Canaan
121-554: State of Israel (1948–present) Jund Filasṭīn ( Arabic : جُنْد فِلَسْطِيْن , "the military district of Palestine ") was one of the military districts of the Umayyad and Abbasid province of Bilad al-Sham (Levant), organized soon after the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s. Jund Filastin, which encompassed most of Palaestina Prima and Palaestina Tertia , included
242-615: A sabra mentality and culture to their writing. S. Yizhar , Moshe Shamir , Hanoch Bartov and Benjamin Tammuz vacillated between individualism and commitment to society and state. In its early years Israel sought to maintain a non-aligned position between the super-powers. But in 1952 an antisemitic public trial was staged in Moscow in which a group of Jewish doctors were accused of trying to poison Stalin (the Doctors' plot ), followed by
363-574: A national water carrier , a huge engineering project designed to transfer Israel's allocation of the Jordan river 's waters towards the south of the country in realization of Ben-Gurion's dream of mass Jewish settlement of the Negev desert. The Arabs responded by trying to divert the headwaters of the Jordan, leading to growing conflict between Israel and Syria. Until 1966 Israel's principal arms supplier
484-430: A salary , as he was a wealthy man with sufficient resources of his own, but, unlike Umar, Uthman accepted gifts and allowed his family members to do likewise from certain quarters. Uthman honestly expressed that he had the right to utilize the public funds according to his best judgment, and no one criticized him for that. The economic reforms introduced by Uthman had far-reaching effects; Muslims, as well as non-Muslims of
605-850: A cease fire was agreed. During 1971 violent demonstrations by the Israeli Black Panthers , made the Israeli public aware of resentment among Mizrahi Jews at ongoing discrimination and social gaps. In 1972 the US Jewish Mafia leader, Meyer Lansky , who had taken refuge in Israel, was deported to the United States. Uthman Others In terms of Ihsan : Uthman ibn Affan ( Arabic : عُثْمَان بْن عَفَّان , romanized : ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān ; c. 573 or 576 – 17 June 656)
726-499: A ceasefire was reluctantly accepted on 7 November. At Egypt's request the UN sent an Emergency Force (UNEF), consisting of 6000 peacekeeping troops from 10 nations to supervise the ceasefire—the first ever UN peacekeeping operation. From 15 November the UN troops marked out a zone across the Sinai to separate the Israeli and Egyptian forces. Upon receiving US guarantees of Israeli access to
847-510: A committee of trustees to elect a successor. Uthman, who was then aged 68–71 years, was elected to succeed him and became the oldest person to hold such a high position. During his premiership, the Caliphate expanded further into Persia in 650 and reached as far as the provinces of Khorasan in 651. Uthman instituted centralized reforms in order to create a more cohesive administrative structure and fostered rapid economic growth . However,
968-468: A component of every Israeli coalition until 1992, usually running the Ministry of Education. Mapai was once again victorious in the 1959 elections , increasing its number of seats to 47, Labour had 7. Ben-Gurion remained prime minister. In 1959 there were renewed skirmishes along Israel's borders that continued throughout the early 1960s. The Arab League continued to widen its economic boycott and there
1089-655: A few others. His conversion to Islam angered his clan, the Banu Umayyah , who strongly opposed Muhammad's teachings. He is listed as one of the twenty two Meccans at the dawn of Islam who knew how to write. Uthman and his wife, Ruqayya, migrated to Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia ) in April 615, along with ten Muslim men and three women. Scores of Muslims joined them later. As Uthman already had some business contacts in Abyssinia, he continued to practice his profession as
1210-531: A group of Religious Zionists who created the first Jewish settlement , a town near Hebron called Kiryat Arba . There were no other religious settlements until after 1974. Ben-Gurion's Rafi party merged with the Labour-Mapai alliance. Ben-Gurion remained outside as an independent. In 1968, compulsory education was extended until the age of 16 for all citizens (it had been 14) and the government embarked on an extensive program of integration in education. In
1331-609: A large Byzantine army. In the ensuing Battle of Ajnadayn , fought at a site 25 kilometers (16 mi) southwest of Jerusalem in July or August, the Muslims under Amr's overall command routed the Byzantines. In the aftermath of Ajnadayn, Amr captured the towns of Sebastia , Nablus , Lydda , Yibna , Amwas , Bayt Jibrin and Jaffa . Most of these towns fell after minor resistance, hence the scant information available about them in
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#17327658476631452-501: A number of times during and after Ajnadayn. Amr launched his conquest of Egypt from Jerusalem c. 640 . Caesarea was besieged for a lengthy period and captured most likely by Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan in 639, 640 or 641. Not long after, Mu'awiya captured Ascalon, completing the conquest of Palestine, most of which had been undertaken by Amr. Filastin became one of the four original junds (military districts) of Bilad al-Sham (Islamic Syria) established by Caliph Umar. In effect
1573-412: A policy that the lands in conquered territories were not to be distributed among the combatants, but were to remain the property of the previous owners. The army felt dissatisfied at this decision, but Umar suppressed the opposition with a strong hand. Uthman followed the policy devised by Umar and there were more conquests, and the revenues from land increased considerably. Umar had been very strict in
1694-607: A pretext for seizing the Suez Canal. Israel was to attack Egypt, and Britain and France would then call on both sides to withdraw. When, as expected, the Egyptians refused, Anglo-French forces would invade to take control of the Canal. Israeli forces, commanded by General Moshe Dayan , attacked Egypt on 29 October 1956. On 30 October Britain and France made their pre-arranged call for both sides to stop fighting and withdraw from
1815-580: A result of Arab settlement as well as the impacts of anarchy, high taxes, religious persecution, and droughts, which drove many Samaritans to convert to Islam. By the end of the period , the rural Samaritan population had "disappeared," and the remaining Samaritans had concentrated in urban areas, with Nablus serving as a major center, but there were also other Samaritan communities in Caesarea and Askhelon, and outside of Palestine in cities such as Aleppo, Damascus, and Sarepta. The Christian Melkite community, on
