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132-766: Welsh evolved from British , the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Britons . Alternatively classified as Insular Celtic or P-Celtic , it probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was probably spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth . During the Early Middle Ages , the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolving into Welsh and

264-501: A 19.5% influx of new residents since 1991. The 2011 census government speaker targets (a 5% increase) were missed and the proportion of Welsh speakers decreased, causing much concern, from 21% in 2001 to 19% in 2011. For October 2020 to 30 September 2021, the Annual Population Survey showed that 29.5% of people aged three or older were able to speak Welsh, which equates to approximately 892,500 people. However, when

396-567: A Welsh-language television channel was not established. In early September 1980, Evans addressed thousands at a gathering in which "passions ran high", according to the historian John Davies . The government yielded by 17 September, and the Welsh Fourth Channel ( S4C ) was launched on 2 November 1982. The Welsh Language Act 1993 provided a new law for public organisations in Wales to have bilingual schemes, which would be supervised by

528-419: A community that speaks a foreign language, then you lose your indigenous tongue almost immediately". Plaid Cymru had long advocated controls on second homes, and a 2001 task force headed by Dafydd Wigley recommended that land should be allocated for affordable local housing, called for grants for locals to buy houses, and recommended that council tax on holiday homes should double, following similar measures in

660-416: A concept that competition among all individuals, groups, nations, or ideas was a "natural" framework for social evolution in human societies. In this view, society's advancement is dependent on the " survival of the fittest ". The term was in fact coined by Herbert Spencer and referred to in " The Gospel of Wealth " written by Andrew Carnegie . Karl Marx summarized his approach to history and politics in

792-711: A great international power that raced to create empires of its own. Substantial decolonization of the Americas occurred through various revolutions and wars of independence fought by new countries in the Americas against European colonizers in late 18th and early-to-mid-19th centuries. The Spanish American wars of independence lasted from 1808 until 1829, directly related to the Napoleonic French invasion of Spain. The conflict started with short-lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing

924-589: A paralysis of helplessness", the Conservative Home Secretary announced in September 1979 that the government would not honour its pledge to establish a Welsh-language television channel, much to widespread anger and resentment in Wales. In early 1980 over two thousand members of Plaid Cymru pledged to go to prison rather than pay the television licence fees, and by that spring Gwynfor Evans announced his intention to go on hunger strike if

1056-599: A provision in the Wales and Berwick Act 1746 that the term "England" should include Wales, thus defining Wales to be a separate entity from England within the United Kingdom. The act allowed the use of Welsh alongside English in courts of law in Wales, partly based on the Hughes Parry Report. Following the defeat of the "Yes Campaign" for a Welsh Assembly in 1979, and believing Welsh nationalism to be "in

1188-496: A radical restructuring of the vowel system. Notes: Through comparative linguistics , it is possible to approximately reconstruct the declension paradigms of Common Brittonic: Notes: Notes: Notes: Brittonic-derived place names are scattered across Great Britain, with many occurring in the West Country ; however, some of these may be pre-Celtic. The best example is perhaps that of each (river) Avon , which comes from

1320-799: A sharp conservative reaction and the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic Church as a power in French politics. The July Monarchy was a period of liberal constitutional monarchy in France under King Louis-Philippe starting with the July Revolution (or Three Glorious Days) of 1830 and ending with the Revolution of 1848. The Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between

1452-480: Is a Celtic language historically spoken in Britain and Brittany from which evolved the later and modern Brittonic languages . It is a form of Insular Celtic , descended from Proto-Celtic , a theorized parent language that, by the first half of the first millennium BC, was diverging into separate dialects or languages. Pictish is linked, likely as a sister language or a descendant branch. Evidence from early and modern Welsh shows that Common Brittonic

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1584-712: Is also significant because it marked the transition of American manufacturing to the industrial revolution. " Manifest destiny " was the belief that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent, from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean. During this time, the United States expanded to the Pacific Ocean—"from sea to shining sea"—largely defining the borders of

1716-500: Is commemorated in Wales with the graffitied slogan Cofiwch Dryweryn ('Remember Tryweryn'). The flooding of Tryweryn continues to influence debates on forced removal even today. Songs and poems also pay tribute to the loss and shame of the event. In a 1968 newspaper report the existence of a small number of elderly Welsh monoglots in the Llŷn Peninsula of North Wales was described. The leader of Plaid Cymru, Gwynfor Evans , won

1848-562: The Mabinogion , although the tales themselves are certainly much older. It is also the language of the existing manuscripts of Welsh law . Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells the story of King Henry II of England . During one of the King's many raids in the 12th century, Henry asked an old man of Pencader, Carmarthenshire , whether he thought

1980-463: The Pax Britannica , and a foreign policy of " splendid isolation ". Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many nominally independent countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam , which has been generally characterized as " informal empire ". Of note during this time was

2112-775: The Anglo-Zulu War , which was fought in 1879 between the British Empire and the Zulu Empire . British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph , new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the Empire. By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, the so-called All Red Line . Growing until 1922, around 13,000,000 square miles (34,000,000 km ) of territory and roughly 458 million people were added to

2244-556: The Basque Country as successful examples to emulate. Lord Elis-Thomas , the former president of Plaid Cymru, disagreed with Dafis's assessment, however. At the Urdd Eisteddfod , Elis-Thomas said that there was no need for another Welsh language act, citing that there was "enough goodwill to safeguard the language's future". His comments prompted Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg and many others to call for his resignation as

2376-702: The Beiyang Army , the most powerful military force in China at the time. To prevent civil war and possible foreign intervention from undermining the infant republic, leaders agreed to the army's demand that China be united under a Beijing government. On March 10, in Beijing, Shikai was sworn in as the second Provisional President of the Republic of China. After the early 20th century revolutions, shifting alliances of China's regional warlords waged war for control of

