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114-566: The first instance of European habitation in the Old Brooklyn vicinity occurred in 1790, when fur trader Joseph Du Shattar established a trading post on the west bank of the Cuyahoga River, across from the area that became Newburgh. Originally a portion of Brooklyn Township , the area was settled permanently in 1814 as the hamlet of Brighton, centered at the present-day intersection of Pearl and Broadview Roads. The Brighton area

228-546: A 'per pelt' basis. Colonial trading posts in the southern colonies also introduced many types of alcohol (especially brandy and rum) for trade. European traders flocked to the North American continent and made huge profits from the exchange. A metal axe head, for example, was exchanged for one beaver pelt (also called a 'beaver blanket'). The same pelt could fetch enough to buy dozens of axe heads in England, making

342-715: A Tartar victory in 1584 and the temporary end to Russian occupation in the area. In 1584, Ivan's son Feodor sent military governors ( voivodas ) and soldiers to reclaim Yermak conquests and officially to annex the land held by the Khanate of Sibir . Similar skirmishes with Tartars took place across Siberia as Russian expansion continued. Russian conquerors treated the natives of Siberia as easily exploited subjects who were inferior to them. As they penetrated deeper into Siberia, traders built outposts or winter lodges called zimovye  [ ru ] where they lived and collected fur tribute from native tribes. By 1620 Russia dominated

456-412: A common pool that the band divided equally among themselves after Russian officials exacted the tithing tax. On the other hand, a trading company provided hired fur-trappers with the money needed for transportation, food, and supplies, and once the hunt was finished, the employer received two-thirds of the pelts and the remaining ones were sold and the proceeds divided evenly among the hired laborers. During

570-418: A hillside parallel, perhaps hundreds of feet away, rather than build two embankments. By damming the rivers, long stretches of slackwater could be created which, with the addition of towpaths, could serve as portions of the canal. Where it made economic sense to do so, such as lock widths or portions of the canal through narrow rock or across aqueducts, the minimum widths were adhered to. Contracts were let for

684-424: A more nuanced picture of the complex ways in which native populations fit new economic relationships into existing cultural patterns. Richard White, while admitting that the formalist/substantivist debate was "old, and now tired," attempted to reinvigorate the substantivist position. Echoing Ray's moderate position that cautioned against easy simplifications, White advanced a simple argument against formalism: "Life

798-519: A number of English investors were found to back another attempt for Hudson Bay. Two ships were sent out in 1668. One, with Radisson aboard, had to turn back, but the other, the Nonsuch , with Groseilliers, did penetrate the bay. There she was able to trade with the indigenes, collecting a fine cargo of beaver skins before the expedition returned to London in October 1669. The delighted investors sought

912-662: A resurgence, particularly in the South Hills and Jennings Road areas. Housing values in Old Brooklyn, today, are among the highest within Cleveland proper. Old Brooklyn's most notable landmark, the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo , was created in 1907 when Cleveland's Park Board relocated the Zoo from University Circle on Cleveland's east side to Brookside Park. The 145-acre park lies entirely within Old Brooklyn and

1026-518: A royal charter, which they obtained the next year. This charter established the Hudson's Bay Company and granted it a monopoly to trade into all the rivers that emptied into Hudson Bay. From 1670 onwards, the Hudson's Bay Company sent two or three trading ships into the bay every year. They brought back furs (mainly beaver) and sold them, sometimes by private treaty but usually by public auction. The beaver

1140-694: A significant step towards securing Russian hegemony in Siberia when he sent a large army to attack the Khanate of Kazan and ended up obtaining the territory from the Volga to the Ural Mountains . At this point the phrase, "ruler of Obdor , Konda , and all Siberian lands" became part of the title of the tsar in Moscow. Even so, problems ensued after 1558 when Ivan IV sent Grigory Stroganov  [ ru ] ( c.  1533–1577 ) to colonize land on

1254-746: A source. As a result, the canal was divided into two sections: the Ohio and Erie Canal, which connected Cleveland to Portsmouth via the Licking Divide and the Scioto River Valley, and the Miami and Erie Canal , which connected Cincinnati to Dayton . This second canal would ultimately be extended to the Maumee River at Toledo . Copies of the original survey plat maps for the construction of both Ohio canals are available on-line from

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1368-416: A sparsely populated region of 50,000 people who were scattered throughout the state and who had no means of transporting goods economically out of the state. Without easy access to distant markets, agriculture served only local needs and large-scale manufacturing was nearly non-existent. As early as 1787, George Washington and Thomas Jefferson had discussed the desirability of a canal linking Lake Erie to

1482-437: A variety of reasons. Reducing them to simple economic or cultural dichotomies, as the formalists and substantivists had done, was a fruitless simplification that obscured more than it revealed. Moreover, Ray used trade accounts and account books in the Hudson's Bay Company's archives for masterful qualitative analyses and pushed the boundaries of the field's methodology. Following Ray's position, Bruce M. White also helped to create

1596-864: Is of particular note; the ninth conference, which was held in St. Louis in 2006, has not yet published its papers. Ohio and Erie Canal The Ohio and Erie Canal was a canal constructed during the 1820s and early 1830s in Ohio . It connected Akron with the Cuyahoga River near its outlet on Lake Erie in Cleveland , and a few years later, with the Ohio River near Portsmouth . It also had connections to other canal systems in Pennsylvania . The canal carried freight traffic from 1827 to 1861, when

