped to appeal to
8775-409: The Qasr al-Salam and the Qasr al-Manar which may be the oldest fragments of muqarnas in the Western Islamic world, dating back to the 11th or 12th century. According to Lucien Golvin the fragments of the muqarnas semi-dome at the Qasr al-Salam are the oldest documented remains of a true muqarnas vault in the Islamic world. However, other scholars of Islamic architecture have questioned or rejected
8910-421: The administration and derived its rulings and legislative texts from the Maliki school of thought, which was prevalent among the people of the Maghreb and Al-Andalus . Arabic was the official language in the Jurisdiction. And each city had a judge appointed by the Hammadid Emirs who was responsible for the affairs of Muslims, including complaints and others. Initially, the Hammadid emirs personally oversaw
9045-555: The administration of the emirate, later delegating this responsibility to viziers based in the capital. Most of these viziers were not from the Hammadid dynasty. They were given various tasks that included suppressing rebellions such as the Biskra rebellion during Bouloughin's reign and handling diplomatic correspondence with other kingdoms, particularly during Emir El Nacer's time. They were also tasked with managing both internal and external affairs. The Banu Hamdoune (from Arabic : بنو حمدون ) family wielded significant influence in
9180-457: The advantage on 19 June during the battle of Staouéli , and entered Algiers on 5 July after a three-week campaign. The dey agreed to surrender in exchange for his freedom and the offer to retain possession of his personal wealth. Five days later, he exiled himself with his family, departing on a French ship for the Italian peninsula . 2,500 janissaries also quit the Algerian territories, heading for Asia, on 11 July. The French army then recruited
9315-416: The architecture of these countries and it also spread throughout Europe. Luster-painted and glazed ceramic decoration in a wide variety of shapes and forms were a feature in the Islamic architecture of Hammadid-era Béjaïa. Al-Nasir reputedly negotiated with Pope Gregory VII for the services of Italian masons and other skilled craftsmen for the construction of Béjaïa. Although Béjaïa is mostly in ruins,
9450-410: The boundary between the two kingdoms was set at Tlemcen . In the eastern part of the kingdom, a rebellion broke out but was swiftly quelled by Al Mansour , who managed to recapture Bone from the rebels. Few territorial changes occurred after the death of Sultan Al Mansour , notable among them being the capture of the island of Djerba by the Hammadid fleet under the reign of Abd Al Aziz , as well as
9585-480: The choice of which caliph to recognize; historian Amar S. Baadj writes, "It would appear that the principle which the Hammadids followed in the course of their relations with Baghdad and Cairo was that of opposing the Zirids. Whenever the Zirids recognized one of two rival caliphs, the Hammadids would declare their submission to the other." Buluggin ibn Muhammad (r. 1055–1062), a subsequent Hammadid ruler, invaded northern Morocco in 1062 and briefly took Fez for
9720-590: The coast in the Gulf of Bougie, shelled Kherrata. Vigilantes lynched prisoners taken from local jails or randomly shot Muslims not wearing white arm bands (as instructed by the army) out of hand. It is certain that the great majority of the Muslim victims had not been implicated in the original outbreak. The dead bodies in Guelma were buried in mass graves, but they were later dug up and burned in Héliopolis . During
9855-618: The collapse of the Hammadids, the dynasty had a brief revival in 1184, when 'Ali ibn Ghaniya—a member of the Banu Ghaniya branch of the Almoravid dynasty, which had established a corsair kingdom in the Balearic Islands —seized control of Béjaïa, recruited a mixed force of "dispossessed Hammadids, Sanhaja Berbers, and Hilalian tribes" opposed to Almohad rule, and quickly captured Algiers, Miliana , Ashir, and al Qal'a, with
9990-503: The dating of these fragments or their identification as true muqarnas . Furthermore, the Qal'at buildings are considered to be documented antecedents and precursors to certain developments in Western Islamic art in the 12th century. Plaster capitals that were found at the Qal'at were composed of smooth leaves recurved in their upper part are considered to be an antecedent to the common Almoravid and Almohad forms which are seen in