2508-668: The Boxer Rebellion . Responding to these civil failures and discontent, the Qing Imperial Court did attempt to reform the government in various ways, as the decision to draft a constitution in 1906, the establishment of provincial legislatures in 1909, and the preparation for a national parliament in 1910. However, many of these measures were opposed by the conservatives of the Qing Court, and many reformers were either imprisoned or executed outright. The failures of

2640-564: The Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, and included freedom, full citizenship and voting rights for Southern blacks. It was followed by a reaction that left the blacks in a second class status legally, politically, socially and economically until the 1960s. During the Gilded Age, there was substantial growth in population in the United States and extravagant displays of wealth and excess of America's upper-class during

2772-639: The Exmoor National Park authority in England began to consider limiting second home ownership there, which was also driving up local housing prices by as much as 31%. Elfyn Llwyd , Plaid Cymru's Parliamentary Group Leader, said that the issues in Exmoor National Park were the same as those in Wales, however, in Wales, there is the added dimension of language and culture. Reflecting on the controversy Glyn's comments caused earlier in

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2904-535: The First World War ). Alternatively, Eric Hobsbawm defined the "Long Nineteenth Century" as spanning the years 1789 to 1914. In the 1800s and early 1900s, the great and powerful Spanish, Portuguese, Ottoman, and Mughal Empires began to break apart. Spain, which was at one time unrivaled in Europe, had been declining for a long time when it was crippled by Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion. The Ottoman Empire

3036-548: The Firth of Forth . Cumbric disappeared in the 12th century, and in the far south-west, Cornish probably became extinct in the 18th century, though its use has since been revived . O'Rahilly's historical model suggests a Brittonic language in Ireland before the introduction of the Goidelic languages , but this view has not found wide acceptance. Welsh and Breton are the only daughter languages that have survived fully into

3168-699: The Industrial Revolution around 1760. There are differing approaches to defining a possible end or conclusion to the Late Modern period, or indeed whether it might be considered to have concluded at all. If that period is indeed concluded, then there are various options for how to label the subsequent era, i.e. the current contemporary era, as described below. Additionally, the Late Modern period has been divided into various smaller periods; there are differing opinions and approaches on which time periods to assert in doing so. The development of

3300-578: The Italian peninsula into the single state of Italy in the 19th century. There is a lack of consensus on the exact dates for the beginning and the end of this period, but many scholars agree that the process began with the end of Napoleonic rule and the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and approximately ended with the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, though the last città irredente did not join

3432-498: The King James Version , this proved to have a strong stabilizing effect on the language, and indeed the language today still bears the same Late Modern label as Morgan's language. Of course, many changes have occurred since then. The 19th century was a critical period in the history of the language and one that encompassed many contradictions. In 1800 Welsh was the main spoken language of the vast majority of Wales, with

3564-672: The Kingdom of Italy until after World War I. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world in the 19th century. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti , Britain forced the Barbary pirates to halt their practice of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans, banned slavery throughout its domain , and charged its navy with ending the global slave trade . Slavery was then abolished in Russia (1861), America (1865), and Brazil (1888). Following

3696-685: The Scottish Highlands . However, the Welsh Labour – Liberal Democrat Assembly coalition rebuffed these proposals, with the Assembly housing spokesman Peter Black stating that "we [cannot] frame our planning laws around the Welsh language", adding "Nor can we take punitive measures against second homeowners in the way that they propose as these will have an impact on the value of the homes of local people". In contrast, by autumn 2001

3828-632: The Snowdonia National Park (Welsh: Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri ) and Pembrokeshire Coast National Park (Welsh: Parc Cenedlaethol Arfordir Penfro ) authorities began limiting second home ownership within the parks, following the example set by Exmoor. According to planners in Snowdonia and the Pembrokeshire Coast, applicants for new homes must demonstrate a proven local need or that the applicant had strong links with

3960-484: The Tripartite Convention of 1899 . The Victorian era of the United Kingdom was the period of Queen Victoria 's reign from June 1837 to January 1901. This was a long period of prosperity for the British people, as profits gained from the overseas British Empire, as well as from industrial improvements at home, allowed a large, educated middle class to develop. Some scholars would extend the beginning of

4092-595: The Welsh Language Board . Some private sector companies, including British Telecom and British Gas , had already included Welsh-language schemes in company policies before this Act. In a speech at the 2000 National Eisteddfod at Llanelli , the Plaid Cymru Assembly Member Cynog Dafis called for a new Welsh-language movement with greater powers to lobby for the language at the Assembly, UK, and EU levels. Dafis felt

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4224-502: The classical physics in use since the end of the scientific revolution, modern physics arose in the early 20th century with the advent of quantum physics , substituting mathematical studies for experimental studies and examining equations to build a theoretical structure . The old quantum theory was a collection of results which predate modern quantum mechanics , but were never complete or self-consistent. The collection of heuristic prescriptions for quantum mechanics were

4356-547: The late modern period followed the early modern period . It began around 1800 and, depending on the author, either ended with the beginning of contemporary history in 1945, or includes the contemporary history period to the present day. Notable historical events in the late 18th century, that marked the transition from the early modern period to the late modern period, include: the American Revolution (1765–91), French Revolution (1789–99), and beginning of

4488-403: The paradox of specific heats , and his connection of fluctuations and dissipation . Despite his reservations about its interpretation, Einstein also made contributions to quantum mechanics and, indirectly, quantum field theory , primarily through his theoretical studies of the photon . At the end of the 19th century, Social Darwinism was promoted and included the various ideologies based on