1936-867: A result, Israel's victory in the Six-Day War, Jews could visit the Old City of Jerusalem and pray at the Western Wall (the holiest site in Judaism) for the first time since the end of the British Mandate, to which they had been denied access by the Jordanians in contravention of the 1949 Armistice agreement. The four-meter-wide public alley beside the Wall was expanded into a massive plaza and worshippers were allowed to sit, or use other furniture, for
2057-926: A series of further conflicts between Israel and its neighbouring Arab nations. In 1967, the Six-Day War erupted; in its aftermath, Israel captured and occupied the Golan Heights from Syria, the West Bank from Jordan, and the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt. In 1973, the Yom Kippur War began with an attack by Egypt on the Israeli-occupied Sinai Peninsula. In 1979 the Egypt–Israel peace treaty
2178-704: A similar trial in Czechoslovakia ( Slánský trial ). This, and the failure of Israel to be included in the Bandung Conference (of non-aligned states ), effectively ended Israel's pursuit of non-alignment. On 19 May 1950, in contravention of international law, Egypt announced that the Suez Canal would be closed to Israeli ships and commerce. In 1952 a military coup in Egypt brought Abdel Nasser to power. The United States pursued close relations with
2299-544: A trader and he continued to flourish. After four years, the news spread among the Muslims in Abyssinia that the Quraysh of Mecca had accepted Islam, and this acceptance persuaded Uthman, Ruqayya and 39 Muslims to return. However, when they reached Mecca, they found that the news about the Quraysh's acceptance of Islam was false. Nevertheless, Uthman and Ruqayya re-settled in Mecca. Uthman had to start his business afresh, but
2420-576: Is a hadith which states, "You (Uthman) will have the reward and the share of booty of a man who was present at Badr". Furthermore, during the campaigns of Ghatafan and Dhat al-Riqa the Prophet of Islam left Uthman in charge of Madinah when the Muslim army ventured out of the city. In 632, the year Muhammad died, Uthman participated in the Farewell Pilgrimage . Uthman was also present at
2541-458: Is a matter of dispute but around 80 percent of the Arab inhabitants of what became Israel (half of the Arab total of Mandatory Palestine) left or were expelled from their homes. Later, a series of laws passed by the first Israeli government prevented Arabs who had left from returning to their homes or claiming their property. They and many of their descendants remain refugees . Except in Jordan,
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#17327658476632662-492: Is believed that the settlements of Arabs both before and after the Muslim conquest contributed at least partially to the pace of Arabization and Islamization. The principal Arab tribes which inhabited Filastin and formed its army were the Lakhm , Judham , Kinana , Khath'am , Khuza'a , and Azd Sarat . However, the pre-Islamic Byzantine population did not become predominantly Muslim and Arab in identity until several centuries after
2783-580: Is not among them, behead them, and if three days passed and they didn't reach an agreement on anyone, behead them all". Yaqoubi further adds that many negotiations took place in these three days and the result was hesitant between Ali and Uthman. Abd al-Rahman asked Ali: If we pledge allegiance to you, would you be willing to follow the Book of God (Quran) and the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah and behave in
2904-756: The 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine , the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel sparked the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , which resulted in the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight from the land that the State of Israel came to control and subsequently led to waves of Jewish immigration from other parts of the Middle East . The latter half of the 20th century saw
3025-588: The Arabian Peninsula into Persia , the Levant , and North Africa. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by Zayd ibn Thabit to use caliph Abu Bakr 's copy and prepare a standardised version of the Quran. Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death, the Quran was committed to written form. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout
3146-603: The Galilee was excluded, being part of Jund al-Urdunn in the north. Filastin roughly comprised the regions of Samaria , Judea , and the adjacent Mediterranean coastal plain from Mount Carmel in the north to Gaza in the south. According to al-Baladhuri , the main towns of Filastin, following its conquest by the Rashidun Caliphate , were, from south to north, Rafah , Gaza, Bayt Jibrin, Yibna, Amwas, Lydda, Jaffa, Nablus, Sebastia, and Caesarea. Under Byzantine rule
3267-627: The Green Line , were established. These borders were not recognized by the Arab states as international boundaries. Israel was in control of the Galilee , Jezreel Valley , West Jerusalem , the coastal plain and the Negev . The Syrians remained in control of a strip of territory along the Sea of Galilee originally allocated to the Jewish state, the Lebanese occupied a tiny area at Rosh Hanikra , and
3388-723: The Hejaz (western Arabia), reached the port town of Ayla at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba , then crossed into the Negev Desert or further west into the Sinai Peninsula . He then arrived to the villages of Dathin and Badan near Gaza , where he entered negotiations with the Byzantine garrison commander. The talks collapsed and the Muslims bested the Byzantines in the subsequent clash at Dathin in February or March 634. At this stage of
3509-627: The Israel Defense Forces (IDF). The Palmach , Etzel and Lehi were required to cease independent operations and join the IDF. During the ceasefire, Etzel attempted to bring in a private arms shipment aboard a ship called " Altalena ". When they refused to hand the arms to the government, Ben-Gurion ordered that the ship be sunk. Several Etzel members were killed in the fighting. Large numbers of Jewish immigrants—many of them World War II veterans and Holocaust survivors—now began arriving in
3630-737: The Jewish Agency for Palestine , and soon to be first Prime Minister of Israel . The event is celebrated annually in Israel as Independence Day , a national holiday on 5 Iyar of every year according to the Hebrew calendar . After the Declaration, Minhelet HaAm became the Provisional government of Israel, whilst Moetzet HaAm became the Provisional State Council . Paragraph 13 of the Declaration provides that
