113-588: The caliphate of the Ottoman Empire ( Ottoman Turkish : خلافت مقامى , romanized : hilâfet makamı , lit. 'office of the caliphate') was the claim of the heads of the Turkish Ottoman dynasty to be the caliphs of Islam in the late medieval and early modern era . During the period of Ottoman expansion, Ottoman rulers claimed caliphal authority after the conquest of Mamluk Egypt by sultan Selim I in 1517 and
226-500: A Khawarij . Ali's tumultuous rule lasted only five years. This period is known as the Fitna , or the first Islamic civil war. The followers of Ali later became the Shi'a ("shiaat Ali", partisans of Ali. ) minority sect of Islam and reject the legitimacy of the first three caliphs. The followers of all four Rāshidun Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali) became the majority Sunni sect. Under
339-588: A "reactionary" movement has sometimes been challenged, given the results and effects on the young political system. Abdul-Hamid was deposed on 13 April 1909. He was replaced by his brother Reşad Effendi , who was proclaimed sultan Mehmed V on 27 April. In 1911 Italy warred with the Ottomans over Libya , and Turkey's failure to defend these regions demonstrated the weakness of the Ottoman military. In 1912 Bulgaria , Serbia , Montenegro , and Greece formed
452-728: A Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120. The Almohads succeeded in overthrowing the Almoravid dynasty in governing Morocco by 1147, when Abd al-Mu'min (r. 1130–1163) conquered Marrakech and declared himself caliph. They then extended their power over all of the Maghreb by 1159. Al-Andalus followed the fate of Africa, and all Islamic Iberia was under Almohad rule by 1172. The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad al-Nasir (1199–1214)
565-541: A center of knowledge, culture and trade. This period of cultural fruition ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan . The Abbasid Caliphate had, however, lost its effective power outside Iraq already by c. 920. By 945, the loss of power became official when the Buyids conquered Baghdad and all of Iraq. The empire fell apart and its parts were ruled for the next century by local dynasties. In
678-730: A chief commissioner: At the time of independence in 1947, British India had 17 provinces: Upon the Partition of India into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan , eleven provinces (Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bihar, Bombay, Central Provinces and Berar, Coorg, Delhi, Madras, Panth-Piploda, Orissa, and the United Provinces) joined India, three (Baluchistan, North-West Frontier and Sindh) joined Pakistan, and three ( Punjab , Bengal and Assam ) were partitioned between India and Pakistan. In 1950, after
791-758: A gathering of the Ansar (natives of Medina ) took place in the saqifa (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca ), though this has later become the subject of debate. Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar , both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of
904-587: A head of state, a caliph should be elected by Muslims or their representatives. Shia Muslims , however, believe a caliph should be an imam chosen by God from the Ahl al-Bayt (the "Household of the Prophet"). Some caliphates in history have been led by Shia Muslims, like the Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171). From the late 20th century towards the early 21st century, in the wake of the invasion of Afghanistan by
1017-432: A legislative power existed in such places. The same two kinds of management applied for districts. Thus Ganjam and Vizagapatam were non-regulation districts. Non-regulation provinces included: At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. The following table lists their areas and populations (but does not include those of
1130-721: A move that would have disastrous consequences. The Empire entered the war on the side of the Central Powers in November 1914, and Britain , France , and Russia immediately declared war on Ottoman Empire. During the development of the war, the empire's position continued to deteriorate, and even in the Middle East – the very heartland of the Islamic world – would soon be lost. Though the Young Turks had compelled
1243-612: A place for the Caliphate in the new regime, agreeing to the appointment of Mehmed's cousin Abdülmecid II as caliph upon Mehmed's departure (November 1922). But the position had been stripped of any authority, and Abdülmecid II's purely ceremonial reign would be short lived. Mustafa Kemal had been a vocal critic of the Ottoman House and its Islamic orientation. When Abdülmecid II was declared caliph, Kemal refused to allow
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#17327655299791356-659: A pre-eminent great power . The first political (rather than religious) usage of the title caliph, however, would not occur until 1774, when the Ottomans needed to counter the Russians , who announced that they needed to protect Orthodox Christians under the Ottoman Empire, by making a similar claim about the Muslims living in Russia. The British would tactfully affirm the Ottoman claim to the caliphate and proceed to have
1469-654: A protest against the sanctions placed on the Ottoman Empire after the First World War by the Treaty of Sèvres , the movement is also noted for Hindu-Muslim unity. It ended in 1922 after the end of non-cooperation movement. The Turkish national movement, as the details explained in Turkish War of Independence , formed a Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara on 23 April 1920, and secured formal recognition of
1582-642: A quarter of the population of the British Raj and two fifths of its land area, with the provinces comprising the remainders. In 1608, the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar issued a royal farman to the East India Company to establish a small trading settlement at Surat (now in the state of Gujarat ), and this became the company's first headquarters town. It was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on