1710-689: Is one of the 16 nature preserve reservations of the Cleveland Metroparks system. Brookside Park also has a place in sporting lore, having hosted the reputedly largest baseball crowd in Cleveland's history, when the White Autos of Cleveland met Omaha in the World Amateur Baseball Championship. On October 10, 1915, a reported crowd of 115,000 sprawled along and below the park's northern bluff, directly west of today's Fulton Road Bridge , and cheered as

1824-853: The Cleveland Metropolitan School District . Schools in the neighborhood include: Charles A. Mooney School, William C. Bryant Elementary, Benjamin Franklin Elementary, William Rainey Harper, James Ford Rhodes High, Facing History New Tech, Cleveland Preparatory Academy, Constellation Schools: Old Brooklyn Community Elementary and Middle, Mary Queen of Peace, Luther Memorial, Saint Mary’s, and St. Leo’s schools. The neighborhood's secondary students generally attend James Ford Rhodes High School , whose graduates include 1944 Heisman Trophy winner Les Horvath , anti-establishment poet D. A. Levy , and television star Drew Carey . The Drew Carey Show ' s "Warsaw Tavern"

1938-516: The Fur Institute of Canada , there are about 60,000 active trappers in Canada (based on trapping licenses), of whom about 25,000 are indigenous peoples . The fur farming industry is present in many parts of Canada. The largest producer of mink and foxes is Nova Scotia which in 2012 generated revenues of nearly $ 150 million and accounted for one quarter of all agricultural production in

2052-750: The Governor of New York , sent a letter to the Ohio Legislature indicating his state's willingness to construct the Erie Canal without national help, and asking the State of Ohio to join the endeavor. On January 9, 1817, the Ohio Legislature directed Ohio's Governor (and former Senator) Thomas Worthington to negotiate a deal with Clinton. Due to the cost, however, the Ohio Legislature dallied, and nothing happened for three years. Finally, in January 1822,

2166-737: The Hudson River , so he enlisted the aid of state legislators and Ohio's congressional delegation. On January 15, 1812, the Ohio General Assembly passed a resolution expressing its opinion that the connection of the Great Lakes with the Hudson River was a project of "national concern". President Madison was against the proposal, however, and the War of 1812 ended official discussion. On December 11, 1816, Clinton, by then

2280-613: The Kama and to subjugate and enserf the Komi living there. The Stroganov family soon came into conflict in 1573 with the khan of Sibir whose land they encroached on. Ivan told the Stroganovs to hire Cossack mercenaries to protect the new settlement from the Tatars. From c.  1581 the band of Cossacks led by Yermak Timofeyevich fought many battles that eventually culminated in

2394-610: The Mohawk and Mohican . By 1614 the Dutch were sending vessels to secure large economic returns from fur trading. The fur trade of New Netherland, through the port of New Amsterdam , depended largely on the trading depot at Fort Orange (now Albany) on the upper Hudson River . Much of the fur is believed to have originated in Canada, smuggled south by entrepreneurs who wished to avoid the colony's government-imposed monopoly there. England

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2508-582: The Mongolian trading town of Kyakhta , which had been opened to Russian trade by the 1727 Treaty of Kyakhta . The papers from the North American Fur Trade conferences, which are held approximately every five years, not only provide a wealth of articles on disparate aspects of the fur trade, but also can be taken together as a historiographical overview since 1965. They are listed chronologically below. The third conference, held in 1978,

2622-637: The Russian-American Company . The term "maritime fur trade" was coined by historians to distinguish the coastal, ship-based fur trade from the continental, land-based fur trade of, for example, the North West Company and the American Fur Company . Historically, the maritime fur trade was not known by that name, rather it was usually called the "North West Coast trade" or "North West Trade". The term "North West"

2736-535: The Tuscarawas River and the hydraulics (flood control) at the Portage Lakes . The Ohio & Erie Canal and its feeder reservoirs are maintained from Akron by a staff of three O.D.N.R. Ohio State Parks, Canal Hydraulic Operators. Like its sister canal, the Ohio & Erie Canal carries a large amount of stormwater. The canals were not designed to accommodate this great influx of stormwater. Most of

2850-810: The Western world ), Europe, and the United States (especially New England ). The trade had a major effect on the indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest coast, especially the Aleut , Tlingit , Haida , Nuu-chah-nulth , and Chinook peoples . There was a rapid increase of wealth among the Northwest Coast natives, along with increased warfare, potlatching , slaving, depopulation due to epidemic disease, and enhanced importance of totems and traditional nobility crests. The indigenous culture

2964-539: The 10th century, merchants and boyars of the city-state of Novgorod had exploited the fur resources "beyond the portage", a watershed at the White Lake that represents the door to the entire northwestern part of Eurasia. They began by establishing trading posts along the Volga and Vychegda river networks and requiring the Komi people to give them furs as tribute . Novgorod, the chief fur-trade center prospered as

3078-615: The 1620s and 1630s. London merchants tried to take over France's fur trade in the St Lawrence River valley. Taking advantage of one of England's wars with France, Sir David Kirke captured Quebec in 1629 and brought the year's produce of furs back to London. Other English merchants also traded for furs around the Saint Lawrence River region in the 1630s, but these were officially discouraged. Such efforts ceased as France strengthened its presence in Canada. Much of