3751-580: The Seljuk invasions and the Crusades of the late 11th century. At the time of the Arab conquest, Filastin had been inhabited mainly by Aramaic-speaking Miaphysite Christian peasants. Samaria , in the northern part of the district, had a large Samaritan population. Two separate gradual demographic processes—cultural Arabization and religious Islamization —were initiated after the Islamic conquest. It
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3872-579: The Sinai Peninsula , the Gaza Strip , the Golan Heights , and the formerly Jordanian-controlled West Bank of the Jordan River . East Jerusalem was arguably annexed by Israel. Residents were given permanent residency status and the option of applying for Israeli citizenship. The annexation was not recognized internationally (the Jordanian annexation of 1950 was also unrecognized except for
3993-662: The Uzi submachine gun first entered use by the Israel Defense Forces. In 1955 the Egyptian government began recruiting former Nazi rocket scientists for a missile program. Sharett's government was brought down by the Lavon Affair , a crude plan to disrupt US–Egyptian relations, involving Israeli agents planting bombs at American sites in Egypt. The plan failed when 11 agents were arrested. Defense Minister Lavon
4114-428: The " land for peace " formula, which called for the establishment of a just and lasting peace based on Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in return for the end of all states of belligerency, respect for the sovereignty of all states in the area, and the right to live in peace within secure, recognized boundaries. The resolution was accepted by both sides, though with different interpretations, and has been
4235-450: The 120 seats after the 1969 election . Meir was the first female prime minister of Israel and the first woman to have headed a Middle Eastern state in modern times. Gahal retained its 26 seats, and was the second largest party. In early 1969 fighting broke out between Egypt and Israel along the Suez Canal. In retaliation for repeated Egyptian shelling of Israeli positions along the Suez Canal, Israeli planes made deep strikes into Egypt in
4356-516: The 1949 ceasefire. In January 1949, Israel held its first elections . The Socialist-Zionist parties Mapai and Mapam won the most seats (46 and 19 respectively). Mapai's leader David Ben-Gurion was appointed prime minister , and formed a coalition that did not include Mapam, who were Stalinist and loyal to the USSR (another Stalinist party, non-Zionist Maki won 4 seats). This was a significant decision because it signaled that Israel would not be in
4477-740: The 1969–1970 " War of Attrition ". In December 1969, Israeli naval commandos took five missile boats during the night from Cherbourg Harbour in France. Israel had paid for the boats but the French had refused to supply them. In July 1970 the Israelis shot down five Soviet fighters that were aiding the Egyptians in the course of the War of Attrition . Following this, the US worked to calm the situation and in August 1970
4598-433: The 9th century, during Abbasid rule, Jund Filastin was the most fertile of Syria's districts, and contained at least twenty mosques , despite its small size. After the Fatimids conquered the district from the Abbasids, Jerusalem eventually became the capital, and the principal towns were Ascalon, Ramla, Gaza, Arsuf , Caesarea, Jaffa, Jericho , Nablus, Bayt Jibrin, and Amman . The district persisted in some form until
4719-418: The British Mandate of Palestine scheduled to come to an end on 15 May 1948, the governing body of the Jewish community, the Jewish National Council (JNC), on 2 March 1948 began work on the organization of a Jewish provisional government. On 12 April 1948 it formed the Minhelet HaAm ( Hebrew : מנהלת העם , lit. People's Administration ), all of its members being drawn from Moetzet HaAm ( People's Council ),
4840-411: The British initiated United Nations Security Council Resolution 50 declaring an arms embargo on the region. Czechoslovakia violated the resolution , supplying the Jewish state with critical military hardware to match the (mainly British) heavy equipment and planes already owned by the invading Arab states. On 11 June a month-long UN truce came into effect. Following independence the Haganah became
4961-451: The Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean. In Hijri year 15 (c. 647), Uthman sent Abdullah ibn Zubayr and Abdullah ibn Saad to reconquer the Maghreb , where he met the army of Gregory the Patrician , Exarch of Africa and relative of Heraclius , which is recorded to have numbered between 120,000 and 200,000 soldiers, The opposing forces clashed at Sabuthilag (or Sufetula ), which became
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5082-438: The Canal area, and for them to be allowed to take up positions at key points on the Canal. Egypt refused and the allies commenced air strikes on 31 October aimed at neutralizing the Egyptian air force. By 5 November the Israelis had overrun the Sinai . The Anglo-French invasion began that day. There was uproar in the UN, with the US and USSR for once in agreement in denouncing the actions of Israel, Britain, and France. A demand for
5203-411: The Egyptians retained the Gaza strip and still had some forces surrounded inside Israeli territory. Jordanian forces remained in the West Bank , where the British had stationed them before the war. Jordan annexed the areas it occupied while Egypt kept Gaza as an occupied zone . Following the ceasefire declaration, Britain released over 2,000 Jewish detainees it was still holding in Cyprus and recognized
5324-443: The Haredi Agudat Israel party. A separate body was created to provide education for the remaining Palestinian-Arab population. The major political parties now competed for immigrants to join their education systems. The government banned the existing educational bodies from the transit camps and tried to mandate a unitary secular socialist education under the control of "camp managers" who also had to provide work, food and housing for
5445-404: The Israeli airforce launched pre-emptive attacks destroying first the Egyptian air force, and then later the same day destroying the air forces of Jordan and Syria. Israel then defeated (almost successively) Egypt, Jordan and Syria. By 11 June the Arab forces were routed and all parties had accepted the cease-fire called for by UN Security Council Resolutions 235 and 236. Israel gained control of
5566-802: The Israeli borders, and Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. Nasser demanded that the UNEF leave Sinai, threatening escalation to a full war. Egyptian radio broadcasts talked of a coming genocide. On 26 May Nasser declared, " The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel ". Israel considered the Straits of Tiran closure a Casus belli . Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq signed defence pacts and Iraqi troops began deploying to Jordan, Syria and Egypt. Algeria also announced that it would send troops to Egypt. Between 1963 and 1967 Egyptian troops had tested chemical weapons on Yemenite civilians as part of an Egyptian intervention in support of rebels . Israel responded by calling up its civilian reserves, bringing much of
