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40-540: The paper was founded by a group of liberals and monarchists a few days after the annexation of Lombardy to Piedmont-Sardinia in the wider context of Italian unification . Its founders were wealthy members of the city's leading families, politically supportive of the Piedmontese First Minister, Count Cavour 's unification strategy. Three of the most prominent of them, Giovanni Visconti Venosta , Gaetano Negri and Stefano Jacini were members of

80-566: A covert meeting at Plombières on 21 July 1858, Napoleon III and Cavour signed a secret treaty of alliance against Austria on 28 January 1859. France would help Piedmont-Sardinia, if attacked, to fight against Austria if Piedmont-Sardinia gave Nice and Savoy to France in return. The secret alliance served both countries by helping with the Sardinian-Piedmontese plan of unification of the Italian Peninsula under

120-649: A bridgehead. Eduard Clam-Gallas informed Gyulay of the French attack, who sent Schwarzenberg 's III Korps from Robecco sul Naviglio , threatening the French right flank. Canrobert arrived in time to reinforce the Guard. From 3.30 through 5.30pm, MacMahon launched an attack against the Austrian I and II Korps. By 6.30pm the Austrians began a fighting withdrawal, while the French advanced into Magenta and beyond. By 10pm,

160-493: A period of expansion, raising circulation to ten thousand copies. In the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War , in 1870, Bonghi used La Perseveranza to insist that the inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine must be permitted to vote in a referendum before any decision could be taken to transfer the territories from France to Germany . On the home front he was an acute observer of Italian political trends, and sought in

200-573: A result, Austria had to keep 30,000 troops in Transylvania , which could ill be spared from Italy. The French Army, under Marshal François Certain Canrobert , moved into Piedmont in the first massive military use of railways . The Austrian forces counted on a swift victory over the weaker Sardinian Army before French forces could arrive in Piedmont. However, Count Gyulai, the commander of

240-670: The Alessandria and Po bridges around Casale Monferrato forced the Austrians to halt their advance on 9 May and to fall back on 10 May. Napoleon III left Paris on 10 May, landed at Genoa on 12 May and arrived in Alessandria on 14 May. Napoleon then took the command of the operations of the war, whose first major clash was the Battle of Montebello on 20 May, between the Austrian IX Corps led by Karl von Urban (under

280-478: The Battle of Turbigo , followed by MacMahon. MacMahon, Camou and Espinasse crossed the canal on bridges at Bernate Ticino and Boffalora sopra Ticino , placing them north of Magenta. At noon, MacMahon encountered elements of Liechtenstein 's II Korps. The Imperial Guard Corps made contact with the Austrians from Buffalora to Magenta. At 2pm, the Guard Zouaves crossed the canal with boats, establishing

320-641: The French Imperial Guard , still mostly in their First Empire style of uniforms. The battle of Magenta was not a particularly large battle, but it was a decisive victory for the Franco-Sardinian alliance. Patrice de MacMahon was created Duke of Magenta for his role in this battle, and would later go on to serve as President of the French Third Republic . From 1 June through 3 June, the French and Piedmontese pursued

360-464: The House of Savoy . It also weakened Austria, a fiery adversary of Napoleon III's French Second Empire . Cavour, being unable to get French help unless the Austrians attacked first, provoked Vienna by a series of military maneuvers close to the border. Sardinia mobilised its army on 9 March 1859. Austria mobilised on 9 April 1859 and issued an ultimatum on 23 April demanding the complete demobilisation of

400-862: The Sardinian War , the Austro-Sardinian War , the Franco-Austrian War , or the Italian War of 1859 (Italian: Seconda guerra d'indipendenza italiana ; German: Sardinischer Krieg ; French: Campagne d'Italie ), was fought by the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia against the Austrian Empire in 1859 and played a crucial part in the process of Italian Unification . A year prior to

440-593: The Treaty of Turin as compensation for its assistance. The Piedmontese, following their defeat by Austria in the First Italian War of Independence , recognized their need for allies. That led Prime Minister Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour to attempt to establish relations with other European powers, partially through Piedmont's participation in the Crimean War . In the peace conference at Paris after

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480-461: The "Constitutional Association". The starting paid up share capital of 300,000 lire was considered lavish at the time. Beneath its title early editions of La Perseveranza carried the motto "Usque ad finem" ( "On to completion" / "On to the end" ). La Peresveranza was produced in a broadsheet format, and had a cover price of 20 cents, which was four times the price of most competitor newspaper. Created to support unification , it quickly became

520-584: The Austrian 2nd Army to the Ticino River , the border between Lombardy and Piedmont. The Austrians set up a defensive position at Magenta, utilizing the Naviglio Grande , which could be crossed only at four bridges. Gyulay had available 68,000 men, composed of the I,II, III and VII Korps. The French had about 50,000 men, while Manfredo Fanti added another 12,000. Camou had crossed the Ticino during

560-421: The Austrian 2nd Army was withdrawing toward Abbiategrasso . On 8 June, Napoleon III and Victor Emmanuel II entered Milan, then Brescia a few days later. On 23–25 May, Prince Napoléon Bonaparte 's V Corps landed at Livorno , and then entered Florence a week later, followed by Parma , and Modena . According to Frederick Schneid, "The defeat at Magenta spelled the end for Gyulay. He withdrew his army to