10125-456: The dey and claimed they could not pay it until France paid its debts to them. The dey had unsuccessfully negotiated with Pierre Deval , the French consul, to rectify this situation, and he suspected Deval of collaborating with the merchants against him, especially when the French government made no provisions in 1820 to pay the merchants. Deval's nephew Alexandre, the consul in Bône , further angered
10260-451: The dey by fortifying French storehouses in Bône and La Calle , contrary to the terms of prior agreements. After a contentious meeting in which Deval refused to provide satisfactory answers on 29 April 1827, the dey struck Deval with his fly whisk . Charles X used this slight against his diplomatic representative to first demand an apology from the dey, and then to initiate a blockade against
10395-565: The early 1140s, but ultimately he recognized the Abbasids instead and minted coins in al-Muqtafi 's name. In 1144 and 1145, he dispatched Hammadid forces to join the Almoravids in fighting the Berber Almohads led by Abd al-Mu'min , though the latter emerged victorious. In 1145, Abd al-Mu'min conquered Tlemcen and Oran . In 1151, he marched against the Hammadids. The Almohads took Algiers in 1152 and then captured Béjaïa later
10530-457: The enemy flees across taking his flock." According to Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison , the colonization of Algeria led to the extermination of a third of the population from multiple causes (massacres, deportations, famines or epidemics) that were all interrelated. Returning from an investigation trip to Algeria, Tocqueville wrote that "we make war much more barbaric than the Arabs themselves [...] it
10665-621: The first zouaves (a title given to certain light infantry regiments) in October, followed by the spahis regiments, while France expropriated all the land properties belonging to the Turkish settlers , known as Beliks . In the western region of Oran , Sultan Abderrahmane of Morocco , the Commander of the Faithful , could not remain indifferent to the massacres committed by
10800-409: The fortress and distributed money among his soldiers to incite enemy desertions. This strategy caused part of Hammad's army to desert and led to a shortage of supplies and rising prices within the besieged fortress. It seemed that Hammad was on the verge of defeat, and his dynasty appeared to be on the brink of extinction. Unfortunately for the Zirids, Badis died unexpectedly in 407 AH /1016, and he
10935-475: The goal of establishing a new Almoravid polity in the Maghreb. Less than a year later, the Almohad had recaptured all the towns. The Banu Ghaniya did retain, through the end of the Almohad period, some influence in Tripolitania , southern Tunisia, and the Algerian plains, where Hammadid loyalists numbered among their allies. The Hammadid domain stretched across the entirety of the Central Maghreb, comprising
11070-534: The governance of Algiers and Mers el Dejaj while his other son Yusuf with that of Achir . Alongside these provinces, there were regions within the kingdom whose governance was assigned to other emirs , such as the region of Tozeur , which was given by Al Nacer to Yusuf ibn Makhluf . During this period, Tunis was under the governance of the Banu Khurasan , and Biskra under the Banu Ruman and later
11205-515: The government also began to recognize the prospects for profitable land speculation in expanding the French zone of occupation. They created large agricultural tracts, built factories and businesses, and hired local labor. Among others testimonies, Lieutenant-colonel Lucien de Montagnac wrote on 15 March 1843, in a letter to a friend: All populations who do not accept our conditions must be despoiled. Everything must be seized, devastated, without age or sex distinction: grass must not grow any more where
11340-502: The governor of Biskra was replaced. In 1062, Bologhine learned that the Almoravids had seized control of the Maghreb Al Aqsa (Morocco) and launched a campaign into Morocco , pushing back the Almoravids into the desert. He was assassinated by his successor on his return journey near Tessala . It was under the reign of Al Nacer (1062-1089) that the kingdom experienced the peak of its territorial expansion. The influence of
11475-541: The impact of their differing policies. This left Hammad in a difficult position as he hoped to fortify himself in the city. All these circumstances set the stage for the outcome of the battle between Badis and Hammad. When Badis crossed the Chelif River after seizing the city of Achir at the beginning of Jumada al-Awwal 406 AH (1015 AD) and confronted Hammad, Badis's men were determined to either endure or die, knowing Hammad's cruelty towards captives. Hammad