4620-410: The proto-industrialization . Eric Hobsbawm held that it "broke out" in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, while T.S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of George III , The Regency , and George IV ). Historians define the 19th century historical era as stretching from 1815 (the Congress of Vienna ) to 1914 (the outbreak of

4752-619: The steam engine started the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain. The steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling them to be deepened beyond groundwater levels. The date of the Industrial Revolution is not exact, but some studies suggest it occurred after the East India Company 's conquests of Mughal Bengal , Kingdom of Mysore and the rest of India , which were already observing

4884-405: The young Karl Marx , who criticized the project of political emancipation (embodied in the form of human rights), asserting it to be symptomatic of the very dehumanization it was supposed to oppose. For Friedrich Nietzsche , humanism was nothing more than a secular version of theism . In his Genealogy of Morals , he argues that human rights exist as a means for the weak to collectively constrain

5016-411: The "robber barons" . An example is the company of John D. Rockefeller , who was an important figure in shaping the new oil industry. Using highly effective tactics and aggressive practices, later widely criticized, Standard Oil absorbed or destroyed most of its competition. The creation of a modern industrial economy took place. With the creation of a transportation and communication infrastructure ,

5148-515: The 19th century, peaking in the 1911 census at over one million even as the proportion of the Welsh population that could speak Welsh fell below 50% for the first time. Especially when compared to other stateless languages in Europe, Welsh boasted an extraordinarily active press, with poetry, religious writing, biography, translations, and, by the end of the century, novels all appearing in the language, as well as countless newspapers, journals and periodicals. An ongoing interest in antiquarianism ensured

5280-560: The 21st century. Cornish fell out of use in the 1700s but has since undergone a revival . Cumbric and Pictish are extinct and today spoken only in the form of loanwords in English, Scots , and Scottish Gaelic . The early Common Brittonic vowel inventory is effectively identical to that of Proto-Celtic. /ɨ/ and /ʉ/ have not developed yet. By late Common Brittonic, the New Quantity System had occurred, leading to

5412-458: The Act many gentry and government officials already spoke English; however, the Act codified the class ruling of the English language, with numbers who were fluent in English rising significantly after its passing. The Act's primary function was to create uniform control over the now united England and Wales ; however, it laid a foundation for the superiority of classes through the use of language. Welsh

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5544-404: The Assembly's presiding officer. In the 1991 census, the Welsh language stabilised at the 1981 level of 18.7%. According to the 2001 census, the number of Welsh speakers in Wales increased for the first time in over 100 years, with 20.8% in a population of over 2.9 million claiming fluency in Welsh. Further, 28% of the population of Wales claimed to understand Welsh. The census revealed that

5676-498: The Beijing government. Despite the fact that various warlords gained control of the government in Beijing during the warlord era, this did not constitute a new era of control or governance, because other warlords did not acknowledge the transitory governments in this period and were a law unto themselves. These military-dominated governments were collectively known as the Beiyang government . The warlord era ended around 1927. In 1900,

5808-595: The British Empire. The British established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and Fiji in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the British Empire. The Bourbon Restoration followed the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814. The Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. The ensuing period is called the Restoration, following French usage, and is characterized by

5940-535: The British state. It did not become officially recognised as the language of Wales until the passing of the Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 . Learning English was enthusiastically encouraged; in contrast, Welsh was not taught or used as a medium of instruction in schools, many of which actively discouraged the use of Welsh using measures such as the Welsh Not . Welsh was increasingly restricted in scope to

6072-710: The Brittonic aβon[a] , "river" (transcribed into Welsh as afon , Cornish avon , Irish and Scottish Gaelic abhainn , Manx awin , Breton aven ; the Latin cognate is amnis ). When river is preceded by the word, in the modern vein, it is tautological . Examples are: Basic words tor , combe , bere , and hele from Brittonic are common in Devon place-names. Tautologous, hybrid word names exist in England, such as: Late modern period In many periodizations of human history ,

6204-545: The Brythonic-speaking areas of what is now northern England and southern Scotland , and may therefore have been the ancestor of Cumbric as well as Welsh. Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The Welsh language in documents predating around 1150. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the Cynfeirdd or 'Early Poets' – is generally considered to date to

6336-532: The Canary Islands and Rio de Oro in northwestern Africa for Spain. Finally, for King Leopold (ruled from 1865 to 1909), there was the large "piece of that great African cake" known as the Congo , which became his personal fiefdom. By 1914, almost the entire continent was under European control. Liberia , which was settled by freed American slaves in the 1820s, and Abyssinia ( Ethiopia ) in eastern Africa were

6468-400: The English counties of Northumberland and Dorset had met with protests. The prime minister Stanley Baldwin refused to hear the case against basing this RAF establishment in Wales, despite a deputation claiming to represent half a million Welsh protesters. The opposition against "British" military usage of this site in Wales was summed up by Saunders Lewis when he wrote that the government

6600-611: The Imperial Court to enact such reforming measures of political liberalization and modernization caused the reformists to steer toward the road of revolution. The assertions of Chinese philosophy began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. By the time of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were many calls, such as the May Fourth Movement , to completely abolish

6732-705: The Japanese over Manchuria and Korea . The major theatres of operations were Southern Manchuria, specifically the area around the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden , and the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow Sea . The resulting campaigns, in which the fledgling Japanese military consistently attained victory over the Russian forces arrayed against them, were unexpected by world observers. These victories, as time transpired, would dramatically transform

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6864-521: The Japanese ranks. Japan's modernized military gave Japan the opportunity to engage in Imperialism with its victory against the Qing Empire in the First Sino-Japanese War Japan annexed Taiwan , Korea and the Chinese province of Shandong . After the death of the Meiji Emperor, the Taishō Emperor took the throne, the Taishō period was a time of democratic reform granting democratic rights to all Japanese men. Foreigners would be instrumental in aiding in Japan's modernization. A key foreign observer of