600-616: The Austrian troops in Lombardy , was very cautious and marched around the river Ticino in no specific direction until he crossed it to begin the offensive. Unfortunately for him, very heavy rains began to fall, which allowed the Piedmontese to flood the rice fields in front of his advance and slowed his army's march to a crawl. The Austrians, under Gyulai, captured Novara on 30 April and Vercelli on 2 May and advanced on Turin from 7 May onward. The Franco-Sardinian move to strengthen

640-433: The Austrians under Marshal Ferenc Gyulay . Napoleon III's army crossed the Ticino River and outflanked the Austrian right forcing the Austrian army under Gyulay to retreat. The confined nature of the country, a vast spread of orchards cut up by streams and irrigation canals, precluded elaborate manoeuvre. The Austrians turned every house into a miniature fortress. The brunt of the fighting was borne by 5,000 grenadiers of

680-482: The Crimean War, Cavour attempted to bring attention to efforts for Italian unification. He found Britain and France to be sympathetic but refusing to go against Austrian wishes, as any movement towards Italian independence would threaten Austria's territory of Lombardy–Venetia . Private talks between Napoleon III and Cavour after the conference identified Napoleon as the most likely candidate to aid Italy although he

720-592: The II Corps, led by Patrice de MacMahon ; the III Corps, led by François Certain de Canrobert , the IV Corps; led by Adolphe Niel , and the V Corps, led by prince Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte . The Imperial Guard was commanded by Auguste Regnaud de Saint-Jean d'Angély . Napoleon III participated in the war and showed up on the battlefield in the belief that it would motivate the French people during

760-562: The Sardinian Army. When it was not heeded, Austria started a war against Sardinia on 26 April. The first French troops entered Piedmont on 25 April, and France declared war on Austria on 3 May. The French Army for the Italian campaign had 170,000 soldiers, 2,000 horsemen and 312 guns, half of the whole French army. The army, under the command of Napoleon III, divided into five corps: the I Corps, led by Achille Baraguey d'Hilliers ;

800-601: The United Provinces of Central Italy including the ( Duchy of Parma , Duchy of Modena , Grand Duchy of Tuscany , and part of the Papal States ) were annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia, and France took its deferred rewards of Savoy and Nice . This latter move was vehemently opposed by Italian national hero Garibaldi, a native of Nice, and directly led to Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily , which would complete

840-668: The armistice was signed on the following day - the Peace of Villafranca . Napoleon III signed the armistice with Austria at Villafranca for a combination of reasons. The Austrians had retreated to the Quadrilateral , which would be very costly to overrun. His absence in France had made the country vulnerable to attack. His actions in Italy were being criticised in France. He did not want Cavour and Piedmont to gain too much power, mostly at

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880-515: The basis for Prussia's rapid victories over Austria in 1866 and France in 1870-71 , which led to a united Germany under Prussian dominance. Battle of Magenta The Battle of Magenta was fought on 4 June 1859 near the town of Magenta in the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia , a crown land of the Austrian Empire , during the Second Italian War of Independence . It resulted in a French-Sardinian victory under Napoleon III against

920-765: The end of the war and the signing of the Armistice of Villafranca on 12 July. Austria ceded Lombardy to France, which, in turn, gave it to Sardinia. Exploiting the collapse of Austrian power in Italy, Sardinia annexed the United Provinces of Central Italy , consisting of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , the Duchy of Parma , the Duchy of Modena and Reggio and the Papal Legations, on 22 March 1860. Two days later, Sardinia ceded Savoy and Nice to France at

960-457: The expense of his men. He feared involvement of the German states. Most of Lombardy , with its capital, Milan , excluding only the Austrian fortresses of Mantua and Legnago and the surrounding territory, was transferred from Austria to France, which would immediately cede the territories to Sardinia. The rulers of Central Italy, who had been expelled by revolution shortly after the beginning of

1000-579: The general command of Stadion) and Forey 's division, part of the French I Corps under marshal d'Hilliers. The Austrians retreated after 9 hours of combat when the Sardinian Cavalry under De Sonnaz arrived, which made Gyulai even more cautious. Napoleon III crossed the Ticino river after the Battle of Turbigo and entered Lombardy. He advanced with part of his force and sent many other troops to

1040-478: The larger battle around Solferino, where, after a day-long battle, the French broke through. Ludwig von Benedek with the Austrian VIII Corps was separated from the main force and defended Pozzolengo against the Piedmontese part of the opposing army. It was successful, but the entire Austrian army retreated after the breakthrough at Solferino and withdrew back into the Quadrilateral. Meanwhile, in

1080-503: The more moderate and modern conservatism of Lombardy more mainstream within Italian conservatism generally, sustaining understanding of the need to overcome historically based internal divisions. La Perseveranza also took good care of the arts and culture. Contributors included Diego Sant'Ambrogio (arts criticism) and Francesco Novati (literary criticism). Second Italian War of Independence Franco-Sardinian victory The Second Italian War of Independence , also called