3192-814: The 17th through the second half of the 19th century, Russia was the world's largest supplier of fur. The fur trade played a vital role in the development of Siberia , the Russian Far East and the Russian colonization of the Americas . As recognition of the importance of the trade to the Siberian economy, the sable is a regional symbol of Sverdlovsk Oblast in the Urals and Novosibirsk , Tyumen and Irkutsk Oblasts in Siberia. European contact with North America, with its vast forests and wildlife, particularly

3306-553: The Bay and market trade in London." Arthur J. Ray permanently changed the direction of economic studies of the fur trade with two influential works that presented a modified formalist position in between the extremes of Innis and Rotstein. "This trading system," Ray explained, "is impossible to label neatly as ‘gift trade', or ‘administered trade', or ‘market trade', since it embodies elements of all these forms." Indians engaged in trade for

3420-742: The European colonization of the Americas, Russia was a major supplier of fur pelts to Western Europe and parts of Asia. Its trade developed in the Early Middle Ages (500–1000 AD/CE), first through exchanges at posts around the Baltic and Black seas. The main trading market destination was the German city of Leipzig . Kievan Rus' was the first supplier of the Russian fur trade. Originally, Russia exported raw furs, consisting in most cases of

3534-830: The European settlers. Their resentment of the forced sales contributed to future wars. After the United States became independent, it regulated trading with Native Americans by the Indian Intercourse Act , first passed on July 22, 1790. The Bureau of Indian Affairs issued licenses to trade in the Indian Territory . In 1834 this was defined as most of the United States west of the Mississippi River , where mountain men and traders from Mexico freely operated. Early exploration parties were often fur-trading expeditions, many of which marked

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3648-805: The French felt-hatters. Hat makers began to use it in England soon after, particularly after Huguenot refugees brought their skills and tastes with them from France. Captain Chauvin made the first organized attempt to control the fur trade in New France . In 1599 he acquired a monopoly from Henry IV and tried to establish a colony near the mouth of the Saguenay River at Tadoussac . French explorers, like Samuel de Champlain , voyageurs , and Coureur des bois , such as Étienne Brûlé , Radisson , La Salle , and Le Sueur , while seeking routes through

3762-797: The Indians in Canada, following the British takeover of the territory after it defeated France in the Seven Years' War (known as the French and Indian War in North America). Following the British take over of Canada from France, the control of the fur trade in North America became consolidated under the British government for a time, until the United States was created and became a major source for furs being shipped to Europe as well in

3876-643: The Komi and Yugra, by recruiting men of one tribe to fight in an army against the other tribe. Campaigns against native tribes in Siberia remained insignificant until they began on a much larger scale in 1483 and 1499–1500. Besides the Novgorodians and the indigenes, the Muscovites also had to contend with the various Muslim Tatar khanates to their east. In 1552, Ivan IV , the tsar of all Russia , took

3990-477: The Middle East in exchange for silk, textiles, spices, and dried fruit. The high prices that sable, black fox, and marten furs could generate in international markets spurred a "fur fever" in which many Russians moved to Siberia as independent trappers. From 1585 to 1680, tens of thousands of sable and other valuable pelts were obtained in Siberia each year. The primary way for the Russian state to obtain furs

4104-896: The Ohio & Erie Canal from the Brecksville Dam to Rockside Road in Cuyahoga County was transferred to the National Park Service during 1989 as part of the Cuyahoga Valley National Recreational Area (now known as the Cuyahoga Valley National Park ). A lease on the canal lands from the Cuyahoga Valley National Park to the terminus of the canal has been executed with the Cleveland Metroparks . The Metroparks manage

4218-415: The Ohio & Erie Canal is located in Summit County, Ohio . The Ohio & Erie Canal is maintained, to this day, as a water supply for local industries. After the flood, a few sections of the canal continued in use hauling cargo to local industries. Another watered section extends from the Station Road Bridge in Brecksville northwards into Valley View and Independence, all Cleveland suburbs. The section of

4332-403: The Ohio Department of Natural Resources. On February 4, 1825, the Ohio Legislature passed "An Act to provide for the Internal Improvement of the State of Ohio by Navigable Canals". The Canal Commission was authorized to borrow $ 400,000 during 1825, and not more than $ 600,000 per year thereafter. The notes issued were to be redeemable between 1850 and 1875. On July 4, 1825, ground was broken for

4446-408: The Ohio Legislature passed acts to fund the canal system (and the state's public education obligations). On January 31, 1822, the Ohio General Assembly passed a resolution to employ an engineer and appoint commissioners to survey and design the canal system as soon as possible. A sum not to exceed $ 6,000 was reserved for this purpose. James Geddes , an engineer who had worked on the New York canals,

4560-414: The Ohio River as part of a national system of canals. It wasn't until 1807 that Ohio's first Senator, Thomas Worthington offered a resolution in Congress asking Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin to report to the Senate. In 1810, DeWitt Clinton was appointed to manage the Erie Canal Commission. He was unsuccessful in his attempt to get national aid for the construction of a canal connecting Lake Erie to

4674-482: The Province. In 2000 there were 351 Mink farms in the U.S. As of 2015 there were 176,573 trappers in the U.S. with most being in the midwest. California was the first (and only) state to ban trapping for commercial and recreation purposes in 2015. The North American Fur Auction (NAFA) occurs four times a year and attracts buyers from around the world. According to the Northeast Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies, at present approximately 270,000 families in