6996-457: The Official Languages Act became the first Welsh law to be created in 600 years, according to the First Minister at the time, Carwyn Jones . This law was passed by Welsh Assembly members only and made Welsh an official language of the National Assembly. British language (Celtic) Common Brittonic ( Welsh : Brythoneg ; Cornish : Brythonek ; Breton : Predeneg ), also known as British , Common Brythonic , or Proto-Brittonic ,

7128-434: The Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was supposedly composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material and language in which it was originally composed. Middle Welsh ( Cymraeg Canol ) is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of nearly all surviving early manuscripts of

7260-467: The Romanised towns and their descendants, and later from church use. By 500–550 AD, Common Brittonic had diverged into the Neo-Brittonic dialects: Old Welsh primarily in Wales, Old Cornish in Cornwall, Old Breton in what is now Brittany, Cumbric in Northern England and Southern Scotland, and probably Pictish in Northern Scotland. The modern forms of Breton and Welsh are the only direct descendants of Common Brittonic to have survived fully into

7392-414: The Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France. The Franco-Prussian War was a conflict between France and Prussia, while Prussia was backed up by the North German Confederation, of which it was a member, and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. The complete Prussian and German victory brought about the final unification of Germany under King Wilhelm I of Prussia. It also marked

7524-480: The Spanish–American War in 1898. Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not divide their colonial territory in America. The captaincies they created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador (later relocated to Rio de Janeiro) which reported directly to the Portuguese Crown until its independence in 1822, becoming the Empire of Brazil . The Meiji Restoration was a chain of events that led to enormous changes in Japan's political and social structure that

7656-487: The United States exceeded that of any other country except Britain. Long hours and hazardous working conditions led many workers to attempt to form labor unions despite strong opposition from industrialists and the courts. But the courts did protect the marketplace, declaring the Standard Oil group to be an "unreasonable" monopoly under the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1911. It ordered Standard to break up into 34 independent companies with different boards of directors. Replacing

7788-443: The Welsh language had any chance: Modern Welsh can be divided into two periods. The first, Early Modern Welsh, ran from the early 15th century to roughly the end of the 16th century. In the Early Modern Welsh Period use of the Welsh language began to be restricted, such as with the passing of Henry VIII's 1536 Act of Union . Through this Act Wales was governed solely under English law . Only 150 words of this Act were concerned with

7920-439: The Welsh language unless direct action was taken. Lewis was responding to the 1961 census, which showed a decrease in the number of Welsh speakers from 36% in 1931 to 26% in 1961, out of a population of about 2.5 million. Meirionnydd, Anglesey, Carmarthen, and Caernarfon averaged a 75% concentration of Welsh speakers, but the most significant decrease was in the counties of Glamorgan , Flint , and Pembroke . Lewis's intent

8052-416: The Welsh language. By the 20th century, the numbers of Welsh speakers were shrinking at a rate which suggested that the language would be extinct within a few generations. According to the 1911 census, out of a population of just under 2.5 million, 43.5% of those aged three years and upwards in Wales and Monmouthshire spoke Welsh (8.5% monoglot Welsh speakers, 35% bilingual in English and Welsh). This

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8184-426: The abolition of the slave trade in 1807 and propelled by economic exploitation, the Scramble for Africa was initiated formally at the Berlin West Africa Conference in 1884–1885. The Berlin Conference attempted to avoid war among the European powers by allowing the European rival countries to carve up the continent of Africa into national colonies. Africans were not consulted. The major European powers laid claim to

8316-421: The area. The Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 modernised the 1993 Welsh Language Act and gave Welsh an official status in Wales for the first time, a major landmark for the language. Welsh is the only official de jure language of any country in the UK. The Measure was also responsible for creating the post of Welsh Language Commissioner , replacing the Welsh Language Board. Following the referendum in 2011,

8448-465: The areas of Africa where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate. The European power that demonstrated its control over a territory accepted the mandate to rule that region as a national colony. The European nation that held the claim developed and benefited from their colony's commercial interests without having to fear rival European competition. With

8580-402: The average earned income in Wales and meant that many local people could not afford to purchase their first home or compete with second-home buyers. In 2001 nearly a third of all properties sold in Gwynedd were bought by buyers from out of the county, and some communities reported as many as a third of local homes used as holiday homes. Holiday homeowners spend less than six months of the year in

8712-432: The colonial claim came the underlying assumption that the European power that exerted control would use its mandate to offer protection and provide welfare for its colonial peoples, however, this principle remained more theory than practice. There were many documented instances of material and moral conditions deteriorating for native Africans in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries under European colonial rule, to

8844-403: The composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville. When the Central Junta fell to the French, numerous new Juntas appeared all across the Americas, eventually resulting in a chain of newly independent countries stretching from Argentina and Chile in the south, to Mexico in the north. After the death of the king Ferdinand VII, in 1833, only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule, until

8976-418: The contiguous United States as they are today. The American Civil War began when seven Southern slave states declared their secession from the U.S. and formed the Confederate States of America , the Confederacy (four more states joined the Confederacy later). Led by Jefferson Davis , they fought against the U.S. federal government (the Union) under President Abraham Lincoln , which was supported by all

9108-456: The corporation became the dominant form of business organization and a managerial revolution transformed business operations. In 1890, Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act —the source of all American anti-monopoly laws. The law forbade every contract, scheme, deal, or conspiracy to restrain trade, though the phrase "restraint of trade" remained subjective. By the beginning of the 20th century, per capita income and industrial production in