5687-405: The Israeli economy to a halt. The Israelis set up a national unity coalition, including for the first time Menachem Begin 's party, Herut , in a coalition. During a national radio broadcast, Prime Minister Levi Eshkol stammered, causing widespread fear in Israel. To calm public concern Moshe Dayan (Chief of Staff during the Sinai war) was appointed Defence Minister. On the morning of 5 June 1967
5808-418: The Israelis, Syrians, and Lebanese. On 1 December King Abdullah announced the union of Transjordan with Arab Palestine west of the Jordan; only Britain recognized the annexation. Israel signed armistices with Egypt (24 February), Lebanon (23 March), Jordan (3 April) and Syria (20 July). No actual peace agreements were signed. With permanent ceasefire coming into effect, Israel's new borders, later known as
5929-451: The Knesset passed the Law of Return , which granted to all Jews and those of Jewish ancestry (Jewish grandparent), and their spouses, the right to settle in Israel and gain citizenship. That year 50,000 Yemenite Jews (99%) were secretly flown to Israel. In 1951 Iraqi Jews were granted temporary permission to leave the country and 120,000 (over 90%) opted to move to Israel . Jews also fled from Lebanon, Syria and Egypt. Between 1948 and 1958
6050-469: The Muslim troops, where spoils were divided and stipends paid, until it was abandoned by the troops in 639 due to the plague of Amwas . From about 640 Ludd and/or Jerusalem have been determined as the capital or political-religious center of Filastin, according to modern historians. After the caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik founded the city of Ramla next to Ludd, he designated it the capital, and most of Ludd's inhabitants were forced to settle there. In
6171-472: The Muslims maintained the preexisting administrative organization of the Byzantine district of Palaestina Prima . The Umayyad period (661–750) was a relatively prosperous period for Filastin and the Umayyad caliphs invested considerably in the district's development. According to Sourdel, "Palestine was particularly honoured in the Umayyad period". The first Umayyad caliph, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, who held overall authority over Syria, including Palestine, from
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#17327658476636292-406: The Nazis and sued his accuser. Kastner lost the trial and was assassinated two years later. In 1958 the Supreme Court exonerated him. In May 1960 Adolf Eichmann , one of the chief administrators of the Nazi Holocaust, was located in Argentina by the Mossad , later kidnapping him and bringing him to Israel. In 1961 he was put on trial, and after several months found guilty and sentenced to death. He
6413-468: The Palestinian refugees were settled in large refugee camps in poor, overcrowded conditions and denied citizenship by their host countries. In December 1949, the UN (in response to a British proposal) established an agency ( UNRWA ) to provide aid to the Palestinian refugees. It became the largest single UN agency and is the only UN agency that serves a single people. A 120-seat parliament, the Knesset , met first in Tel Aviv , then moved to Jerusalem after
6534-432: The Rashidun Caliphate. Umar had established a public allowance and, on assuming office, Uthman increased it by about 25%. Umar had placed a ban on the sale of lands and the purchase of agricultural lands in conquered territories. Uthman withdrew these restrictions, in view of the fact that the trade could not flourish. Uthman also permitted people to draw loans from the public treasury. Under Umar, it had been laid down as
6655-478: The Rashidun Empire, enjoyed an economically prosperous life during his reign. Byzantine Empire Sassanid Persia Caucasus Other regions The Levant Egypt North Africa Anatolia & Constantinople Border conflicts Sicily and Southern Italy Naval warfare Byzantine reconquest Khuzestan Central Persia Caucasus Pars Khorasan Other geographies During his rule, Uthman's military-style
6776-399: The Sinai peninsula in a few days. The Israeli political leadership learnt that Israel had a limited time frame within which to operate militarily after which international political pressure would restrict Israel's freedom of action. In 1956, two modern-orthodox (and religious-Zionist ) parties, Mizrachi and Hapoel HaMizrachi , joined to form the National Religious Party . The party was
6897-485: The Soviet bloc. The Knesset elected Chaim Weizmann as the first (largely ceremonial) president of Israel . Hebrew and Arabic were made the official languages of the new state. All governments have been coalitions—no party has ever won a majority in the Knesset. From 1948 until 1977 all governments were led by Mapai and the Alignment , predecessors of the Labour Party . In those years Labour Zionists , initially led by David Ben-Gurion , dominated Israeli politics and
7018-425: The Soviet block (except Romania) broke off relations with Israel. Antisemitic purges encouraged the remnants of Polish Jewry to move to Israel. Increased Soviet antisemitism and enthusiasm generated by the 1967 victory led to a wave of Soviet Jews applying to emigrate to Israel. Most Jews were refused exit visas and persecuted by the authorities. Some were arrested, becoming known as Prisoners of Zion . As
7139-428: The State of Israel would be based on freedom, justice and peace as envisaged by the prophets of Israel; it will ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex . However, the Knesset maintains that the declaration is neither a law nor an ordinary legal document. The Supreme Court has ruled that the guarantees were merely guiding principles, and that
7260-494: The Suez Canal, freedom of access out of the Gulf of Aqaba and Egyptian action to stop Palestinian raids from Gaza, the Israelis withdrew to the Negev. In practice the Suez Canal remained closed to Israeli shipping. The conflict marked the end of West-European dominance in the Middle East. Nasser emerged as the victor in the conflict, having won the political battle, but the Israeli military learnt that it did not need British or French support to conquer Sinai and that it could conquer
7381-424: The UK, Iraq, and Pakistan). Other areas occupied remained under military rule (Israeli civil law did not apply to them) pending a final settlement. The Golan was also annexed in 1981. The result of the 29 August 1967 Arab League summit was the Khartoum Resolution , which according to Abd al Azim Ramadan, left only one option – a war with Israel. On 22 November 1967, the Security Council adopted Resolution 242 ,