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4788-455: The United States , increasing the demand for cotton and helping make possible the rapid expansion of the cotton plantation system across the Deep South . The most profitable furs were those of sea otters , especially the northern sea otter, Enhydra lutris kenyoni , which inhabited the coastal waters between the Columbia River to the south and Cook Inlet to the north. The fur of the Californian southern sea otter, E. l. nereis ,

4902-409: The United States and Canada derive some of their income from fur trapping. The maritime fur trade was a ship-based fur trade system that focused on acquiring furs of sea otters and other animals from the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and natives of Alaska . The furs were mostly traded in China for tea, silks, porcelain, and other Chinese goods, which were then sold in Europe and

5016-410: The United States. The maritime fur trade was pioneered by the Russians, working east from Kamchatka along the Aleutian Islands to the southern coast of Alaska. British and Americans entered during the 1780s, focusing on what is now the coast of British Columbia . The trade boomed around the turn of the 19th century. A long period of decline began in the 1810s. As the sea otter population was depleted,

5130-422: The active approach involved the use of hunting-dogs and of bows-and-arrows. Occasionally, hunters also followed sable tracks to their burrows, around which they placed nets, and waited for the sable to emerge. The hunting season began around the time of the first snow in October or November and continued until early spring. Hunting expeditions lasted two to three years on average but occasionally longer. Because of

5244-406: The adjacent real estate and the surrounding Ohio & Erie Canal Reservation. The section of the Ohio & Erie Canal still owned and maintained by the Division of Parks in southern Summit is referred to as the watered section. This section runs from downtown Akron, through Summit Lake south to Barberton , a distance of about 12 miles (19 km). Included in this section is the feeder canal from

5358-446: The authors searched for connections on a global stage that revealed its "high political and economic importance." E.E. Rich brought the economic purview down a level, focusing on the role of trading companies and their men as the ones who "opened up" much of Canada's territories, instead of on the role of the nation-state in opening up the continent. Rich's other work gets to the heart of the formalist/substantivist debate that dominated

5472-404: The basic values of the European approach" and that "English economic rules did not apply to the Indian trade." Indians were savvy traders, but they had a fundamentally different conception of property, which confounded their European trade partners. Abraham Rotstein subsequently fit these arguments explicitly into Polanyi's theoretical framework, claiming that "administered trade was in operation at

5586-416: The beaver, led to the continent becoming a major supplier in the 17th century of fur pelts for the fur felt hat and fur trimming and garment trades of Europe. Fur was relied on to make warm clothing, a critical consideration prior to the organization of coal distribution for heating. Portugal and Spain played major roles in fur trading after the 15th century with their business in fur hats. From as early as

5700-508: The best fur country was far to the north and west, and could best be reached by ships sailing into Hudson Bay . Their treatment in Canada suggested that they would not find support from France for their scheme. The pair went to New England, where they found local financial support for at least two attempts to reach Hudson Bay, both unsuccessful. Their ideas had reached the ears of English authorities, however, and in 1665 Radisson and Groseilliers were persuaded to go to London . After some setbacks,

5814-404: The canal at Licking Summit near Newark, Ohio . The canals were specified to have a minimum width of 40 feet (12 m) at the top, 26 feet (8 m) at the bottom, and a depth of 4 feet (1.2 m) feet minimum. These limits were often exceeded, and indeed it was cheaper to do so in most cases. For example, it might be cheaper to build one embankment and then let the water fill all the way to

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5928-446: The canal was appealing and attracted many farmers from their land. On July 3, 1827, the first canal boat on the Ohio and Erie Canal left Akron , traveled through 41 locks and over 3 aqueducts along 37 miles (60 km) of canal, to arrive at Cleveland on July 4. While the average speed of 3 mph (5 km/h) may seem slow, canal boats could carry 10 tons of goods and were much more efficient than wagons over rutted trails. During

6042-400: The canals during 1879, it discovered that they had not been maintained well, and that state lands surrounding the canals had been sold illegally to private owners. In many cases, canals were filled in for "health reasons", with a newly laid railroad track on their right of way. Much state land was given away for free to politically savvy private owners. Nevertheless, some revenue was accrued into

6156-470: The children of slaves. The Métis in the Canadian Red River region were so numerous that they developed a creole language and culture. Since the late 20th century, the Métis have been recognized in Canada as a First Nations ethnic group. The interracial relationships resulted in a two-tier mixed-race class, in which descendants of fur traders and chiefs achieved prominence in some Canadian social, political, and economic circles. Lower-class descendants formed

6270-413: The construction of a multi-purpose trail connecting Harmody Park to the Ohio and Erie Canal National Heritage Corridor's Towpath Trail. Other plans include a connector linking the Towpath Trail with the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo , as well as transit service and streetscape improvements. In 2020, the Cleveland Metroparks approved development of a 26-acre park space named Brighton Park, with a connection to

6384-418: The construction of railroads ended demand. From 1862 to 1913, the canal served as a water source for industries and towns. During 1913, much of the canal system was abandoned after important parts were flooded severely. Most of the surviving portions in the Akron-Cleveland area are managed by the National Park Service or Ohio Department of Natural Resources . They are used for various recreational purposes by

6498-543: The continent, established relationships with Amerindians and continued to expand the trade of fur pelts for items considered 'common' by the Europeans. Mammal winter pelts were prized for warmth, particularly animal pelts for beaver wool felt hats, which were an expensive status symbol in Europe. The demand for beaver wool felt hats was such that the beaver in Europe and European Russia had largely disappeared through exploitation. In 1613 Dallas Carite and Adriaen Block headed expeditions to establish fur trade relationships with