9240-409: The defeat of Louis-Napoléon in the Franco-Prussian war in 1870 and the Vichy Regime after the invasion of France by the German Third Reich in 1940. The Third Republic endured seventy years, making it the most long-lasting regime in France since the collapse of the Ancien Régime in the French Revolution of 1789. Italian unification was the political and social movement that annexed different states of

9372-443: The dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal human qualities, particularly rationality , without resorting to the supernatural or alleged divine authority from religious texts. For liberal humanists such as Rousseau and Kant , the universal law of reason guided the way toward total emancipation from any kind of tyranny. These ideas were challenged, for example by

9504-644: The dissemination of the language's medieval poetry and prose (such as the Mabinogion ). A further development was the publication of some of the first complete and concise Welsh dictionaries . Early work by Welsh lexicographic pioneers such as Daniel Silvan Evans ensured that the language was documented as accurately as possible. Modern dictionaries such as Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru (the University of Wales Dictionary) are direct descendants of these dictionaries. Despite these outward signs of health, it

9636-538: The distribution of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japan's recent entry onto the world stage. The embarrassing string of defeats increased Russian popular dissatisfaction with the inefficient and corrupt Tsarist government. The Russian Revolution of 1905 was a wave of mass political unrest through vast areas of the Russian Empire . Some of it was directed against the government, while some

9768-548: The downfall of Napoleon III and the end of the Second French Empire, which was replaced by the Third Republic. As part of the settlement, almost all of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine was taken by Prussia to become a part of Germany, which it would retain until the end of World War I. The French Third Republic was the republican government of France between the end of the Second French Empire following

9900-621: The dynasty declined after the mid-19th century. European powers controlled parts of Oceania, with French New Caledonia from 1853 and French Polynesia from 1889; the Germans established colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and Samoa in 1900. The United States expanded into the Pacific with Hawaii becoming a U.S. territory from 1898. Disagreements between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa led to

10032-698: The end of slavery a war goal. The Confederacy had a larger area than it could defend, and it failed to keep its ports open and its rivers clear as was the case in the Battle of Vicksburg . The North kept up the pressure as the South could barely feed and clothe its soldiers. Its soldiers, especially those in the East under the command of General Robert E. Lee proved highly resourceful until they finally were overwhelmed by Generals Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman in 1864–65. The Reconstruction era (1863–77) began with

10164-452: The extinction of Welsh. By the end of the nineteenth century, English came to prevail in the large cities of south-east Wales. Welsh remained strong in the north-west and in parts of mid-Wales and south-west Wales. Rural Wales was a stronghold of the Welsh language, and so also were the industrial slate-quarrying communities of Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire. Many of the nonconformist churches throughout Wales were strongly associated with

10296-414: The final word has been rendered cuamiinai .) This text is often seen as: 'The affixed – Deuina, Deieda, Andagin [and] Uindiorix – I have bound'; else, at the opposite extreme, taking into account case-marking – -rix 'king' nominative, andagin 'worthless woman' accusative, dewina deieda 'divine Deieda' nominative/vocative – is: 'May I, Windiorix for/at Cuamena defeat [or 'summon to justice']

10428-525: The first corrections to classical mechanics . Outside the realm of quantum physics, the various aether theories in classical physics, which supposed a " fifth element " such as the Luminiferous aether , were nullified by the Michelson–Morley experiment —an attempt to detect the motion of earth through the aether. In biology, Darwinism gained acceptance, promoting the concept of adaptation in

10560-405: The following years. Laws were instituted that required every able-bodied male Japanese citizen, regardless of class, to serve a mandatory term of three years with the first reserves and two additional years with the second reserves. This action, the deathblow for the samurai warriors and their daimyōs , initially met resistance from both the peasant and warrior alike. The peasant class interpreted

10692-692: The former British Empire lose most of its remaining political power over commonwealth countries. The Trans-Siberian Railway , crossing Asia by train, was complete by 1916. Other events include the Israeli–Palestinian conflict , two world wars, and the Cold War . In 1901, the Federation of Australia was the process by which the six separate British self-governing colonies of New South Wales , Queensland , South Australia , Tasmania , Victoria and Western Australia formed one nation. They kept

10824-429: The free states and the five border slave states in the north. Northern leaders agreed that victory would require more than the end of fighting. Secession and Confederate nationalism had to be totally repudiated and all forms of slavery or quasi-slavery had to be eliminated. Lincoln proved effective in mobilizing support for the war goals, raising large armies and supplying them, avoiding foreign interference, and making

10956-632: The highest concentration of speakers at 87.4%, followed by Cardigan at 87.1%, Merionethshire at 86.1%, and Carmarthen at 82.3%. Caernarfon listed 79.2%. Radnorshire and Monmouthshire ranked lowest with a concentration of Welsh speakers less than 6% of the population. The first Welsh-medium primary school was established in Aberystwyth in 1939 by Ifan ab Owen Edwards . Originally a private school named Ysgol Gymraeg yr Urdd composed of only seven children, it later became Ysgol Gymraeg Aberystwyth and now teaches over 400 children. Ysgol Glan Clwyd

11088-675: The highest percentage of Welsh monoglots, at 57.3%. Bethesda urban district in Caernarfonshire was the most Welsh-speaking urban district in Wales; 96.6% of the district's population could speak Welsh. The Welsh nationalist party Plaid Genedlaethol Cymru ('the National Party of Wales'; later abbreviated to Plaid Cymru, 'the Party of Wales') was founded at a meeting in the 1925 National Eisteddfod in Pwllheli , Gwynedd, with

11220-514: The increase was most significant in urban areas, such as Cardiff with an increase from 6.6% in 1991 to 10.9% in 2001, and Rhondda Cynon Taf with an increase from 9% in 1991 to 12.3% in 2001. However, the number of Welsh speakers declined in Gwynedd from 72.1% in 1991 to 68.7%, and in Ceredigion from 59.1% in 1991 to 51.8%. Ceredigion, in particular, experienced the greatest fluctuation with