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#17327658476637502-464: The UN partition plan and proclaimed the right of self-determination for the Arabs across the whole of Palestine. The Arab states marched their forces into what had, until the previous day, been the British Mandate for Palestine, starting the first Arab–Israeli War . The Arab states had heavy military equipment at their disposal and were initially on the offensive (the Jewish forces were not a state before 15 May and could not buy heavy arms). On 29 May 1948,
7623-481: The US also agreed to provide A-4 Skyhawk tactical aircraft to Israel. In 1966 security restrictions placed on Arab-Israelis were eased and efforts made to integrate them into Israeli life. In 1966, Black and white TV broadcasts began. On 15 May 1967 the first public performance of Naomi Shemer 's classic song " Jerusalem of Gold " took place and over the next few weeks it dominated the Israeli airwaves. Two days later Syria, Egypt, and Jordan amassed troops along
7744-528: The auditor ( zimmam ) of the fiscal administrator ( amil ) of Filastin. At least one military governor ( mutawali harb ) of Filastin, Anushtakin al-Dizbari , is named. Other cities in Filastin, including Jerusalem, Caesarea, and Asqalan , also had their own governors, with the governors of Asqalan at one point holding the highest rank of any provincial governor in the Fatimid Caliphate. History of Israel (1948%E2%80%93present) Canaan State of Israel (1948–present) In 1948, following
7865-626: The basis of all subsequent peace negotiations. By the late sixties, about 500,000 Jews had left Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. Over the course of twenty years, some 850,000 Jews from Arab countries (99%) relocated to Israel (680,000), France and the Americas. The land and property left behind by the Jews (much of it in Arab city centres) is still a matter of some dispute. Today there are about 9,000 Jews living in Arab states, of whom 75% live in Morocco and 15% in Tunisia. Vast assets, approximately $ 150 billion worth of goods and property (before inflation) were left behind in these countries. After 1967
7986-446: The camp, however the Israelis sustained unexpectedly high casualties and the attack was not viewed as a success. Despite heavy casualties, the Palestinians claimed victory, while Fatah and the PLO (of which it formed part) became famous across the Arab world. In early 1969 Levi Eshkol died in office of a heart attack and Golda Meir became prime minister with the largest percentage of the vote ever won by an Israeli party, winning 56 of
8107-434: The coastal areas of Al-Andalus. It is not known where the Muslim force landed, what resistance they met, and what parts of Spain they actually conquered. However, it is clear that the Muslims did conquer some portion of Spain during the caliphate of Uthman, presumably establishing colonies on its coast. On this occasion, Uthman is reported to have addressed a letter to the invading force: Constantinople will be conquered from
8228-427: The conquest Amr's troops encamped at Ghamr al-Arabat in the middle of the Araba Valley between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The town of Gaza was left alone, with Amr's primary objective at the time being the subjugation of the Arab tribes in the vicinity. After the Muslim armies led by Khalid ibn al-Walid captured Bosra in the Hauran in May 634 they crossed the Jordan River to reinforce Amr as he faced
8349-444: The conquest of northern Africa was completed, Abdullah ibn Sa'd continued to Spain . Other prominent Muslim historians , like Ibn Kathir , have quoted the same narration. In the description of this campaign, two of Abdullah ibn Saad's generals, Abdullah ibn Nafiah ibn Husain, and Abdullah ibn Nafi' ibn Abdul Qais, were ordered to invade the coastal areas of Spain by sea , aided by a Berber force. They allegedly succeeded in conquering
8470-412: The conquest with full Arabization achieved during the 9th century, and Islamization not until the Mamluk period. Samaria was one of the first regions in Palestine to undergo an Islamization process. Samaritan and Christian populations dominated the region during the Byzantine period, but during the early Islamic period, particularly under Abbasid and Tulunid rule, Samaria became gradually Islamized as
8591-511: The considerable fortune he had amassed with him to Medina. Most Muslims of Medina were farmers with little interest in trade, and Jews had conducted most trading in the town. Uthman realized there was a considerable commercial opportunity to promote trade among Muslims and soon established himself as a trader in Medina. With hard work and honesty, his business flourished, making him one of the richest men in Medina. Both of Uthman's wives having been elder daughters of Muhammad and Khadija earned him
8712-463: The contacts that he had already established in Abyssinia worked in his favour and his business prospered once again. In 622, Uthman and his wife, Ruqayya, were among the third group of Muslims to migrate to Medina . Upon arrival, Uthman stayed with Abu Talha ibn Thabit before moving into the house he purchased a short time later. Uthman was one of the richest merchants of Mecca, with no need of financial help from his Ansari brothers, as he had brought
8833-404: The declaration is not a constitutional law making a practical ruling on the upholding or nullification of various ordinances and statutes. Immediately following the declaration of the new state, both superpower leaders, US President Harry S. Truman and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin , recognized the new state. The Arab League members Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq refused to accept
8954-518: The devastated towns and impoverished villages until they embraced Islam. At its greatest extent, Filastin extended from Rafah in the south to Lajjun in the north, and from the Mediterranean coast well to the east of the southern part of the Jordan River . The mountains of Edom , and the town of Zoar (Sughar) at the southeastern end of the Dead Sea were included in the district. However,
9075-455: The economy was run on primarily socialist lines . From 1948 to 1951 immigration doubled the Jewish population of Israel and left an indelible imprint on Israeli society. Overall, 700,000 Jews settled in Israel during this period. Some 300,000 arrived from Asian and North African nations as part of the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries . Among them, the largest group (over 100,000)