11610-404: The invaders. Abderrahmane named his nephew Prince Moulay Ali Caliph of Tlemcen, charged with the protection of the city. In retaliation France executed two Moroccans: Mohamed Beliano and Benkirane, as spies, while their goods were seized by the military governor of Oran, Pierre François Xavier Boyer . Hardly had the news of the capture of Algiers reached Paris than Charles X was deposed during
11745-499: The invasion of Algeria, General de Bourmont then landed 27 kilometres (17 mi) west of Algiers, at Sidi Ferruch on 14 June 1830, with 34,000 soldiers. In response to the French, the Algerian dey ordered an opposition consisting of 7,000 janissaries , 19,000 troops from the beys of Constantine and Oran , and about 17,000 Kabyles . The French established a strong beachhead and pushed toward Algiers, thanks in part to superior artillery and better organization. The French troops took
11880-461: The kingdom since Emir Badis' reign. Among them, Mimoun ibn Hamdoune served as vizier during the tenure of the last Hammadid Emir Yahya , whose authority grew as the Emir focused on hunting and entertainment. The Hammadid central administration included the Diwan al-Insha (from Arabic : ديوان الإنشاء ), headed by a secretary , whose importance lies in drafting treaties and agreements. Next to
12015-468: The majority of the territory throughout its history. Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, due to their lack of political and economic freedom, fueled calls for greater political autonomy , and eventually independence from France. The Sétif and Guelma massacre , in 1945, marked a point of no return in Franco-Algerian relations and led to the outbreak of the Algerian War which
12150-527: The many veterans of the Napoleonic Wars who lived in Paris. His intention was to bolster patriotic sentiment, and distract attention from ineptly handled domestic policies by "skirmishing against the dey." In the 1790s, France had contracted to purchase wheat for the French army from two merchants in Algiers, Messrs. Bacri and Boushnak, and was in arrears paying them. Bacri and Boushnak owed money to
12285-436: The marchers and the local French gendarmerie, when the latter tried to seize banners attacking colonial rule. After five days, the French colonial military and police suppressed the rebellion, and then carried out a series of reprisals against Muslim civilians. The army carried out summary executions of Muslim rural communities. Less accessible villages were bombed by French aircraft, and cruiser Duguay-Trouin , standing off
12420-568: The minister of war — who years earlier as general in Algeria had been badly defeated by Abd al Qadir — had him consigned in France in the Château d'Amboise . According to Ben Kiernan , colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. Within the first three decades (1830–1860) of French conquest, between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Algerians, out of a total of 3 million, were killed due to war, massacres, disease and famine. Atrocities committed by
12555-704: The nearby centers received their signals, and all centers transmitted them accordingly. They could have also used carrier pigeons like the Zirids . Regarding the administration of the kingdom's territories, most Umal (from Arabic : عمال Umal ) (governors) were from the royal family, with their number fluctuating depending on the Sultan. Each city had its governor appointed by the Hammadid Sultan. Cities like Algiers , Bône , Constantine , Hamza , Achir , and Jijel each had an assigned governor. At its peak under
12690-644: The north to the desert oasis of Ouargla and Oued Righ in the south. While they briefly controlled the principality of Fez in the west and cities like Sfax , Kairouan , Laribus , and Tripoli to the east. At first, Hammad built a fortified city that would serve as the capital for his newly declared kingdom.Later, upon the arrival of the Arabic Banu Hilal tribes, the capital would be replaced by another newly built city by Emir Al Nasir ibn Alnas called Al-Nāsiriyyah (from Arabic : الناصرية ) and later renamed to Bejaia , it would serve as