11352-487: The independent Empire of Brazil. With the defeat of Napoleonic France, Britain became undoubtedly the most powerful country in the world, and by the end of the First World War controlled a Quarter of the world's population and a third of its surface. However, the power of the British Empire did not end on land, since it had the greatest navy on the planet. Electricity, steel, and petroleum enabled Germany to become

11484-480: The issues of discontinuity versus continuity with the previous Tokugawa Period. It was not until the beginning of the Meiji Era that the Japanese government began taking modernization seriously. Japan expanded its military production base by opening arsenals in various locations. The hyobusho (war office) was replaced with a War Department and a Naval Department. The samurai class suffered great disappointment

11616-529: The language differed little from that of Gaul . Comparison with what is known of Gaulish confirms the similarity. Pictish , which became extinct around 1000 years ago, was the spoken language of the Picts in Northern Scotland. Despite significant debate as to whether this language was Celtic, items such as geographical and personal names documented in the region gave evidence that this language

11748-646: The last remaining independent African states. Around the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, the Meiji era occurred during the reign of the Meiji Emperor . During this time, Japan started its modernization and rose to world power status. This era name means "Enlightened Rule". In Japan, the Meiji Restoration started in the 1860s, marking the rapid modernization by the Japanese themselves along European lines. Much research has focused on

11880-682: The late nineteenth century Europe largely traded with free African states without feeling the need for territorial possession. Until the 1880s most of Africa remained uncharted, with western maps from the period generally showing blank spaces for the continent's interior. From the 1880s to 1914, the European powers expanded their control across the African continent, competing with each other for Africa's land and resources. Great Britain controlled various colonial holdings in East Africa that spanned

12012-525: The length of the African continent from Egypt in the north to South Africa. The French gained major ground in West Africa, and the Portuguese held colonies in southern Africa. Germany, Italy, and Spain established a small number of colonies at various points throughout the continent, which included German East Africa (Tanganyika) and German Southwest Africa for Germany, Eritrea and Libya for Italy, and

12144-412: The local community. The issue of locals being priced out of the local housing market is common to many rural communities throughout the United Kingdom, but in Wales, the added dimension of language further complicates the issue, as many new residents do not learn the Welsh language. Concern for the Welsh language under these pressures prompted Glyn to say "Once you have more than 50% of anybody living in

12276-567: The modern day. No documents in the language have been found, but a few inscriptions have been identified. The Bath curse tablets , found in the Roman feeder pool at Bath, Somerset ( Aquae Sulis ), bear about 150 names – about 50% Celtic (but not necessarily Brittonic). An inscription on a metal pendant (discovered there in 1979) seems to contain an ancient Brittonic curse: " Adixoui Deuina Deieda Andagin Uindiorix cuamenai ". (Sometimes

12408-481: The needs of the Welsh language were ignored during the first year of the Assembly, and that to ensure the language's dynamic growth a properly resourced strategy was needed. In his speech Dafis encouraged other Welsh-language advocacy groups to work more closely together to create a more favourable climate in which the use of Welsh was "attractive, exciting, a source of pride and a sign of strength". Additionally, Dafis pointed towards efforts in areas such as Catalonia and

12540-473: The non-conformist religious chapels, who would teach children to read and write in Sunday schools. Individuals such as Matthew Arnold championed the virtues of Welsh literature whilst simultaneously advocating the replacement of Welsh as the everyday language of the country with English, and many Welsh speakers themselves such as David Davies and John Ceiriog Hughes advocated bilingualism, if not necessarily

12672-498: The old imperial institutions and practices of China. There were attempts to incorporate democracy, republicanism , and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by Sun Yat-sen at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1912, the Republic of China was established and Sun Yat-sen was inaugurated in Nanjing as the first Provisional President . But power in Beijing had already passed to Yuan Shikai , who had effective control of

12804-408: The only exceptions being some border areas and other places which had seen significant settlement, such as south Pembrokeshire ; by the 1901 census, this proportion had declined to a little over half of the population, though the large increase in the total population over the century (due to the effects of industrialisation and in-migration) meant that the total number of Welsh speakers grew throughout

12936-533: The opening line of the first chapter of The Communist Manifesto (1848). He wrote: The Manifesto went through a number of editions from 1872 to 1890; notable new prefaces were written by Marx and Engels for the 1872 German edition, the 1882 Russian edition, the 1883 German edition, and the 1888 English edition. In general, Marxism identified five (and one transitional) successive stages of development in Western Europe. Major political developments saw

13068-465: The other Brythonic languages ( Breton , Cornish , and the extinct Cumbric ). It is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around 550, and labelled the period between then and about 800 "Primitive Welsh". This Primitive Welsh may have been spoken in both Wales and the Hen Ogledd ('Old North'),

13200-746: The party's first ever Parliamentary seat in Carmarthen in 1966, which "helped change the course of a nation". This, paired with the Scottish National Party 's Winnie Ewing 's winning a seat in 1967, may have contributed to pressure on the Labour prime minister Harold Wilson to form the Kilbrandon Commission . This event may have also contributed to the passing of the Welsh Language Act 1967 . The act repealed

13332-545: The period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political games that have come to be associated with the Victorians—back five years to the passage of the Reform Act 1832 . In Britain's "imperial century", victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in central Asia. Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as

13464-624: The point where the colonial experience for them has been described as "hell on earth." At the time of the Berlin Conference , Africa contained one-fifth of the world's population living in one-quarter of the world's land area. However, from Europe's perspective, they were dividing an unknown continent. European countries established a few coastal colonies in Africa by the mid-nineteenth century, which included Cape Colony (Great Britain), Angola (Portugal), and Algeria (France), but until