9196-625: The event of Ghadir Khumm , where, according to Shia sources, he was among those who pledged allegiance to Ali . Uthman had a very close relationship with Abu Bakr, as it was due to him that Uthman had converted to Islam. When Abu Bakr was selected as the caliph, Uthman was the first person after Umar to offer his allegiance. During the Ridda wars (Wars of Apostasy), Uthman remained in Medina, acting as Abu Bakr's adviser. On his deathbed, Abu Bakr dictated his will to Uthman, saying that his successor
9317-576: The first time in centuries. In Hebron , Jews gained access to the Cave of the Patriarchs (the second most holy site in Judaism) for the first time since the 14th century (previously Jews were only allowed to pray at the entrance). A third Jewish holy site, Rachel's Tomb , in Bethlehem , also became accessible. The Sinai oil fields made Israel self-sufficient in energy. In 1968 Moshe Levinger led
9438-543: The government. Israel received financial aid from private donations from outside the country (mainly the United States). The pressure on the new state's finances led Ben-Gurion to negotiate a controversial reparations agreement with West Germany . During the Knesset debate some 5,000 demonstrators gathered and riot police had to cordon the building. In 1952, Israel and West Germany signed an agreement and over
9559-542: The governor of Syria by Umar in 639 to stop Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars . He succeeded his elder brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan , who died in a plague, along with Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah , the governor before him, and 25,000 other people. Now under Uthman's rule in 649, Muawiyah was allowed to set up a navy, manned by Monophysitic Christians , Copts , and Jacobite Syrian Christian sailors and Muslim troops, which defeated
9680-443: The head of a left-wing coalition. Between 1953 and 1956, there were intermittent clashes along all of Israel's borders as Arab terrorism and breaches of the ceasefire resulting in Israeli counter-raids . Palestinian fedayeen attacks, often organized and sponsored by the Egyptians, were made from (Egyptian) occupied Gaza . Fedayeen attacks led to a growing cycle of violence as Israel launched reprisal attacks against Gaza. In 1954
9801-400: The honorific title Dhū al-Nurayn ("The Possessor of Two Lights"). Across the Muslim world, Uthman is known by his honorific title "Ghani" that translates to "exceedingly generous" which was bestowed upon him for his remarkable donations towards helping those in need and for the cause of Islam. When Ali married Fatima , Uthman bought Ali's shield for five hundred dirhams . Four hundred
9922-464: The immigrants. There were attempts to force orthodox Yemenite children to adopt a secular life style by teachers, including many instances of Yemenite children having their side-curls cut by teachers. The Yemenite Children Affair led to the first Israeli public inquiry (the Fromkin Inquiry), the collapse of the coalition, and an election in 1951, with little change in the results. In 1953
10043-455: The last years of his reign were marked by discontent that eventually evolved into an armed revolt , leading to a siege upon his residence and ultimately culminating in his assassination. Sunni Muslim tradition considers him the third rightly-guided caliph . Uthman was born in the Hejaz . The exact date is disputed, both 573 and 576 are indicated. He was born to an affluent family of the noble Umayyad clan. His father, Affan ibn Abi al-As
10164-529: The major cities children from mainly Sephardi / Mizrahi neighbourhoods were bused to newly established middle schools in better areas. The system remained in place until after 2000. In March 1968 Israeli forces attacked the Palestinian militia, Fatah , at its base in the Jordanian town of Karameh . The attack was in response to land mines placed on Israeli roads. The Israelis retreated after destroying
10285-483: The manner of the two previous caliphs (Umar and Abu Bakr)? Ali's answer to Abd al-Rahman was: I will only follow the Book of God and the Sunnah of the Messenger of God. Abd al-Rahman asked the same question to Uthman and Uthman answered positively and accepted all the conditions and therefore he became the caliph. In about AD 650, Uthman began noticing slight differences in recitations of the Quran as Islam expanded beyond
10406-517: The missile program was designed to carry chemical warheads . This action was condemned by Ben-Gurion and led to the Mossad director, Isser Harel , resignation. In 1963 Ben-Gurion quit again over the Lavon affair. His attempts to make his party Mapai support him over the issue failed. Levi Eshkol became leader of Mapai and the new prime minister. Ben-Gurion quit Mapai to form the new party Rafi , he
10527-512: The name of this battle. Records from al-Bidayah wal Nihayah state that Abdullah's troops were completely surrounded by Gregory's army. However, Abdullah ibn Zubayr spotted Gregory in his chariot and asked Abdullah ibn Sa'ad to lead a small detachment to intercept him. The interception was successful, and Gregory was slain by Zubayr's ambush party. Consequently, the morale of Byzantine army started crumbling and soon they were routed. Some Muslim sources ( Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari ) claim that after
10648-441: The natural and exact sciences. The first works of Hebrew literature in Israel were written by immigrant authors rooted in the world and traditions of European Jewry. Yosef Haim Brenner (1881–1921) and Shmuel Yosef Agnon (1888–1970), are considered by many to be the fathers of modern Hebrew literature . Native-born writers who published their work in the 1940s and 1950s, often called the "War of Independence generation," brought
10769-745: The new Arab states, particularly the Nasser-led Egyptian Free Officers Movement and Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia . Israel's solution to diplomatic isolation was to establish good relations with newly independent states in Africa and with France, which was engaged in the Algerian War . In the January 1955 elections Mapai won 40 seats and the Labour Party 10, Moshe Sharett became prime minister of Israel at
10890-400: The new state of Israel, and many joined the IDF. After an initial loss of territory by the Jewish state and its occupation by the Arab armies, from July the tide gradually turned in the Israelis' favour and they pushed the Arab armies out and conquered some of the territory that had been included in the proposed Arab state. At the end of November, tenuous local ceasefires were arranged between
11011-528: The newly established city of Ramla as its capital and eleven administrative districts ( kura ), each ruled from a central town. The Muslim conquest of Palestine is difficult to reconstruct, according to the historian Dominique Sourdel . It is generally agreed that the Qurayshite commander Amr ibn al-As was sent to conquer the area by Caliph Abu Bakr , likely in 633. Amr traversed the Red Sea coast of