12825-597: The northern expanse of contemporary Algeria . At its establishment during Hammad's reign, a pact was forged with his cousin Badis , stipulating that Hammad would retain authority over a substantial swath of the Central Maghreb (Algeria). This encompassed pivotal cities such as M'sila , Achir , and Tahert , alongside the territories of Tobna and Zab , as well as any lands annexed through his conquests. The kingdom's territories would quickly expand. Following Hammad's death, his son Sultan El Qaid ascended to power, and in 1038,
12960-542: The official capital of the Emirate by 1090 during the rule of Al-Mansur . Both cities would grow to become one of the largest and most prosperous centers of the Maghreb, with Bejaia housing more than 100,000 inhabitants. The Hammadids would subsequently clash with the Almoravids in the west and their cousins the Zirids in the east. The latter weakened with the rise of the prominent Normans in Sicily , who also confronted
13095-577: The overtly violent nature of the repression. Wishing to avoid a conflict with Morocco, Louis-Philippe sent an extraordinary mission to the sultan, mixed with displays of military might, sending war ships to the Bay of Tangier . An ambassador was sent to Sultan Moulay Abderrahmane in February 1832, headed by the Count Charles-Edgar de Mornay and including the painter Eugène Delacroix . However
13230-567: The people of Achir were against him, Hammad was victorious. During this period, al-Muizz mobilized to confront Hammad on July 31, 1017. At that time, Hammad was besieging Bagai after capturing M'sila and Achir. Al-Muizz's advance forced Hammad to withdraw from Bagai. They engaged in battle at the end of Rabi' al-Awwal , which corresponds to the 26th of August 1017. Within a few hours, Hammad and his forces were decisively defeated. Al-Muizz's troops overwhelmed them, capturing their equipment, wealth, and other possessions. Ibrahim, Hammad's brother,
13365-469: The port of Algiers. France demanded that the dey send an ambassador to France to resolve the incident. When the dey responded with cannon fire directed toward one of the blockading ships, the French determined that more forceful action was required. Pierre Deval and other French residents of Algiers left for France, while the Minister of War , Clermont-Tonnerre , proposed a military expedition. However,
13500-534: The promises from al-Muizz, and informed Hammad, expressing gratitude for al-Muizz's kindness. Historian Abdelhalim Oweis notes that several factors likely influenced al-Muizz's acceptance of Hammad's offer. The young age of the Emir , who had not yet turned nine, and concerns among the Emir and his advisors about facing a potentially greater threat than Hammad likely played roles. Despite these factors, al-Muizz reached an agreement with Hammad's son, al-Qa'id. Under
13635-613: The reign of Al Nacer , the Sultan appointed his brother Kbab to govern the western territories, who was installed in Miliana . He also tasked the Banu Wemanou, a Zenata tribe located near Relizane , with overseeing the western territories of the kingdom. His second brother Ruman was assigned the governorship of Hamza (Bouira). The city of Constantine was given to his third brother Balbar , and N'Gaous to his fourth brother Khazar . He also entrusted his son Ibn el Alaa with
13770-586: The reintegration of the Banu Khurasan of Tunis into the Hammadid kingdom. During the rule of the final monarch, Yahya , in the eastern regions, according to the author of Sahib Al Majam (from Arabic : صاحب المعجم ), the lands of the Hammadid Sultan Yahya extended to the plains of Sig near Oran , marking the boundary between the Hammadids and the Almoravids . The governmental structure represented an islamic absolute monarchy , where
13905-574: The request of local shaykh s , he was also able to install a loyal governor in Tunis until 1067. Between 1067 and 1072 he built Béjaïa , developing it from a small fishing village into a large, fortified town and port. The Hammadids also expanded south deep into the Sahara, with Ouargla forming the southernmost city of their territory. They briefly extended their authority further to the Oued Mya. In
14040-479: The same year, crushing Hammadid forces at the gates of the city. This marked a major military triumph for Abd al-Mu'min. Yahya fled to Constantine but surrendered several months later. He died in comfortable exile in Salé , Morocco, in 1163. Abd al-Mu'min enslaved the women and children of Hammadid loyalists who had fought against him, but did not sack Béjaïa because the city had willingly surrendered. Some 30 years after