6612-436: The course of the 15th century and proceeded with the " gathering of the Russian lands ", the Muscovite state began to rival the Novgorodians in the north for the Russian fur trade; ultimately, Novgorod would lose its autonomy and be absorbed by the authorities in Moscow along with its vast hinterland. At the same time, Moscow began subjugating many native tribes. One strategy involved exploiting antagonisms between tribes, notably

6726-450: The decline in fur animals and realized the market was changing, as beaver hats went out of style. Expanding European settlement displaced native communities from the best hunting grounds. European demand for furs subsided as fashion trends shifted. The Native Americans' lifestyles were altered by the trade. To continue obtaining European goods on which they had become dependent and to pay off their debts, they often resorted to selling land to

6840-424: The development of shopping plazas at the intersections of Memphis-Fulton, Broadview-Brookpark, and Pearl-Brookpark. The original Honey Hut ice cream shop, a favorite of many West-siders, can be found on State Road near the south end of the community. The most ambitious period of residential construction extended from the early 20th century to the 1950s. During the 1980s and 1990s, residential development experienced

6954-478: The disposition of the canal lands is available on-line from the Ohio Department of Natural Resources. The Ohio and Erie Canal initially provided a connection between Akron and Lake Erie at Cleveland , then extending all the way to the Ohio River within a few years. Later, connecting canal systems were built connecting it with the Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal and other parts of Eastern Ohio. Download coordinates as: An all-purpose bicycle/pedestrian trail

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7068-518: The early history of contact between Europeans and the native peoples of what is now the United States and Canada . Dr. S. E. Dawson's admirable "The Saint Lawrence Its Basin & Border-Lands" covers in detail the twenty-or-so main "gateways" connecting the St. Lawrence River with its neighbouring basins. Though these were all once canoe routes, not all were trade routes. In 1578 there were 350 European fishing vessels at Newfoundland . Sailors began to trade metal implements (particularly knives) for

7182-464: The early twentieth century from the sale of water rights as well as recovery and sale of land surrounding the canals. After the maximum of the 1850s and a cessation of revenue due to the Civil War during the early 1860s, the canal's expenditures started to outgrow its revenues due to increasing maintenance costs. By 1911, most of the southern portion of the canal had been abandoned. The Great Flood of 1913 dumped an abnormally heavy amount of rain on

7296-444: The easternmost trading post of the Hanseatic League . Novgorodians expanded farther east and north, coming into contact with the Pechora people of the Pechora River valley and the Yugra people residing near the Urals . Both of these native tribes offered more resistance than the Komi, killing many Russian tribute-collectors throughout the tenth and eleventh centuries. As the Grand Principality of Moscow increased in power over

7410-658: The field or, as some came to believe, muddied it. Historians such as Harold Innis had long taken the formalist position, especially in Canadian history, believing that neoclassical economic principles affect non-Western societies just as they do Western ones. Starting in the 1950s, however, substantivists such as Karl Polanyi challenged these ideas, arguing instead that primitive societies could engage in alternatives to traditional Western market trade; namely, gift trade and administered trade. Rich picked up these arguments in an influential article in which he contended that Indians had "a persistent reluctance to accept European notions or

7524-403: The first recorded instances of Europeans' reaching particular regions of North America. For example, Abraham Wood sent fur-trading parties on exploring expeditions into the southern Appalachian Mountains, discovering the New River in the process. Simon Fraser was a fur trader who explored much of the Fraser River in British Columbia. Economic historians and anthropologists have studied

7638-401: The first to operate in the southern sector, but were unable to compete against the Americans who dominated from the 1790s to the 1830s. The British Hudson's Bay Company entered the coast trade in the 1820s with the intention of driving the Americans away. This was accomplished by about 1840. In its late period the maritime fur trade was largely conducted by the British Hudson's Bay Company and

7752-468: The following tasks: Grubbing and clearing, Mucking and ditching, Embankment and excavation, Locks and culverts, Puddling, and Protection. Initially, contractors in general proved to be inexperienced and unreliable. It was common for one job to receive 50 bids, many of them local to where the work was being performed. The chosen contractor, having underbid the contract, often would abscond leaving his labor force unpaid and his contract unfulfilled. This problem

7866-434: The fur trade extremely profitable for the Europeans. The Natives used the iron axe heads to replace stone axe heads which they had made by hand in a labor-intensive process, so they derived substantial benefits from the trade as well. The colonists began to see the ill effects of alcohol on Natives, and the chiefs objected to its sale and trade. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 prohibited sale by European settlers of alcohol to

7980-400: The fur trade in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries was dominated by the Canadian fur shipping network that developed in New France under the fur monopoly held first by the Company of One Hundred Associates , then followed in 1664 by the French West India Company , steadily expanding fur trapping and shipping across a network of frontier forts further west that eventually went all

8094-432: The fur trade of that colony (now called New York) fell into English hands with the 1667 Treaty of Breda . In 1668 the English fur trade entered a new phase. Two French citizens, Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers , had traded with great success west of Lake Superior in 1659–60, but upon their return to Canada, most of their furs were seized by the authorities. Their trading voyage had convinced them that