11132-655: The next 14 years, West Germany paid Israel 3 billion marks (around US$ 714 million according to 1953-1955 conversion rates). The reparations became a decisive part of Israel's income, comprising as high as 87.5% of Israel's income in 1956. In 1950, the Israeli government launched Israel Bonds for American and Canadian Jews to buy. In 1951, the final results of the bonds program exceeded $ 52 million. In 1957, bond sales amounted to 35% of Israel's special development budget. The proceeds from these sources were invested in industrial and agricultural development projects, which allowed Israel to become economically self-sufficient. Among
11253-638: The other hand, while undergoing a process of Arabization , was able to resist the expansion of Islam and preserve its religious and cultural identity for a longer period of time until mass-Islamization in the Mamluk and Ottoman periods. The governors of Jund Filastin: Information about the Fatimid provincial administration in Filastin, as with the other provinces in Bilad al-Sham, is scant, and largely limited to
11374-622: The party-affiliated education system was scrapped and replaced by a secular state education system and a state-run Modern Orthodox system. Agudat Israel were allowed to maintain their existing school system. In the early 1950s, under the administration of Yaakov Dori , who had served as the Israel Defense Forces’ first chief of staff, the Technion launched a campaign to recruit Jewish and pro-Israel scientists from abroad to establish research laboratories and teaching departments in
11495-399: The period of 1023–1025, which was covered by the surviving fragment of the chronicle of al-Musabbihi (d. 1029). It is not clear to what degree the governor ( wali ) of Filastin's capital of Ramla was responsible for the rest of the province. The governor of Ramla was in charge of the local police force, but the qadi (head judge) in the city was appointed directly by the caliph's court as was
11616-473: The population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two million. During this period, food, clothes and furniture had to be rationed in what became known as the Austerity Period ( Tkufat haTsena ). Immigrants were mostly refugees without money or possessions, and many were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot . By 1952 more than 200,000 immigrants were living in tents or prefabricated shacks built by
11737-421: The port city of Caesarea was the territory's capital, a natural choice as it eased communications with the capital Constantinople . After the Muslim conquest, the administrative focus shifted to the interior. Amwas was referred to as a qasaba in the early Islamic sources; the term could refer to a central town, but most likely meant a fortified camp in the case of Amwas. It served as the principal military camp of
11858-520: The position of the head of Histadrut , Israel's labour union organization. His demands were accepted and Mapai won the 1961 election (42 seats keeping Ben-Gurion as PM) with a slight reduction in its share of the seats. Menachem Begin's Herut party and the Liberals came next with 17 seats each. In 1962 the Mossad began assassinating German rocket scientists working in Egypt after one of them reported
11979-654: The projects made possible by the aid was the Hadera power plant , the Dead Sea Works , the National Water Carrier , port development in Haifa , Ashdod , and Eilat , desalination plants, and national infrastructure projects. In 1949 education was made free and compulsory for all citizens until the age of 14. The state now funded the party-affiliated Zionist education system and a new body created by
12100-580: The reign of Caliph Uthman ( r. 644–656 ), was initially recognized as caliph in a ceremony in Jerusalem. On the other hand, a change in Syria's policy during the Abbasid period resulted in a decline in the region. Syria was now further from the seat of authority as the capital relocated from Damascus to Baghdad. The new policy preferred Iraq over Syria for several reasons: the local Arab population
12221-568: The side of Al-Andalus . Thus, if you conquer it, you will have the honor of taking the first step towards the conquest of Constantinople. You will have your reward in this behalf both in this world and the next. Although raids by Berbers and Muslims were conducted against the Visigothic Kingdom in Spain during the late 7th century, there is no evidence that Spain was invaded nor that parts of it were conquered or settled by Muslims prior to
12342-693: The sources. Following the decisive Muslim victory against the Byzantines at the Battle of Yarmouk (636), fought along the Yarmouk tributary of the Jordan River east of Palestine, Amr besieged Jerusalem, which held out until the arrival of Caliph Umar , to whom Jerusalem's leaders surrendered in 637. The coastal towns of Gaza, Ascalon and Caesarea had continued to hold out. The commander Alqama ibn Mujazziz may have been sent against Byzantine forces in Gaza
12463-552: The state of Israel. On 11 May 1949, Israel was admitted as a member of the United Nations. Out of an Israeli population of 650,000, some 6,000 men and women were killed in the fighting, including 4,000 soldiers in the IDF (approximately 1% of the population). According to United Nations figures, 726,000 Palestinians had fled or were expelled by the Israelis between 1947 and 1949. The precise number of refugees , many of whom settled in refugee camps in neighboring states,
12584-765: The temporary legislative body set up at the same time. On 14 May 1948—the day the last British forces left Haifa—the People's Council gathered at the Tel Aviv Museum and proclaimed the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel to serve as the homeland for the Jewish people , to be known as the State of Israel . The meeting was led by David Ben-Gurion , the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization , Chairman of
12705-526: The urban centers of the Muslim world, with the other versions ordered to been burnt by Uthman. While the Shī‘ah use the same Qur'an as Sunni Muslims, they do not believe however that it was first compiled by Uthman. The Shī‘ah believe that the Qur'an was gathered and compiled by Muhammad during his lifetime. Uthman was a shrewd businessman and a successful trader from his youth, which contributed greatly to
12826-417: The use of money from the public treasury—indeed, apart from the meagre allowance that had been sanctioned in his favour, Umar took no money from the treasury. He did not receive any gifts, nor did he allow any of his family members to accept any gifts from any quarter. During the time of Uthman, these restrictions were relaxed. Although Uthman still drew no personal allowance from the treasury, nor did he receive