1695-577: A shield protecting their thrones against the attacks of rebels". A summit was convened at Cairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of the caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate, and no action was taken to implement the summit's resolutions. Though the title Ameer al-Mumineen was adopted by the King of Morocco and by Mohammed Omar , former head of the Taliban of Afghanistan , neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside
1808-484: A small part of Burma, and by 1886, almost two thirds of Burma had been made part of British India. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma was reorganized as a separate British colony. British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka (then Ceylon ), which was a British Crown colony , or the Maldive Islands , which were a British protectorate . At its greatest extent, in
1921-603: The Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and not from Ali. In 750, the Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by another family of Meccan origin, the Abbasids. Their time represented a scientific, cultural and religious flowering. Islamic art and music also flourished significantly during their reign. Their major city and capital Baghdad began to flourish as
2034-459: The Arabic word khalīfah ( خَليفة , pronunciation ), meaning 'successor', 'steward', or 'deputy'—and has traditionally been considered a shortening of Khalīfah rasūl Allāh 'successor of the messenger of God'. However, studies of pre-Islamic texts suggest that the original meaning of the phrase was 'successor selected by God'. In the immediate aftermath of the death of Muhammad,
2147-594: The Balkan League , an anti-Ottoman alliance that subsequently launched a joint attack on the Ottoman Empire. The ensuing Balkan Wars eliminated what little presence the Ottomans had left in Europe, and only infighting between the Balkan League allies prevented them from advancing into Anatolia. Internally, the Ottomans continued to be troubled by political instability. Nationalist uprisings that had plagued
2260-671: The Battle of Buxar , the Company obtained the Diwani of Bengal, which included the right to administer and collect land-revenue (land tax) in Bengal , the region of present-day Bangladesh, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Bihar beginning from 1772 as per the treaty signed in 1765. By 1773, the Company obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal (the "exercise of criminal jurisdiction") and thereby full sovereignty of
2373-472: The Battle of Nahrawan , Ali was later assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam. Ali's son Hasan was elected as the next caliph, but abdicated in favour of Mu'awiyah a few months later to avoid any conflict within the Muslims. Mu'awiyah became the sixth caliph, establishing the Umayyad dynasty, named after the great-grandfather of Uthman and Mu'awiyah, Umayya ibn Abd Shams . Beginning with
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#17327655299792486-599: The Bengal Presidency established in 1765—and the abolition of local rule (Nizamat) in Bengal in 1793, the company gradually began to formally expand its territories across India . By the mid-19th century, and after the three Anglo-Maratha Wars and the four Anglo-Mysore Wars , the East India Company had become the paramount political and military power in south Asia, its territory held in trust for
2599-748: The British Crown . Company rule in Bengal (after 1793) was terminated by the Government of India Act 1858 , following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 . Henceforth known as British India, it was thereafter directly ruled as a colonial possession of the United Kingdom , and India was officially known after 1876 as the Indian Empire . India was divided into British India, regions that were directly administered by
2712-597: The Coromandel Coast , and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal in trade. However, the power of the Mughal Empire declined from 1707, first at the hands of the Marathas and later due to invasion from Persia (1739) and Afghanistan (1761); after the East India Company's victories at the Battle of Plassey (1757), and Battle of Buxar (1764)—both within
2825-718: The Khwaja Salimullah were popularly given the term khalifa . The Bornu Caliphate, which was headed by the Bornu emperors, began in 1472. A rump state of the larger Kanem-Bornu Empire , its rulers held the title of caliph until 1893, when it was absorbed into the British Colony of Nigeria and Northern Cameroons Protectorate . The British recognised them as the 'sultans of Bornu', one step down in Muslim royal titles. After Nigeria became independent, its rulers became
2938-700: The Middle East , North Africa , the Caucasus , and extended deep into Eastern Europe . Strengthened by the Peace of Westphalia and the Industrial Revolution , European powers regrouped and challenged Ottoman dominance. Owing largely to poor leadership, archaic political norms, and an inability to keep pace with technological progress in Europe, the Ottoman Empire could not respond effectively to Europe's resurgence and gradually lost its position as
3051-531: The Mughal Empire , who were the only Sunni rulers whose territory and wealth could compete with that of the Ottomans, started assuming the title of caliph and calling their capital as the Dar-ul-khilafat ("abode of the caliphate") since the time of the third emperor Akbar like their Timurid ancestors. A gold coin struck under Akbar called him the "great sultan , the exalted khalifah ". Although
3164-534: The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations, such as Crimea , were lost to the Russian Empire. However, the Ottomans under Abdul Hamid I claimed a diplomatic victory by being allowed to remain the religious leaders of Muslims in the now-independent Crimea as part of the peace treaty; in return Russia became