8208-593: The fur trade through two taxes, the yasak (or iasak) tax on natives and the 10% "Sovereign Tithing Tax" imposed on both the catch and sale of fur pelts. Fur was in great demand in Western Europe, especially sable and marten, since European forest resources had been over-hunted and furs had become extremely scarce. Fur trading allowed Russia to purchase from Europe goods that it lacked, like lead, tin, precious metals, textiles, firearms, and sulphur. Russia also traded furs with Ottoman Turkey and other countries in

8322-408: The fur trade's important role in early North American economies, but they have been unable to agree on a theoretical framework to describe native economic patterns. John C. Phillips and J.W. Smurr tied the fur trade to an imperial struggle for power, positing that the fur trade served both as an incentive for expanding and as a method for maintaining dominance. Dismissing the experience of individuals,

8436-442: The fur trade; they made marriages or cohabited with high-ranking Indian women of similar status in their own cultures. Fur trappers and other workers usually had relationships with lower-ranking women. Many of their mixed-race descendants developed their own culture, now called Métis in Canada, based then on fur trapping and other activities on the frontier. In some cases both Native American and European-American cultures excluded

8550-568: The growing demand for furs, driving the creation and expansion of the fur trade in the 17th and 18th centuries, although new trends as well as occasional revivals of prior fashions would cause the fur trade to ebb and flow right up to the present. Often, the political benefits of the fur trade became more important than the economic aspects. Trade was a way to forge alliances and maintain good relations between different cultures. The fur traders were men with capital and social standing. Often younger men were single when they went to North America to enter

8664-626: The home team seized the day. The Jeremiah Gates Home, built in 1820 and located at 3506 Memphis Avenue, is believed to be the oldest residence in Old Brooklyn. Other notable landmarks include the Brooklyn-Brighton Bridge, the Estabrook Recreation Center, and the Italian Gothic -style Our Lady of Good Counsel Church (now called Mary Queen of Peace) atop Pearl Road Hill. Old Brooklyn is a part of

8778-507: The job Garfield became ill and decided to go to college instead. The Ohio and Erie Canal Historic District, a 24.5-acre (9.9 ha) historic district including part of the canal, was declared a National Historic Landmark during 1966. It is a four-mile (6 km) section within the village of Valley View comprising three locks, the Tinkers Creek Aqueduct , and two other structures. A remaining watered section of

8892-645: The land from the Urals eastward to the Yenisey valley and to the Altai Mountains in the south, comprising about 1.25 million square miles of land. Furs would become Russia's largest source of wealth during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Keeping up with the advances of Western Europe required significant capital and Russia did not have sources of gold and silver, but it did have furs, which became known as "soft gold" and provided Russia with hard currency. The Russian government received income from

9006-407: The long hunting season and the fact that passage back to Russia was difficult and costly, beginning around the 1650s–1660s, many promyshlenniki chose to stay and settle in Siberia. From 1620 to 1680, a total of 15,983 trappers operated in Siberia. The North American fur trade began as early as the 1500s between Europeans and First Nations (see: Early French Fur Trading ) and was a central part of

9120-420: The majority of the separate Métis culture based on hunting, trapping and farming. Because of the wealth at stake, different European-American governments competed with various native societies for control of the fur trade. Native Americans sometimes based decisions of which side to support in times of war in relation to which people had provided them with the best trade goods in an honest manner. Because trade

9234-407: The maritime fur trade diversified and was transformed, tapping new markets and commodities while continuing to focus on the Northwest Coast and China. It lasted until the middle to late 19th century. Russians controlled most of the coast of what is now Alaska during the entire era. The coast south of Alaska saw fierce competition between, and among, British and American trading vessels. The British were

9348-534: The mixed-race descendants. If the Native Americans were a tribe with a patrilineal kinship system, they considered children born to a white father to be white, in a type of hypodescent classification, although the Native mother and tribe might care for them. The Europeans tended to classify children of Native women as Native, regardless of the father, similar to the hypodescent of their classification of

9462-651: The most valued. Historically the trade stimulated the exploration and colonization of Siberia , northern North America , and the South Shetland and South Sandwich Islands . Today the importance of the fur trade has diminished; it is based on pelts produced at fur farms and regulated fur-bearer trapping , but has become controversial. Animal rights organizations oppose the fur trade, citing that animals are brutally killed and sometimes skinned alive. Fur has been replaced in some clothing by synthetic imitations, for example, as in ruffs on hoods of parkas . Before

9576-486: The natives' well-worn pelts. The first pelts in demand were beaver and sea otter, as well as occasionally deer, bear, ermine and skunk. Fur robes were blankets of sewn-together, native-tanned, beaver pelts. The pelts were called castor gras in French and "coat beaver" in English, and were soon recognized by the newly developed felt-hat making industry as particularly useful for felting. Some historians, seeking to explain

9690-475: The neighborhood was one of the nation's leading producers of greenhouse vegetables, with more than 100 acres (0.40 km) under glass. Most of the greenhouses were displaced, beginning about 1960, by new housing and the construction of Ohio Rt. 176 ( Jennings Freeway ). Commercial development in Old Brooklyn reached its apex during the period of 1920–1960. Shopping districts spread along Pearl, Broadview, and State Roads and were followed, after World War II , by

9804-451: The next five years, more and more portions of the canal opened, with it finally being completed during 1832: During 1832, the Ohio and Erie Canal was completed. The entire canal system was 308 miles (496 km) long with 146 lift locks and a rise of 1,206 feet (368 m). In addition, there were five feeder canals that added 24.8 miles (39.9 km) and 6 additional locks to the system consisting of: The canal's lock numbering system