13596-482: The population of Wales (including Monmouthshire), 38.7% of the population could speak Welsh while 6.6% of the overall population were Welsh monoglots. In the five predominantly Welsh-speaking counties, Welsh was spoken by more than 75% of the population, and was more widely understood than English: Denbighshire was the only other county where a majority could still speak Welsh; here, 51.0% could speak Welsh and 94.0% could speak English. As for larger urban areas, Aberdare

13728-597: The post-Civil War and post-Reconstruction era, in the late 19th century. The wealth polarization derived primarily from industrial and population expansion. The businessmen of the Second Industrial Revolution created industrial towns and cities in the Northeast with new factories, and contributed to the creation of an ethnically diverse industrial working class which produced the wealth owned by rising super-rich industrialists and financiers called

13860-582: The primary aim of promoting the Welsh language. Concern for the Welsh language was ignited in 1936 when the British government decided to build an RAF training camp and aerodrome at Penyberth on the Llŷn Peninsula in Gwynedd. The events surrounding the protest became known as Tân yn Llŷn ('Fire in Llŷn'). The government had settled on Llŷn as the location for this military site after plans for similar bases in

13992-720: The remarkable and rapid changes in Japanese society in this period was Ernest Mason Satow . The Antebellum Age was a period of increasing division in the country based on the growth of slavery in the American South and in the western territories of Kansas and Nebraska that eventually led to the Civil War in 1861. The Antebellum Period is often considered to have begun with the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854, although it may have begun as early as 1812. This period

14124-420: The results of the 2021 census were published, they showed a further decrease to 17.8%, equating to 538,000 speakers. The decline in Welsh speakers in Gwynedd and Anglesey (Ynys Môn) may be attributable to non–Welsh-speaking people moving to North Wales, driving up property prices to levels that local Welsh speakers cannot afford, according to Seimon Glyn , a former Gwynedd county councillor with Plaid Cymru. Glyn

14256-432: The strong. On this view, such rights do not facilitate emancipation of life, but rather deny it. In the 20th century, the notion that human beings are rationally autonomous was challenged by the concept that humans were driven by unconscious irrational desires. Sigmund Freud is renowned for his redefinition of sexual desire as the primary motivational energy of human life, as well as his therapeutic techniques, including

14388-589: The systems of government that they had developed as separate colonies but also would have a federal government that was responsible for matters concerning the whole nation. When the Constitution of Australia came into force, the colonies collectively became states of the Commonwealth of Australia. The last days of the Qing dynasty were marked with civil unrest, failed reforms and foreign invasions such as

14520-472: The term for military service, ketsu-eki ("blood tax") literally, and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary. The Japanese government began modelling their ground forces after the French military. The French government contributed greatly to the training of Japanese officers. Many were employed at the military academy in Kyoto, and many more still were feverishly translating French field manuals for use in

14652-504: The theory of natural selection . The fields of geology , astronomy and psychology also made strides and gained new insights. In medicine , there were advances in medical theory and treatments . Starting one-hundred years before the 20th century, the Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters around the 1900s. Developed from earlier secular traditions, modern Humanist ethical philosophies affirmed

14784-563: The time of 75–100 AD. The term Pritenic is controversial. In 2015, linguist Guto Rhys concluded that most proposals that Pictish diverged from Brittonic before c.  500 AD were incorrect, questionable, or of little importance, and that a lack of evidence to distinguish Brittonic and Pictish rendered the term Pritenic "redundant". Common Brittonic vied with Latin after the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD, at least in major settlements. Latin words were widely borrowed by its speakers in

14916-417: The use of free association , his theory of transference in the therapeutic relationship, and the interpretation of dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires . Albert Einstein is known for his theories of special relativity and general relativity . He also made important contributions to statistical mechanics , especially his mathematical treatment of Brownian motion , his resolution of

15048-490: The use of the Welsh language. Section 20 of the Act banned the use of the language in court proceedings and those who solely spoke Welsh and did not speak English could not hold government office. Wales was to be represented by 26 members of parliament who spoke English. Outside certain areas in Wales such as South Pembrokeshire , the majority of those living in Wales did not speak English, meaning that interpreters were regularly needed in order to conduct hearings. Before passing

15180-533: The world's population had approached approximately 1.6 billion. Four years into the 20th century saw the Russo-Japanese War with the Battle of Port Arthur establishing the Empire of Japan as a world power. The Russians were in constant pursuit of a warm water port on the Pacific Ocean, for their navy as well as for maritime trade. The Manchurian Campaign of the Russian Empire was fought against

15312-642: The worthless woman, [oh] divine Deieda.' A tin/lead sheet retains part of nine text lines, damaged, with likely Brittonic names. Local Roman Britain toponyms (place names) are evidentiary, recorded in Latinised forms by Ptolemy 's Geography discussed by Rivet and Smith in their book of that name published in 1979. They show most names he used were from the Brittonic language. Some place names still contain elements derived from it. Tribe names and some Brittonic personal names are also taken down by Greeks and, mainly, Romans. Tacitus 's Agricola says that

15444-504: The year, Llwyd observed "What is interesting is, of course, it is fine for Exmoor to defend their community but in Wales when you try to say these things it is called racist". Llwyd called on other parties to join in a debate to bring the Exmoor experience to Wales when he said "I really do ask them and I plead with them to come around the table and talk about the Exmoor suggestion and see if we can now bring it into Wales". By spring 2002 both

15576-444: Was a decrease from the 1891 census with 49.9% speaking Welsh out of a population of 1.5 million (15.1% monoglot, 34.8% bilingual). The distribution of those speaking the language however was unevenly distributed with five counties remaining overwhelmingly and predominantly Welsh-speaking: Outside these five counties, a further two areas were noted as having a majority who spoke Welsh, those being: The 1921 census recorded that of