3277-527: The Young Turk Party. The Young Turks sought to remodel administration of the Empire along Western lines. Their ideology was nationalist in character, and was a precursor of the movement that would seize control of Turkey following World War I . CUP leaders presented their ideas to the public as a revival of "true Islamic principles". Under the leadership of Enver Pasha , a Turkish military officer,
3390-478: The caliph of the Ottoman Caliphate, while others promoted Muslim interests and to bring the Muslim in national struggle. Mahatma Gandhi had supported the movement as part of his opposition to British Empire and he also advocated wider non-cooperation movement at the same time. Vallabhbhai Patel , Bal Gangadhar Tilak and other Congress figures also supported the movement. Generally described as
3503-584: The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and gave Greece a powerful position in Anatolia, to the distress of the Turks. They called for help and the movement was the result. The movement had collapsed by late 1922. On 3 March 1924, the first president of the Turkish Republic , Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , as part of his reforms , constitutionally abolished the institution of the caliphate. Atatürk offered
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3616-539: The 'emirs of Bornu', another step down. Presidencies and provinces of British India The provinces of India , earlier presidencies of British India and still earlier, presidency towns , were the administrative divisions of British governance on the Indian subcontinent . Collectively, they have been called British India . In one form or another, they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods: "British India" did not include
3729-722: The American ambassador to Ottoman Turkey , Oscar Straus , to approach Sultan Abdul Hamid II to use his position as caliph to order the Tausūg people of the Sultanate of Sulu in the Philippines to submit to American suzerainty and American military rule; the Sultan obliged them and wrote the letter which was sent to Sulu via Mecca. As a result, the "Sulu Mohammedans ... refused to join the insurrectionists and had placed themselves under
3842-484: The Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely. Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance, resulting in an altercation which may have involved violence. However, after six months, the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty. Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed. Umar,
3955-543: The British by issuing pronouncements to the Muslims of India, which extolled them to support British rule; these came from sultan Selim III and sultan Abdulmejid I . Sultan Abdul Hamid II , who ruled 1876–1909, felt that the Empire's desperate situation could only be remedied through strong and determined leadership. He distrusted his ministers and other officials that had served his predecessors and gradually reduced their role in his regime, concentrating absolute power over
4068-406: The British, with acts established and passed in the British parliament, and the princely states , ruled by local rulers of different ethnic backgrounds. These rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for recognition of British suzerainty . British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population; in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of
4181-459: The CUP launched a military coup against the sultan in 1908, proclaiming a new regime on 6 July. Though they left Abdul-Hamid on his throne, the Young Turks compelled him to restore the parliament and constitution he had suspended thirty years earlier, thereby creating a constitutional monarchy and stripping the Caliphate of its authority. A counter-coup launched by soldiers loyal to the sultan threatened
4294-561: The Empire sporadically for the past fifty years intensified. The masses were growing frustrated with chronic misgovernance and the Ottomans' poor showing in military conflicts. In response, the CUP led a second coup d'état in 1913 and seized absolute control of the government. For the next five years, the Empire was a one-party state ruled by the CUP under the leadership of Enver Pasha (who returned to Constantinople after having served Turkey abroad in various military and diplomatic capacities since
4407-603: The Empire's decaying infrastructure. In 1899, the Ottomans would grant a request from the United States government and leverage their religious authority as caliphs to order that the Tausug Sultanate (located in what is now southern Philippines and northeastern Malaysia) stop the defence of the sultanate and surrender to American invasion; Sultan Jamalul-Kiram II of the Tausug Sultanate would heed
4520-512: The Empire's governance in his own hands. Taking a hard-line against Western involvement in Ottoman affairs, he emphasized the Empire's "Islamic" character, reasserted his status as the Caliph , and called for Muslim unity behind the Caliphate. Abdul-Hamid strengthened the Empire's position somewhat, and succeeded briefly in reasserting Islamic power, by building numerous schools, reducing the national debt, and embarking on projects aimed at revitalizing
4633-435: The Foundations of Governance . The argument of this book has been summarised as "Islam does not advocate a specific form of government". He focussed his criticism both at those who use religious law as contemporary political proscription and at the history of rulers claiming legitimacy by the caliphate. Raziq wrote that past rulers spread the notion of religious justification for the caliphate "so that they could use religion as