9918-454: The nineteenth century, along with the largely unsettled territory of Russian America , which became a significant source of furs also during that period. The fur trade began to significantly decline starting in the 1830s, following changing attitudes and fashions in Europe and America which no longer centered around certain articles of clothing as much such as beaver skin hats, which had fueled

10032-563: The pelts of martens , beavers , wolves , foxes , squirrels and hares . Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Russians began to settle in Siberia , a region rich in many mammal fur species, such as Arctic fox , lynx , sable , sea otter and stoat ( ermine ). In a search for the prized sea otter pelts, first used in China, and later for the northern fur seal , the Russian Empire expanded into North America, notably Alaska . From

10146-686: The prized sables that the natives did not value, but greater demand for furs led to violence and force becoming the primary means of obtaining the furs. The largest problem with the yasak system was that Russian governors were prone to corruption because they received no salary. They resorted to illegal means of getting furs for themselves, including bribing customs officials to allow them to personally collect yasak , extorting natives by exacting yasak multiple times over, or requiring tribute from independent trappers. Russian fur trappers, called promyshlenniki , hunted in one of two types of bands of 10–15 men, called vatagi  [ ru ] . The first

10260-611: The public, and still provide water for some industries. Parts of the canal are preserved, including the Ohio and Erie Canal Historic District , a National Historic Landmark . Portions further south are less well preserved, and a discontiguous set of locks and other canal resources roughly between Columbus and the Ohio River are listed on the National Register as the Ohio and Erie Canal Southern Descent Historic District . Ohio, which achieved statehood during 1803, remained

10374-604: The siltation and erosion problems experienced presently are the result of stormwater inappropriately piped into the canals over the years. During late 1996, the canal from Zoar to Cleveland was designated a National Heritage Corridor . This designation was brought about through the efforts of many communities, civic organizations, businesses and individuals working in partnership. Another section still watered, approximately one mile in length, runs along Canal Road in Pickaway County southwest of Circleville. A map showing

10488-402: The state, causing extensive flooding. This caused the reservoirs to spill over into the canals, destroying aqueducts, washing out banks, and devastating most of the locks. In Akron, Lock 1 was dynamited to allow backed up floodwater to flow. As a teenager during 1847, James Garfield worked as a "hoggee", driving mules to pull barges along the canal. After repeatedly falling into the canal on

10602-628: The summer, promyshlenniki would set up a summer camp to stockpile grain and fish, and many engaged in agricultural work for extra money. During late summer or early fall the vatagi left their hunting grounds, surveyed the area, and set up a winter camp. Each member of the group set at least 10 traps and the vatagi divided into smaller groups of two to three men who cooperated to maintain certain traps. Promyshlenniki checked traps daily, resetting them or replacing bait whenever necessary. The promyshlenniki employed both passive and active hunting-strategies. The passive approach involved setting traps, while

10716-410: The term castor gras , have assumed that coat beaver was rich in human oils from having been worn so long (much of the top-hair was worn away through usage, exposing the valuable under-wool), and that this is what made it attractive to the hatters. This seems unlikely, since grease interferes with the felting of wool, rather than enhancing it. By the 1580s, beaver "wool" was the major starting material of

10830-523: The trails from the Towpath to the Zoo, atop the former Henninger Landfill site. 41°25′54″N 81°42′08″W  /  41.431559°N 81.702332°W  / 41.431559; -81.702332 Fur trader The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur . Since the establishment of a world fur market in the early modern period , furs of boreal , polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been

10944-492: The water treatment plant. 82° 52' 21"W 83°01'52.9896"W Travels through Cuyahoga , Summit , Stark , Licking , Franklin , Fairfield , Pickaway , and Scioto counties. ^   A:  In 2007-2008-? Tinkers Creek Aqueduct is undergoing renovation following flood damage from Tinkers Creek (Cuyahoga River) and Cuyahoga River ^   B:  Ohio and Erie Canal Towpath Trail miles are measured from its original connection with Lake Erie at Lock 44, on

11058-604: The way to modern day Winnipeg in Western Canada by the mid-1700s, coming into direct contact and opposition with the English fur trappers stationed out of York Factory at Hudson Bay . Meanwhile, the New England fur trade expanded as well, not only inland, but northward along the coast into the Bay of Fundy region. London 's access to high-quality furs was greatly increased with the takeover of New Amsterdam, whereupon

11172-496: Was an independent band of blood relatives or unrelated people who contributed an equal share of the hunting-expedition expenses; the second was a band of hired hunters who participated in expeditions fully funded by the trading companies which employed them. Members of an independent vataga cooperated and shared all necessary work associated with fur trapping, including making and setting traps, building forts and camps, stockpiling firewood and grain, and fishing. All fur pelts went into

11286-865: Was bought mainly for the English hat-making trade, while the fine furs went to the Netherlands and Germany . Meanwhile, in the Southern colonies , a deerskin trade was established around 1670, based at the export hub of Charleston, South Carolina . Word spread among Native hunters that the Europeans would exchange pelts for the European-manufactured goods that were highly desired in native communities. Carolinan traders stocked axe heads, knives, awls, fish hooks, cloth of various type and color, woolen blankets, linen shirts, kettles, jewelry, glass beads, muskets , ammunition and powder to exchange on