14175-718: The sea with concrete on their feet. Claude Bourdet had denounced these acts on 6 December 1951, in the magazine L'Observateur , rhetorically asking, "Is there a Gestapo in Algeria? ." D. Huf, in his seminal work on the subject, argued that the use of torture was one of the major factors in developing French opposition to the war. Huf argued, "Such tactics sat uncomfortably with France's revolutionary history, and brought unbearable comparisons with Nazi Germany . The French national psyche would not tolerate any parallels between their experiences of occupation and their colonial mastery of Algeria." General Paul Aussaresses admitted in 2000 that systematic torture techniques were used during
14310-466: The success of a Muslim government and the rapid growth of a viable territorial state that barred the extension of European settlement. Abd al Qadir fought running battles across Algeria with French forces, which included units of the Foreign Legion, organized in 1831 for Algerian service. Although his forces were defeated by the French under General Thomas Bugeaud in 1836, Abd al Qadir negotiated
14445-426: The sultan refused French demands that he evacuate Tlemcen . In 1834, France annexed as a colony the occupied areas of Algeria, which had an estimated Muslim population of about two million. Colonial administration in the occupied areas — the so-called régime du sabre (government of the sword) — was placed under a governor-general , a high-ranking army officer invested with civil and military jurisdiction, who
14580-502: The terms, Hammad was granted control over M’sila , Tobna , Zab, Achir , Tahert , and any newly conquered lands in the Maghreb. Al-Muizz also appointed al-Qa'id to oversee Tobna , Mars al-Dejaj, the lands of the Zouaoua , Magra , Dekma, Belezma , and Souk Hamza . The agreement was not simply about dividing the Central Maghreb between the father and his son. Instead, it acknowledged Hammad as an independent ruler over M’sila, Tobna,
14715-530: The territory against Zenata incursions and was granted additional lands by al-Mansur's successor Badis ibn Mansur . In 1007 and 1008, forces under Hammad left Ashir and built a new citadel-capital, Qal'at Bani Hammad (also called Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad ), in M'Sila Province in the Hodna Mountains ; a thriving city sprung up around the fortress. In 1014, Hammad declared his independence from Zirid suzerainty and switched his spiritual allegiance from
14850-477: The then-French emperor Napoleon III transformed Algeria into a client state , expanding freedoms, and limiting colonisation, a move deeply unpopular by the French colonists. As a recognized jurisdiction of France, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants. They were first known as colons , and later as pieds-noirs , a term applied primarily to ethnic Europeans born in Algeria. The indigenous Muslim population comprised
14985-416: The traditional submission as a slave to a husband. In fact, at that time Boubaghla left his first wife (Fatima Bent Sidi Aissa) and sent back to her owner a slave he had as a concubine (Halima Bent Messaoud). But on her side, Lalla Fadhma wasn't free: even if she was recognized as tamnafeqt ("woman who left her husband to get back to his family ," a Kabylia institution), the matrimonial tie with her husband
15120-529: The use of torture during the war. In June 2000, Bigeard declared that he was based in Sidi Ferruch , a torture center where Algerians were murdered. Bigeard qualified Louisette Ighilahriz 's revelations, published in the Le Monde newspaper on June 20, 2000, as "lies." An ALN activist, Louisette Ighilahriz had been tortured by General Massu. However, since General Massu's revelations, Bigeard has admitted
15255-426: The use of torture, although he denies having personally used it, and has declared, "You are striking the heart of an 84-year-old man." Bigeard also recognized that Larbi Ben M'Hidi was assassinated and that his death was disguised as a suicide. In 2018 France officially admitted that torture was systematic and routine. Hammadid-Zirid War (1014-1018) Inconclusive Zirid dynasty The Hammadid–Zirid War
15390-524: The village where Fadhma was born, there was a great council among combatants and important figures of the tribes in Kabylie. They decided to grant Lalla Fadhma, assisted by her brothers, the command of combat. The French faced other opposition as well in the area. The superior of a religious brotherhood, Muhyi ad Din , who had spent time in Ottoman jails for opposing the bey's rule, launched attacks against