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4746-440: The Madras Presidency (or the Presidency of Fort St. George), the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency (or the Presidency of Fort William)—each administered by a governor. After Robert Clive 's victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the puppet government of a new Nawab of Bengal , was maintained by the East India Company. However, after the invasion of Bengal by the Nawab of Oudh in 1764 and his subsequent defeat in
4859-523: The Mughal Empire is not recognised as a caliphate, its sixth emperor Aurangzeb has often been regarded as one of the few Islamic caliphs to have ruled the Indian peninsula. He received support from the Ottoman sultans such as Suleiman II and Mehmed IV . As a memoriser of Quran, Aurangzeb fully established sharia in South Asia via his Fatawa 'Alamgiri . He re-introduced jizya and banned Islamically unlawful activities. However, Aurangzeb's personal expenses were covered by his own incomes, which included
4972-407: The Mughals did not acknowledge the overlordship of Ottomans, they nevertheless used the title of caliph to honour them in diplomatic exchanges. Akbar's letter to Suleiman the Magnificent addressed the latter as having attained the rank of the caliphate, while calling Akbar's empire as the "Khilafat of realms of Hind and Sind." The fifth emperor Shah Jahan also laid claim to the Caliphate. Although
5085-519: The Muslim realm by the first half of the tenth century. The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over Al-Andalus , reclaimed the title of caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031. During the Umayyad dynasty, the Iberian Peninsula was an integral province of the Umayyad Caliphate ruling from Damascus . The Umayyads lost the position of caliph in Damascus in 750, and Abd al-Rahman I became Emir of Córdoba in 756 after six years in exile. Intent on regaining power, he defeated
5198-420: The Ottoman Empire by the League of Nations mandate . Abdulmejid II , the last Ottoman caliph, held his caliphal position for a couple of years after the partitioning, but with Mustafa Kemal Pasha 's secular reforms and the subsequent exile of the imperial Osmanoğlu family from Turkey in 1924, the caliphal position was abolished . Mustafa Kemal Pasha offered the caliphate to Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi , on
5311-406: The Ottoman House. Mustafa Kemal Pasha offered the caliphate to Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi , on the condition that he reside outside Turkey; Senussi declined the offer and confirmed his support for Abdulmejid II. Caliphate List of forms of government A caliphate ( Arabic : خِلَافَةْ , romanized : khilāfah [xi'laːfah] ) is an institution or public office under
5424-406: The Ottoman caliph issue orders to the Muslims living in British India to comply with the British government. In the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire initiated a period of modernization known as the Tanzimat , which transformed the nature of the Ottoman state, greatly increasing its power despite the empire's territorial losses. Despite the success of its self-strengthening reforms, the empire
5537-524: The Ottoman claim to the caliphate and proceed to have the Ottoman caliph issue orders to the Muslims living in British India to comply with the British government. The British supported and propagated the view that the Ottomans were caliphs of Islam among Muslims in British India, and the Ottoman sultans helped the British by issuing pronouncements to the Muslims of India telling them to support British rule from Sultan Selim III and Sultan Abdulmejid I . Around 1880, Sultan Abdul Hamid II reasserted
5650-413: The Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated and annexed the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo into his empire. Through conquering and unifying Muslim lands, Selim I became the defender of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina , which further strengthened the Ottoman claim to the caliphate in the Muslim world. Ottomans gradually came to be viewed as the de facto leaders and representatives of the Islamic world. However,
5763-400: The Rāshidun, each region ( Sultanate , Wilayah , or Emirate ) of the caliphate had its own governor (Sultan, Wāli or Emir ). Muāwiyah , a relative of Uthman and governor ( wali ) of Syria , succeeded Ali as caliph. Muāwiyah transformed the caliphate into a hereditary office, thus founding the Umayyad dynasty . In areas which were previously under Sasanian Empire or Byzantine rule,
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#17327655299795876-399: The USSR , the war on terror and the Arab Spring , various Islamist groups have claimed the caliphate, although these claims have usually been widely rejected among Muslims. Before the advent of Islam, Arabian monarchs traditionally used the title malik 'king', or another from the same Semitic root . The term caliph ( / ˈ k eɪ l ɪ f , ˈ k æ l ɪ f / ) derives from
5989-399: The Umayyads, the title of the caliph became hereditary. Under the Umayyads, the caliphate grew rapidly in territory, incorporating the Caucasus , Transoxiana , Sindh , the Maghreb and most of the Iberian Peninsula ( Al-Andalus ) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 5.17 million square miles (13,400,000 km ), making it the largest empire
6102-410: The abolition of the Mamluk-controlled Abbasid Caliphate . This left Selim as the Defender of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina and strengthened the Ottoman claim to leadership in the Muslim world . The demise of the Ottoman Caliphate took place because of a slow erosion of power in relation to Western Europe , and because of the end of the Ottoman state as a consequence of the partitioning of
6215-410: The area and included over 77% of the population. In addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan , the latter including East Bengal , present-day Bangladesh . The term British India also applied to Burma for a shorter time period: beginning in 1824,