11400-459: Was by exacting a fur tribute from the Siberian natives, called a yasak . Yasak was usually a fixed number of sable pelts which every male tribe member who was at least fifteen years old had to supply to Russian officials. Officials enforced yasak through coercion and by taking hostages, usually the tribe chiefs or members of the chief's family. At first, Russians were content to trade with the natives, exchanging goods like pots, axes, and beads for

11514-789: Was constructed by Cuyahoga Valley National Park in Southern Cuyahoga County and Northern Summit County, Cleveland Metroparks in Northern Cuyahoga County, and Akron/ Summit County Metroparks in Southern Summit County to roughly follow the original Ohio and Erie Canal Towpath route. (The northernmost section in Cuyahoga County is still undergoing construction.) There are many connecting trails going to other points of interest throughout their park systems. -82° 37' 26.3994" Behind

11628-517: Was hired. Since most of Ohio's population lived along a line from Cleveland to Cincinnati, the main trunk of the canal needed to serve these areas. But no single river followed this line — canals are more cheaply and easily built along river valleys — making it difficult to design a suitable system. Specifically, the bridging of the Scioto and Miami river valleys required raising the canal to such an elevation that water from neither river could be used as

11742-506: Was incorporated as South Brooklyn Village in 1889 and then annexed with other surrounding villages by the City of Cleveland during the years of 1905–1927. During the late 1880s, farmers in Old Brooklyn's Schaaf Road area (also known as South Hills) and the neighboring Village of Brooklyn Heights were among the first in the Midwest to use greenhouses to cultivate vegetables . By the 1920s

11856-489: Was less highly prized and thus less profitable. After the northern sea otter was hunted to local extinction , maritime fur traders shifted to California until the southern sea otter was likewise nearly extinct. The British and American maritime fur traders took their furs to the Chinese port of Guangzhou (Canton), where they worked within the established Canton System . Furs from Russian America were mostly sold to China via

11970-409: Was minimal. For New England, the maritime fur trade and the significant profits it made helped revitalize the region, contributing to the transformation of New England from an agrarian to an industrial society. The wealth generated by the maritime fur trade was invested in industrial development, especially textile manufacturing . The New England textile industry in turn had a large effect on slavery in

12084-440: Was not a business, and such simplifications only distort the past." White argued instead that the fur trade occupied part of a "middle ground" in which Europeans and Indians sought to accommodate their cultural differences. In the case of the fur trade, this meant that the French were forced to learn from the political and cultural meanings with which Indians imbued the fur trade. Cooperation, not domination, prevailed. According to

12198-402: Was not however overwhelmed, it rather flourished, while simultaneously undergoing rapid change. The use of Chinook Jargon arose during the maritime fur trading era and remains a distinctive aspect of Pacific Northwest culture. Native Hawaiian society was similarly affected by the sudden influx of Western wealth and technology, as well as epidemic diseases. The trade's effect on China and Europe

12312-515: Was oriented from the Lower Basin, near the southwest corner of the current Exchange and Main streets in Akron. North of the basin is Lock 1 North, and south of the basin is Lock 1 South. At this basin was the joining of the Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal . The canals enjoyed a period of prosperity from the 1830s to the early 1860s, with maximum revenue between 1852 and 1855. During the 1840s, Ohio

12426-583: Was patterned after a bar near the Memphis-Fulton intersection, which hosts one of the highest concentrations of bars and restaurants in Greater Cleveland. Old Brooklyn encompasses all of Cleveland's Ward 13, and the southwestern portion of Ward 12. The Treadway Creek Greenway Restoration project, completed in 2008, restored and preserved 21 acres (0.085 km) of riparian corridor and open space along Treadway Creek. The project included

12540-574: Was rarely spelled as the single word "Northwest", as is common today. The maritime fur trade brought the Pacific Northwest coast into a vast, new international trade network, centered on the north Pacific Ocean, global in scope, and based on capitalism but not, for the most part, on colonialism . A triangular trade network emerged linking the Pacific Northwest coast, China, the Hawaiian Islands (only recently discovered by

12654-593: Was slower to enter the American fur trade than France and the Dutch Republic , but as soon as English colonies were established, development companies learned that furs provided the best way for the colonists to remit value back to the mother country. Furs were being dispatched from Virginia soon after 1610, and the Plymouth Colony was sending substantial amounts of beaver to its London agents through

12768-442: Was so bad that many laborers refused to perform canal work for fear of not being paid. As the bidding process was improved, and more reliable contractors engaged, the situation improved. Workers were initially paid $ 0.30 per day and offered a jigger of whiskey. As work progressed, and where labor was in shortage, workers could make as much as $ 15 per month. At that time, cash money was scarce in Ohio forcing much bartering. Working on

12882-415: Was so politically important, the Europeans tried to regulate it in hopes (often futile) of preventing abuse. Unscrupulous traders sometimes cheated natives by plying them with alcohol during the transaction, which subsequently aroused resentment and often resulted in violence. In 1834 John Jacob Astor , who had created the huge monopoly of the American Fur Company , withdrew from the fur trade. He could see

12996-472: Was the third most prosperous state, owing much of that growth to the canal. Immediately after the Civil War , it became apparent that railroads would take the canal's business. From 1861 until 1879, after the canal had been badly flooded, Ohio leased its canals to private owners who earned revenue from dwindling boat operation and the sale of water to factories and towns. When the state resumed ownership of

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