1120-513: The newspaper of reference for the middle class moderates and supporters of the nationalist monarchism within Milan's ruling class. The first managing editor, who remained in the post till 1866, was Pacifico Valussi  [ it ] . Valussi handed over control to Ruggero Bonghi , who on occasion displayed a formidable capacity for polemical journalism, and who demonstrated no great respect for Umberto I of Italy after 1878. Bonghi presided over

1160-471: The newspaper's columns to oppose the crushing of the political right in the region threatened between 1862 and 1864 by conflict between the haut bourgeois "Pietmontese party" and the more aristocratically focused "Tuscan Party" centred on Florence, and the tendency to respond to crises outside parliament, in ways that he believed caused major damage to the new representative institutions of the Italian constitution. In this respect "La Perseveranza" helped to make

1200-592: The north of Lombardy, the Italian volunteers of Giuseppe Garibaldi 's Hunters of the Alps defeated the Austrians at Varese and Como , and the Piedmontese-French Navy landed 3,000 soldiers and conquered the islands of Losinj (Lussino) and Cres (Cherso), in Dalmatia . After the Battle of Solferino, a cease fire was agreed on 8 July. The two emperors met on 11 July at Villafranca di Verona and

1240-562: The north to flank the Austrians. The Austrians planned a resistance before Milan, however they were defeated at the Battle of Magenta on 5 May, which caused Gyulai to retreat east of the river Mincio to the quadrilateral fortresses , where he was relieved of his post as commander by the Emperor Franz Josef , who assumed the command himself. The Piedmontese-French army took Milan and slowly marched further east to finish off Austria before Prussia could get involved. During

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1280-647: The preliminary Unification of Italy . The annexation of Nice to France caused the Niçard exodus , or the emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy, and the Niçard Vespers . During the war, Prussia also mobilized 132,000 men, but never joined the fighting. The weaknesses laid bare during the mobilization caused the Prussian Army to initiate military reforms. These reforms were

1320-512: The previous rulers, and France was unwilling to force them to do so. The Austrians were left to look on in frustration at the French failure to carry out the terms of the treaty. Austria had emerged triumphant after the suppression of liberal movements in 1849, but its status as a great power on the European scene was now seriously challenged and its influence in Italy severely weakened. As such, on 22 March 1860, with French and British approval,

1360-474: The retreat, the Austrians won one of their only victories of the war, when Karl von Urban defeated Giuseppe Garibaldi at the Battle of Treponti . The Austrians found out that the French had halted at Brescia and decided that they should counterattack along the river Chiese. The two armies met accidentally around Solferino , which precipitated a confused series of battles. A French corps held off three Austrian corps all day at Medole and kept them from joining

1400-407: The war began on 26 April. Austria invaded Sardinia three days later, and France declared war on Austria on 3 May. The Austrian invasion was stopped by the arrival of French troops in Piedmont that had begun in late April. The Austrians were defeated at the Battle of Magenta on 4 June and pushed back to Lombardy , where the Franco-Sardinian victory at the Battle of Solferino on 24 June resulted in

1440-641: The war, in the Plombières Agreement , France agreed to support Sardinia's efforts to expel Austria from Italy in return for territorial compensation in the form of the Duchy of Savoy and the County of Nice . The two states signed a military alliance in January 1859. Sardinia mobilised its army on 9 March 1859, and Austria mobilized on 9 April. On 23 April, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Sardinia demanding its demobilization. Upon Sardinia's refusal,

1480-554: The war, were to be restored. The agreement, made by Napoleon behind the backs of his Sardinian allies, led to great outrage in Piedmont-Sardinia, and Cavour resigned in protest. However, the Villafranca terms never took effect. Although they were reaffirmed by the final Treaty of Zürich in 11 November, the agreement had become a dead letter. The central Italian states were occupied by Piedmont, which would not restore

1520-601: The war. That would prove successful. The Sardinian Army had about 70,000 soldiers, 4,000 horsemen and 90 guns. It was divided into five divisions, led by Castelbrugo, Manfredo Fanti , Giovanni Durando , Enrico Cialdini and Domenico Cucchiari . Two volunteer formations, the Cacciatori delle Alpi and the Cacciatori degli Appennini , were also present. It was led by Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy , supported by Alfonso Ferrero la Marmora . The Austrian Army fielded more men with 220,000 soldiers, 824 guns and 22,000 horsemen. It

1560-487: Was led by Field Marshal Ferenc Graf Gyulay . The newly-formed United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia also supported the Franco-Italian alliance. Their ruler, Alexandru Ioan Cuza , was given 10,000 rifles and ammunition by Napoleon III. Napoleon III, with his unwavering and very genuine sympathy, also sent a military mission to Bucharest . Encouraged, Cuza formed a new military camp at Ploiești . As

1600-405: Was still uncommitted. On 14 January 1858, Felice Orsini , an Italian, led an attempt on Napoleon III's life. The assassination attempt brought widespread sympathy for the Italian unity and had a profound effect on Napoleon III himself, who now was determined to help Piedmont against Austria to defuse the wider revolutionary activities, which governments in Italy might later allow to happen. After

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