6328-466: The borders of their respective countries. Since the end of the Ottoman Empire, occasional demonstrations have been held calling for the re-establishment of the caliphate. Organisations which call for the re-establishment of the caliphate include Hizb ut-Tahrir and the Muslim Brotherhood . The AKP government in Turkey, a former Muslim Brotherhood ally who has adopted Neo-Ottomanist policies throughout its rule, has been accused of intending to restore
6441-404: The buildings of al-Andalus were constructed in this period. The Almohad Caliphate ( Berber languages : Imweḥḥden , from الموحدون al-Muwaḥḥidun , " the Monotheists " or "the Unifiers") was a Moroccan Berber Muslim movement founded in the 12th century. The Almohad movement was started by Ibn Tumart among the Masmuda tribes of southern Morocco. The Almohads first established
6554-449: The caliph sultan Abdul-Hamid II's order, and surrender. The coup by the three Pashas in 1909 marked the end of his reign. Western-inclined Turkish military officers opposed to Abdul-Hamid's rule had steadily organized in the form of secret societies within and outside Turkey . By 1906, the movement enjoyed the support of a significant portion of the army, and its leaders formed the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), informally known as
6667-408: The caliphate to Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi , on the condition that he reside outside Turkey; Senussi declined the offer and confirmed his support for Abdulmejid . The title was then claimed by Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and Hejaz , leader of the Arab Revolt , but his kingdom was defeated and annexed by ibn Saud in 1925. Egyptian scholar Ali Abdel Raziq published his 1925 book Islam and
6780-415: The caliphate were united to any degree, excepting the final period of the Rashidun Caliphate under Ali himself. The caliphate was reputed to exercise a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, Maltese Christians and Copts . The Shiʻa Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah of the Fatimid dynasty , who claimed descent from Muhammad through his daughter, claimed
6893-412: The caliphate. After the Umayyad campaigns in India and the conquest on small territories of the western part of the Indian peninsula, early Indian Muslim dynasties were founded by the Ghurid dynasty and the Ghaznavids , most notably the Delhi Sultanate . The Indian sultanates did not extensively strive for a caliphate since the Ottoman Empire was already observing the caliphate. The emperors of
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#17327655299797006-425: The caliphs lowered taxes, provided greater local autonomy (to their delegated governors), greater religious freedom for Jews and some indigenous Christians, and brought peace to peoples demoralised and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the decades of Byzantine–Persian warfare . Ali's reign was plagued by turmoil and internal strife. The Persians, taking advantage of this, infiltrated
7119-409: The capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the peoples they claimed to rule. In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew until Ar-Radi (934–941) was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Muhammad ibn Ra'iq . In 1261, following the Mongol conquest of Baghdad , the Mamluk rulers of Egypt tried to gain legitimacy for their rule by declaring
7232-403: The city of Cairo there in 969. Thereafter, Cairo became the capital of the caliphate, with Egypt becoming the political, cultural and religious centre of the state. Islam scholar Louis Massignon dubbed the fourth century AH /tenth century CE as the " Ismaili century in the history of Islam". The term Fatimite is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate. The ruling elite of
7345-432: The command of Yazid son of Muawiya, an army led by Umar ibn Saad, a commander by the name of Shimr Ibn Thil-Jawshan killed Ali's son Hussein and his family at the Battle of Karbala in 680, solidifying the Shia-Sunni split . Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hashim and the supporters of the lineage of Ali united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the Shi‘at ‘Alī , "the Party of Ali", were again disappointed when
7458-422: The company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Mughal Emperor Aurengzeb forced the company out of Hooghly for its tax evasion, Job Charnock was tenant of three small villages, later renamed Calcutta , in 1686, making it the company's new headquarters. By the mid-18th century, the three principal trading settlements including factories and forts, were then called
7571-436: The condition that he reside outside Turkey; Senussi declined the offer and confirmed his support for Abdulmejid II. With the establishments of Sufi orders like the Bayramiyya and Mawlawiyya under the Ottoman Caliphate, the mystical side of Islam, Sufism , flourished. In 1517, the Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate in Cairo in the Ottoman–Mamluk War . The last caliph of Cairo, Al-Mutawakkil III ,
7684-431: The control of our army, thereby recognizing American sovereignty." Political Militant [REDACTED] Islam portal After the Armistice of Mudros of October 1918 with the military occupation of Constantinople and Treaty of Versailles (1919), the position of the Ottomans was uncertain. The movement to protect or restore the Ottomans gained force after the Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920) which imposed
7797-417: The defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War more of his territory was annexed to the Madras Presidency. In 1801, Carnatic , which had been under the suzerainty of the company, began to be directly administered by it as a part of the Madras Presidency. By 1851, the East India Company's vast and growing holdings across the sub-continent were still grouped into just four main territories: By