15525-419: The war against the French. With her inspiring speeches, she convinced many men to fight as imseblen (volunteers ready to die as martyrs) and she herself, together with other women, participated in combat by providing cooking, medicines, and comfort to the fighting forces. Traditional sources tell that a strong bond was formed between Lalla Fadhma and Boubaghla. She saw this as a wedding of peers, rather than
15660-495: The war and justified it. He also recognized the assassination of lawyer Ali Boumendjel and the head of the FLN in Algiers, Larbi Ben M'Hidi , which had been disguised as suicides. Bigeard , who called FLN activists "savages ," claimed torture was a "necessary evil ." To the contrary, General Jacques Massu denounced it, following Aussaresses's revelations and, before his death, pronounced himself in favor of an official condemnation of
15795-641: The way the captured surviving men and boys were put alive in the hessian sacks and thrown into dug-up trenches. From 8 May to June 26, 1945, the French carried out the Sétif and Guelma massacre , in which between 6,000 and 80,000 Algerian Muslims were killed. Its initial outbreak occurred during a parade of about 5,000 people of the Muslim Algerian population of Sétif to celebrate the surrender of Nazi Germany in World War II; it ended in clashes between
15930-418: Was a relentless fighter, and very eloquent in Arabic. He was very religious, and some legends tell of his thaumaturgic skills. Boubaghla went often to Soumer to talk with high-ranking members of the religious community, and Lalla Fadhma was soon attracted by his strong personality. At the same time, the relentless combatant was attracted by a woman so resolutely willing to contribute, by any means possible, to
16065-405: Was also introduced to a book of algebra written by al-Khwarizmi . In 1103–1104 the Hammadids defeated the Almoravids and took control of Tlemcen. During the reign of al-Mansur's son Abd al-Aziz ibn Mansur (r. 1105–1121), Béjaïa had about 100,000 people, and the Hammadids consolidated their power in the city. The dynasty suffered a decline after this point; efforts to develop more sea power in
16200-687: Was characterised by the use guerrilla warfare by National Liberation Front , and crimes against humanity by the French. The war ended in 1962, with Algeria gaining independence following the Évian Accords in March 1962 and a self-determination referendum in July 1962. During its last years as part of France, Algeria was a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community . Since
16335-609: Was declared heir to the Zirid throne, Badis attempted to carve a small principality out of Hammad's territory for the new crown prince. He demanded that Hammad relinquish control of the districts of Constantine , Tījis , as well as Qasr al Ifriqi. Hammad refused, and soon after, he removed the name of the Fatimid caliph from the khutba , replacing it with that of the Sunni Abbasid caliph in Baghdad . He then proceeded to massacre
16470-488: Was established at the beginning of the 11th century when Hammad ibn Buluggin declared himself emir , thus splitting the Zirid domains into two separate dynasties. Under the reign of Emir Al Nasir , the emirate briefly became the most important state in the Maghreb , and reached its greatest territorial extent, stretching from Tlemcen in the west to Tunis in the east, and from the Mediterranean Sea in
16605-448: Was eventually eclipsed by Béjaïa. In 1090, with the Banu Hilal menace rising, the Hammadids moved their capital to Béjaïa, yielding their southern territories to the Hilalians. The Hammadids maintained control of a small but prosperous coastal territory between Ténès and El Kala . E.J. Brill 's First Encyclopaedia of Islam (1927) states that the Qal'at Bani Hammad "was not completely abandoned by al-Mansur and he even embellished it with
16740-585: Was excessive. In 1820, Louis XVIII paid back half of the Directory's debts. The Dey , who had loaned the Bacri 250,000 francs , requested the rest of the money from France. French Algeria (19th–20th centuries) Algerian War (1954–1962) 1990s– 2000s 2010s to present The Dey of Algiers was weak politically, economically, and militarily. Algeria was then part of the Barbary States , along with today's Tunisia; these depended on
16875-546: Was led by Ahmad ibn Muhammad , bey of Constantine . He initiated a radical overhaul of the Ottoman administration in his beylik by replacing Turkish officials with local leaders, making Arabic the official language, and attempting to reform finances according to the precepts of Islam . After the French failed in several attempts to gain some of the bey 's territories through negotiation, an ill-fated invasion force, led by Bertrand Clauzel , had to retreat from Constantine in 1836 in humiliation and defeat. However,