15708-508: Was commenting on a report underscoring the dilemma of rocketing house prices outstripping what locals could pay, with the report warning that "traditional Welsh communities could die out" as a consequence. Much of the rural Welsh property market was driven by buyers looking for second homes for use as holiday homes or for retirement. Many buyers were drawn to Wales from England because of relatively inexpensive house prices in Wales as compared to those in England. The rise in house prices outpaced

15840-585: Was during the nineteenth century that English replaced Welsh as the most widely spoken language within the country. Wales, particularly the South Wales Coalfield , experienced significant population growth and in-migration (primarily from England and Ireland), which changed the linguistic profile of some areas (though other areas would remain Welsh-speaking despite the changes). Welsh held no official recognition and had limited status under

15972-515: Was founded, the first Welsh medium secondary school in South Wales (later Ysgol Garth Olwg ). The Welsh Courts Act was passed in 1942, repealing Henry VIII's earlier laws; this finally permitted limited use of the Welsh language in courts of law. In 1962 Saunders Lewis gave a radio speech entitled Tynged yr Iaith ('The Fate of the Language'), in which he predicted the extinction of

16104-409: Was intent upon turning one of the "essential homes of Welsh culture , idiom , and literature " into a place for promoting a barbaric method of warfare. On 8 September 1936, the building was set on fire, and the Welsh nationalists Saunders Lewis , Lewis Valentine and D. J. Williams claimed responsibility for the arson. The case was tried at Caernarfon, where the jury failed to reach a verdict. It

16236-536: Was most closely aligned with the Brittonic branch of Celtic languages. The question of the extent to which this language was distinguished, and the date of divergence, from the rest of Brittonic, was historically disputed. Pritenic (also Pretanic and Prittenic ) is a term coined in 1955 by Kenneth H. Jackson to describe a hypothetical Roman-era (1st to 5th centuries) predecessor to the Pictish language. Jackson saw Pritenic as having diverged from Brittonic around

16368-521: Was now seen as a language spoken by the lower working classes, with those from higher classes seen superior and given roles in government for choosing to speak English over Welsh. This part of the Act was not repealed until 1993 under the Welsh Languages Act . Late Modern Welsh began with the publication of William Morgan 's translation of the Bible in 1588. Like its English counterpart,

16500-479: Was opened in 1956 with 94 pupils in Rhyl , becoming the first secondary school with a formal remit to teach through the medium of Welsh. It moved to St Asaph in 1969. In 1949 Cardiff gained its first Welsh medium primary school, Ysgol Gymraeg Caerdydd, renamed Ysgol Bryntaf and moved to Llandaf in 1952. In 1978 Ysgol Glantaf opened, Cardiff's first Welsh-medium secondary school. In 1962 Rhydfelen secondary school

16632-666: Was significantly influenced by Latin during the Roman period , especially in terms related to the church and Christianity . By the sixth century AD, the languages of the Celtic Britons were rapidly diverging into Neo-Brittonic : Welsh , Cumbric , Cornish , Breton , and possibly the Pictish language . Over the next three centuries, Brittonic was replaced by Scottish Gaelic in most of Scotland, and by Old English (from which descend Modern English and Scots ) throughout most of modern England as well as Scotland south of

16764-419: Was successful, and by the mid-1930s more programmes in Welsh were broadcast, with the formal establishment of a Welsh regional broadcasting channel by 1937. However, no dedicated Welsh-language television channel would be established until 1982. According to the 1931 census, out of a population of just over 2.5 million, the percentage of Welsh speakers in Wales had dropped to 36.8%, with Anglesey recording

16896-547: Was taking a firm hold at the beginning of the Meiji era which coincided the opening of Japan by the arrival of the Black Ships of Commodore Matthew Perry and made Imperial Japan a great power . Russia and Qing dynasty China failed to keep pace with the other world powers which led to massive social unrest in both empires. The Qing Dynasty's military power weakened during the 19th century, and faced with international pressure, massive rebellions and defeats in wars,

17028-523: Was the only one where a majority could still speak Welsh, here 59.0% could speak Welsh while 95.4% could speak English. In Cardiff , Wales's largest city, 5.2% of people could speak Welsh, while 99.7% of people could speak English. At a district level, Llanfyrnach rural district in Pembrokeshire had the highest percentage of Welsh speakers at 97.5%, while Penllyn rural district in Merioneth had

17160-595: Was then sent to the Old Bailey in London, where the "Three" were convicted and sentenced to nine months' imprisonment. On their release from Wormwood Scrubs they were greeted as heroes by a crowd of 15,000 people at a pavilion in Caernarfon . With the advent of broadcasting in Wales , Plaid Cymru protested against the lack of Welsh-language programming and launched a campaign to withhold licence fees. The pressure

17292-689: Was to motivate Plaid Cymru to take more direct action to promote the language; however, it led to the formation of Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg (the Welsh Language Society) later that year at a Plaid Cymru summer school held in Pontardawe in Glamorgan . In 1965 the village of Capel Celyn was drowned in the Tryweryn valley . This created tension between natural resources provision and the protection of cultural identity. This event

17424-736: Was wracked with a series of revolutions, resulting with the Ottoman's only holding a small region that surrounded the capital, Istanbul. The Mughal Empire, which was descended from the Mongol Khanate, was bested by the upcoming Maratha Confederacy . All was going well for the Marathas until the British took an interest in the riches of India and the British ended up ruling not just the boundaries of Modern India, but also Pakistan, Burma, Nepal, Bangladesh and some Southern Regions of Afghanistan. Portugal's vast territory of Brazil reformed into

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