7910-438: The dependent native states): During the partition of Bengal (1905–1912), a new lieutenant-governor's province of Eastern Bengal and Assam existed. In 1912, the partition was partially reversed, with the eastern and western halves of Bengal re-united and the province of Assam re-established; a new lieutenant-governor's province of Bihar and Orissa was also created. In addition, there were a few provinces that were administered by
8023-414: The earlier Ottoman caliphs did not officially bear the title of caliph in their documents of state, inscriptions, or coinage. It was only in the late eighteenth century that the claim to the caliphate was discovered by the sultans to have a practical use, since it allowed them to counter Russian claims to protect Ottoman Christians with their own claim to protect Muslims under Russian rule. The outcome of
8136-639: The early 20th century, the territory of British India extended as far as the frontiers of Persia in the west; Afghanistan in the northwest; Nepal in the north, Tibet in the northeast; and China, French Indochina and Siam in the east. It also included the Aden Province in the Arabian Peninsula . The East India Company , which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on
8249-698: The east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a small trading outpost in Madras in 1639. Bombay, which was ceded to the British Crown by Portugal as part of the wedding dowry of Catherine of Braganza in 1661, was in turn granted to the East India Company to be held in trust for the Crown. Meanwhile, in eastern India , after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal,
8362-538: The existing Islamic rulers of the area who defied Umayyad rule and united various local fiefdoms into an emirate. Rulers of the emirate used the title "emir" or "sultan" until the tenth century, when Abd al-Rahman III was faced with the threat of invasion by the Fatimid Caliphate. To aid his fight against the invading Fatimids, who claimed the caliphate in opposition to the generally recognised Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, Al-Mu'tadid , Abd al-Rahman III claimed
8475-817: The expanded Bengal Presidency . During the period, 1773 to 1785, very little changed; the only exceptions were the addition of the dominions of the Raja of Banares to the western boundary of the Bengal Presidency, and the addition of Salsette Island to the Bombay Presidency . Portions of the Kingdom of Mysore were annexed to the Madras Presidency after the Third Anglo-Mysore War ended in 1792. Next, in 1799, after
8588-474: The government vacated by the Young Turks. The Khilafat movement (1919–22) was a political campaign launched in British India over British policy against Turkey and planned dismemberment of Turkey after World War I by allied forces. Leaders participating in the movement included Shaukat Ali , Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar , Hakim Ajmal Khan , and Abul Kalam Azad some of whom were seeking to restore
8701-473: The hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue among themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men. Abu Bakr
8814-570: The initial coup), Minister of the Interior Talat Pasha , and Minister of the Navy , Cemal Pasha . Though the sultan was retained, he made no effort to exercise power independent of the Young Turks and was effectively their puppet . The Caliphate was thus held nominally by Mehmed V, but the authority attached to the office rested with the Young Turks. As World War I broke out in Europe, the Young Turks struck an alliance with Germany ,
8927-513: The leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph ( / ˈ k æ l ɪ f , ˈ k eɪ -/ ; خَلِيفَةْ khalīfa [xæ'liːfæh] , pronunciation ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim world ( ummah ). Historically, the caliphates were polities based on Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires. During
9040-417: The many princely states which continued to be ruled by Indian princes, though by the 19th century under British suzerainty —their defence, foreign relations, and communications relinquished to British authority and their internal rule closely monitored. At the time of Indian Independence, in 1947 , there were officially 565 princely states, a few being very large although most were very small. They comprised
9153-695: The medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), and the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1517). In the fourth major caliphate, the Ottoman Caliphate , the rulers of the Ottoman Empire claimed caliphal authority from 1517 until the Ottoman caliphate was formally abolished as part of the 1924 secularisation of Turkey . An attempt to preserve
9266-456: The meeting became concerned of a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh , would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah , by
9379-500: The nation's independence and new borders on 20 Feb 1923 through the Treaty of Lausanne . The National Assembly declared Turkey a republic on 29 October 1923, and proclaimed Ankara its new capital. After over 600 years, the Ottoman Empire had officially ceased to exist. However, under Allied direction, the Sultan pledged to suppress such movements and secured an official fatwa from the Sheikh ul-Islam declaring them to be un-Islamic. But
9492-558: The nationalists steadily gained momentum and began to enjoy widespread support. Many sensed that the nation was ripe for revolution. In an effort to neutralize this threat, the Sultan agreed to hold elections, with the hope of placating and co-opting the nationalists. To his dismay, nationalist groups swept the polls, prompting him to again dissolve parliament in April 1920. Initially, the National Assembly seemed willing to allow