17010-472: Was originally constructed by the Hammadids in the 12th century and was built on the ruins of a Roman temple. The following is a list of Hammadid rulers, starting at Hammadid independence from the Zirids in 1015 and ending with the Almohad conquest in 1152: French Algeria French Algeria ( French : Alger until 1839, then Algérie afterwards; unofficially Algérie française , Arabic : الجزائر المستعمرة ), also known as Colonial Algeria ,
17145-513: Was passed from al Qal-at to Béjaïa to Malaga and black painted and incised earthenware objects as well as bronze sculptures from the Zirids most likely influenced similar objects in Andalusia. Ceramic architectural decorations had never played such a large role in the Islamic world up until the Hammadids and from there it subsequently spread to Al-Andalus and Morocco where it became a hallmark for
17280-479: Was pledged to maintain the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, would move to fill the vacuum left by a French withdrawal. The French devised elaborate plans for settling the hinterland left by Ottoman provincial authorities in 1830, but their efforts at state-building were unsuccessful on account of lengthy armed resistance. The most successful local opposition immediately after the fall of Algiers
17415-412: Was responsible to the minister of war. Marshal Bugeaud , who became the first governor-general, headed the conquest. Soon after the conquest of Algiers, the soldier-politician Bertrand Clauzel and others formed a company to acquire agricultural land and, despite official discouragement, to subsidize its settlement by European farmers, triggering a land rush . Clauzel recognized the farming potential of
17550-414: Was still in place, and only her husband's will could free her. However he did not agree to this, even when offered large bribes. The love between Fadhma and Bou remained platonic, but there were public expressions of this feeling between the two. Fadhma was personally present at many fights in which Boubaghla was involved, particularly the battle of Tachekkirt won by Boubaghla forces (18–19 July 1854), where
17685-406: Was succeeded by his eight-year-old son al-Mu'izz since al-Manşūr had passed away before his father. The Zirid army withdrew to Qayrawan , allowing Hammad to reclaim his lost territories. The following year, Hammad sent his son al-Qa'id to the Zirid court with gifts, and a treaty was signed maintaining the status quo . The Zirids were now willing to acknowledge an independent Hammadid state in
17820-453: Was taken prisoner, while Hammad, though injured, managed to escape, and his followers scattered. Back at his fortress , Hammad sent an envoy to al-Muizz seeking forgiveness and proposing reconciliation. Al-Muizz responded, "If you are sincere, send your son al-Qa'id to us." Hammad replied that he would send al-Qa'id or come himself if he received a letter from his brother Ibrahim confirming al-Muizz's assurances. Ibrahim arrived, secured
17955-623: Was the first in a series of conflicts between Hammadid and Zirid forces. It lasted from Hammad's removal of allegiance to the Fatimid Caliph and his submission to the Abbasids in 1014 until the recognition of Hammadid independence with the treaty between the two dynasties in early 1018. The war was primarily driven by Zirid Emir Badis's attempts to assert his authority over Hammad's domains, while Hammad sought to keep Zirid rule and authority out of Central Maghreb. Hammad,
18090-469: Was the period of Algerian history when the country was a colony and later an integral part of France . French rule lasted until the end of the Algerian War which resulted in Algeria gaining independence on 5 July 1962. The French conquest of Algeria began in 1830 with the invasion of Algiers which toppled the Regency of Algiers , though Algeria was not fully conquered and pacified until 1903. It
18225-428: Was utterly defeated, and his army was plundered. If Badis's troops had not been preoccupied with looting, Hammad himself would not have escaped. The spoils and wealth taken were beyond measure. Hammad then proceeded to fortify himself at the fortress of Timici before joining his brother five days after at Qal'at Bani Hammad . Upon reaching their fort, Ibrahim informed his brother of the lack of supplies in case of
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