12947-503: The wealth in trade and became a highly successful merchant, making him one the wealthiest people from the Quraysh . On returning from a business trip to Syria in 611, Uthman learned of Muhammad's declared mission. After a discussion with Abu Bakr , Uthman decided to convert to Islam, and Abu Bakr brought him to Muhammad to declare his faith. Uthman thus became one of the earliest converts to Islam , following Ali , Zayd , Abu Bakr and
13068-461: Was Egypt's main source of foreign currency. Egypt also blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba preventing Israeli access to the Red Sea . Israel made a secret agreement with the French at Sèvres to co-ordinate military operations against Egypt. Britain and France had already begun secret preparations for military action. It has been alleged that the French also agreed to build a nuclear plant for the Israelis. Britain and France arranged for Israel to give them
13189-445: Was France; but in 1966, following the withdrawal from Algeria , Charles de Gaulle announced France would cease supplying Israel with arms (and refused to refund money paid for 50 warplanes). On 5 February 1966, the US announced that it was taking over the former French and West German obligations, to maintain military "stabilization" in the Middle East. Included in the military hardware would be over 200 M48 tanks . In May of that year
13310-462: Was a dispute over water rights in the River Jordan basin. With Soviet backing, the Arab states, particularly Egypt, were continuing to build up their forces. Israel's main military hardware supplier was France . In 1961 a Herut no-confidence motion over the resurfaced Lavon Affair led to Ben-Gurion's resignation. Ben-Gurion declared that he would only accept office if Lavon was fired from
13431-418: Was blamed despite his denial of responsibility. The Lavon affair led to Sharett's resignation and Ben-Gurion returned to the post of prime minister. In 1955 Egypt concluded a massive arms deal with Czechoslovakia , upsetting the balance of power in the Middle East. In 1956, the increasingly pro-Soviet President Nasser of Egypt, announced the nationalization of the (French and British owned) Suez Canal , which
13552-527: Was from Iraq. The rest of the immigrants were from Europe, including more than 270,000 from Eastern Europe, mainly Romania and Poland (over 100,000 each). Nearly all the Jewish immigrants could be described as refugees, but only 136,000 from Central Europe had international certification because they belonged to the 250,000 Jews registered by the allies as displaced after World War II and living in displaced persons camps in Germany, Austria, and Italy. In 1950
13673-476: Was hanged in 1962 and is the only person ever sentenced to death by an Israeli court. Testimonies by Holocaust survivors at the trial and the extensive publicity that surrounded it has led the trial to be considered a turning point in public awareness of the Holocaust. In 1963 Yigael Yadin began excavating Masada . In 1964 Egypt, Jordan, and Syria developed a unified military command. Israel completed work on
13794-469: Was joined by Shimon Peres and Moshe Dayan . Begin's Herut party joined with the Liberals to form Gahal . Mapai and Labour united for the 1965 elections , winning 45 seats and maintaining Levi Eshkol as prime minister. Ben-Gurion's Rafi party received 10 seats, Gahal gained 26 seats becoming the second largest party. Rudolph Kastner , a minor political functionary, was accused of collaborating with
13915-440: Was more autonomical in nature as he delegated much military authority to his trusted kinsmen—e.g., Abd Allah ibn Amir , Mu'awiya I and Abd Allah ibn Sa'd —unlike Umar 's more centralized policy. Consequently, this more independent policy allowed more expansion until Sindh, in modern Pakistan , which had not been touched during the tenure of Umar. The conquest of Armenia had begun by the 640s. Muawiyah I had been appointed
14036-579: Was of the Umayyad, and his mother, Arwa bint Kurayz was of the Abdshams , which were both powerful and wealthy clans in Mecca . Uthman had one sister, Amina. Uthman is related to Muhammad through his mother, who was the first cousin of Muhammad and made Uthman his first cousin's son. His father died at a young age while on a caravan travel , leaving Uthman with a large inheritance. He brilliantly invested
14157-419: Was set aside as mahr ( dower ) for Fatimah's marriage, leaving a hundred for all other expenses. Later, Uthman presented the armour back to Ali as a wedding present. Uthman participated in all major battles which took place in the early period of Islam except for Badr and that too because the Prophet of Islam commanded him to stay back and tend to his wife who was unwell at the time. Regarding this, there
14278-784: Was signed, based on the Camp David Accords . In 1993, Israel signed the Oslo I Accord with the Palestine Liberation Organization , which was followed by the establishment of the Palestinian National Authority . In 1994, the Israel–Jordan peace treaty was signed. Despite efforts to finalize the peace agreement , the conflict continues to play a major role in Israeli and international political, social, and economic life. With
14399-602: Was strongly identified with their rivals, the Umayyads. Moreover, the Abbasids promoted trade with eastern nations like China and India. This led to neglect, political unrest, and occasionally local rebellions , such as by a figure known as Al-Mubarqa . A process of urban decline is believed to had been accelerated by the 749 earthquake , which increased the number of Jews, Christians, and Samaritans who migrated to diaspora settlements while also leaving behind others who stayed in
14520-544: Was the third caliph , ruling from 644 until his assassination in 656. Uthman, a second cousin, son-in-law, and notable companion of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad , played a major role in early Islamic history . During his reign as caliph, he was known for ordering the official compilation of the standardized version of the Quran that is still being used today. Before his predecessor, Caliph Umar ( r. 634–644 ), died in office, he appointed
14641-486: Was to be Umar. Umar, on his deathbed formed a committee of six people, all from the Muhajirun (early Meccan converts), to choose the next caliph from amongst themselves. This committee was: According to Yaqoubi history, Umar appointed Abu Talha Ansari to this task and said: If four people gave an opinion and two disagreed, behead those two, and if three agreed and three disagreed, the three people whom Abd al-Rahman
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