9605-471: The new government but ultimately failed. After nine months into the new parliamentary term, discontent and reaction found expression in a counter-revolutionary 31 March Incident movement, which actually occurred on 13 April 1909. Many aspects of this revolt, which started within certain sections of the mutinying army in Constantinople, are still yet to be analyzed. Its generally admitted perception of
9718-637: The ninth century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed predominantly of Turkic Cuman, Circassian and Georgian slave origin known as Mamluks. By 1250 the Mamluks came to power in Egypt. The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided the government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al-Mu'tasim's transfer of
9831-473: The official protector of Christians in Ottoman territory. According to Barthold, the first time the title of "caliph" was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca with the Russian Empire in 1774, when the Empire retained moral authority on territory whose sovereignty was ceded to the Russian Empire. The British would tactfully affirm
9944-642: The piecemeal loss of territory through the revolt of tribes and districts enabled the rise of their most effective enemies, the Marinid dynasty , in 1215. The last representative of the line, Idris al-Wathiq , was reduced to the possession of Marrakesh , where he was murdered by a slave in 1269; the Marinids seized Marrakesh, ending the Almohad domination of the Western Maghreb . The Fatimid Caliphate
10057-604: The power he had already wielded in Turkey, Kemal did not dare to abolish the Caliphate outright, as it still commanded a considerable degree of support from the common people. Then in 1924, two Indian brothers, Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar and Maulana Shaukat Ali , leaders of the Indian-based Khilafat Movement , distributed pamphlets calling upon the Turkish people to preserve the Ottoman Caliphate for
10170-523: The re-establishment of the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo . The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt had no political power; they continued to maintain the symbols of authority, but their sway was confined to religious matters. The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al-Mustansir (r. June–November 1261). The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al-Mutawakkil III , who ruled as caliph from 1508 to 1516, then he
10283-423: The sake of Islam. Under Turkey's new nationalist government, however, this was construed as foreign intervention, and any form of foreign intervention was labelled an insult to Turkish sovereignty, and worse, a threat to State security. Kemal promptly seized his chance. On his initiative, the National Assembly abolished the Caliphate on 3 March 1924. Abdülmecid II was sent into exile along with the remaining members of
10396-412: The second caliph, was killed by a Persian slave called Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz . His successor, Uthman, was elected by a council of electors ( majlis ). Uthman was killed by members of a disaffected group. Ali then took control but was not universally accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt and later by some of his own guard. He faced two major rebellions and was assassinated by Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam ,
10509-764: The sewing of caps and trade of his written copies of the Quran. Thus, he has been compared to the second caliph, Umar bin Khattab, and Kurdish conqueror Saladin . The Mughal emperors continued to be addressed as caliphs until the reign of Shah Alam II . Other notable rulers such as Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji , Alauddin Khilji , Firuz Shah Tughlaq , Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah , Babur , Sher Shah Suri , Nasir I of Kalat , Tipu Sultan , Nawabs of Bengal , and
10622-462: The state belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders of the dynasty were Ismaili imams and had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims. They are also part of the chain of holders of the office of the caliphate, as recognised by some Muslims. Therefore, this constitutes a rare period in history in which the descendants of Ali (hence the name Fatimid, referring to Ali's wife Fatima ) and
10735-561: The sultan in his capacity as the Caliph to declare a jihad urging all Muslims to resist Allied encroachment on their lands, the effort was largely unsuccessful. The Young Turk government resigned en masse and Enver, Talat, and Cemal fled Turkey aboard a German warship. sultan Mehmed VI , who was proclaimed sultan after his brother Mehmed V died of a heart attack in July, agreed to an armistice. The Armistice of Mudros formalizing Ottoman surrender
10848-500: The time of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , and the end of Company rule, the developments could be summarised as follows: The British Raj began with the idea of the presidencies as the centres of government. Until 1834, when a General Legislative Council was formed, each presidency under its governor and council was empowered to enact a code of so-called 'regulations' for its government. Therefore, any territory or province that
10961-578: The title as a way of countering Russian expansion into Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Sunni Muslims of British India . By the eve of World War I , the Ottoman state, despite its weakness relative to Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia. In 1899, John Hay , U.S. Secretary of State, asked
11074-532: The title of caliph himself. This helped Abd al-Rahman III gain prestige with his subjects, and the title was retained after the Fatimids were repulsed. The rule of the caliphate is considered as the heyday of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula, before it fragmented into various taifas in the eleventh century. This period was characterised by a flourishing in technology, trade and culture; many of
11187-602: The title of caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially controlling Algeria , Tunisia and Libya , the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine , before the Abbasid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171 and was overtaken by Saladin of the Ayyubid dynasty . The caliphate
11300-497: The title was tried, with the Sharifian Caliphate , but this caliphate fell quickly after its conquest by the Sultanate of Nejd (present-day Saudi Arabia ), leaving the claim in dormancy . Throughout the history of Islam, a few other Muslim states, almost all of which were hereditary monarchies , have claimed to be caliphates. Not all Muslim states have had caliphates. The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as
11413-430: The traditional Ottoman ceremony to take place, bluntly declaring: The Caliph has no power or position except as a nominal figurehead. In response to Abdülmecid II's petition for an increase in his pay, Kemal wrote: Your office, the Caliphate, is nothing more than a historic relic. It has no justification for existence. It is a piece of impertinence that you should dare write to any of my secretaries! Still, for all
11526-530: The two armies and attacked the other army causing chaos and internal hatred between the companions at the Battle of Siffin . The battle lasted several months, resulting in a stalemate. To avoid further bloodshed, Ali agreed to negotiate with Mu'awiyah. This caused a faction of approximately 4,000 people, who would come to be known as the Kharijites , to abandon the fight. After defeating the Kharijites at
11639-406: The world had yet seen and the seventh largest ever to exist in history. Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. However, for a variety of reasons, including that they were not elected by Shura and suggestions of impious behaviour, the Umayyad dynasty
11752-482: Was added by conquest or treaty to a presidency came under the existing regulations of the corresponding presidency. However, in the case of provinces that were acquired but were not annexed to any of the three presidencies, their official staff could be provided as the governor-general pleased, and was not governed by the existing regulations of the Bengal, Madras, or Bombay presidencies. Such provinces became known as 'non-regulation provinces' and up to 1833 no provision for
11865-717: Was an Isma'ili Shi'i caliphate, originally based in Tunisia , that extended its rule across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the centre of its caliphate. At its height, in addition to Egypt, the caliphate included varying areas of the Maghreb , Sicily, the Levant and the Hejaz . The Fatimids established the Tunisian city of Mahdia and made it their capital city, before conquering Egypt and building
11978-473: Was brought back to Constantinople as prisoner. There, it is said, al-Mutawakkil formally surrendered the title of caliph as well as its outward emblems—the sword and mantle of Muhammad —to Selim, establishing the Ottoman sultans as the new caliphal line. And they gradually came to be viewed as the de facto leaders and representative of the Islamic world. From Constantinople, the Ottoman sultans ruled over an empire that, at its peak, covered Anatolia , most of
12091-548: Was claimed by the sultans of the Ottoman Empire beginning with Murad I (reigned 1362 to 1389), while recognising no authority on the part of the Abbasid caliphs of the Mamluk-ruled Cairo. Hence the seat of the caliphate moved to the Ottoman capital of Edirne . In 1453, after Mehmed the Conqueror 's conquest of Constantinople , the seat of the Ottomans moved to Constantinople , present-day Istanbul . In 1517,
12204-693: Was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile , Aragon , Navarre and Portugal . Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248, respectively. The Almohads continued to rule in northern Africa until
12317-532: Was deposed briefly in 1516 by his predecessor Al-Mustamsik , but was restored again to the caliphate in 1517. The Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Al-Mutawakkil III was captured together with his family and transported to Constantinople as a prisoner where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo. The Abbasid dynasty lost effective power over much of
12430-550: Was largely unable to match the military strength of its main rival, the Russian Empire , and suffered several defeats in the Russo-Turkish Wars . The Ottoman state defaulted on its loans in 1875–76, part of a wider financial crisis affecting much of the globe. The British government supported the view that the Ottomans were Caliphs of Islam among Muslims in British India and the Ottoman sultans in return helped
12543-496: Was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of caliph) as a result of Saqifah , though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being Ali ibn Abi Talib , initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad. The theologian Ibrahim al-Nakha'i stated that Ali also had support among
12656-519: Was not universally supported within the Muslim community. Some supported prominent early Muslims like Zubayr ibn al-Awwam ; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim , or his own lineage, the descendants of Ali, should rule. There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays ). At
12769-492: Was signed aboard HMS Agamemnon on 30 October 1918. Allied troops arrived in Constantinople and occupied the sultan's palace shortly thereafter. By the end of the war, the Ottomans had lost virtually their entire Empire. Hoping to keep his throne and preserve the Ottoman dynasty in some form or another, the sultan agreed to cooperate with the Allies. He dissolved parliament and allowed an Allied military administration to replace
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