The delegations as they existed in 1859
122-513: Between the Congress of Vienna (1815) and the capture of Rome (1870), the Papal State was subdivided geographically into 17 apostolic delegations ( delegazioni apostoliche ) for administrative purposes. These were instituted by Pope Pius VII in a motu proprio of 6 July 1816: "Quando per ammirabile disposizione". A delegation was known as a legation ( legazione ) when governed by
244-425: A gonfaloniere (literally, standard-bearer), who was not required to be a councilor. The gonfalonieri were chosen by the secretary of state, while the elders were chosen by the delegate from a list of names submitted by the council. The small rural villages of the comuni each had their own syndic ( sindaco ) or procurator ( procuratore ) subject to the communal gonfaloniere . On 1 October 1847, Pius IX issued
366-524: A cardinal . The four northernmost delegations— Bologna , Ferrara , Forlì and Ravenna , which comprised the region known as the Romagne (plural of Romagna )—were regularly governed by cardinals. Thus, the term "Legations" or Papal Legations ( Legazioni pontificie ), when used on its own, often refers to the Romagne. In an administrative reform of 1850, Pius IX grouped the delegations into five larger legations. The four original legations were joined into
488-489: A copyright law and freedom of the press. With them came a host of courtiers, secretaries, civil servants and ladies to enjoy the magnificent social life of the Austrian court. The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke of an attendee, it danced a lot but did not move forward. On the other hand, the possibilities for informal gatherings created by this "side program" may have helped ensure
610-399: A motu proprio on 5 October 1825, which reduced the number of delegations from 17 to 13 by combining Fermo and Ascoli, Macerata and Camerino, Spoleto and Rieti and Viterbo and Civitavecchia. In an edict issued on 5 July 1831, Leo XII's successor, Gregory XVI , reversed his reform and also created a new delegation based on Orvieto out of the territory of the delegation of Viterbo. He raised
732-525: A "friend of light" and a reformer of Europe towards freedom and progress. He was elected without secular political influences and in the full vigor of life. He was pious, progressive, intellectual, decent, friendly, and open to all. While his political views and policies were hotly debated in the coming years, his personal lifestyle was above reproach, a model of simplicity and poverty in everyday affairs. The most notable event in Pius IX's long pontificate
854-665: A buffer between the German Confederation and France. The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814 , which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Remarkably, negotiations continued unaffected despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's return from exile and resumption of power in France during the Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress's agreement
976-569: A calculated, well-prepared move, Prime Minister Rossi was assassinated on 15 November 1848, and in the days following, the Swiss Guards were disarmed, making the Pope a prisoner in his palace. However, he succeeded in escaping Rome several days later. A Roman Republic was declared in February 1849. Pius responded from his exile by excommunicating all participants. After the suppression of
1098-701: A cardinal instead. On 22 August 1861, the pope informed the Patriarch of Venice Angelo Ramazzotti that he would name him a cardinal, however, Ramazzoti died three days before the consistory. Also in 1861, the dean of the Sacred Rota Ignazio Alberghini declined the pope's offer of nomination into the Sacred College. In December 1863, Pius IX intended to elevate the Archbishop of Gniezno and Poznań Leon Michał Przyłuski to
1220-457: A century. The name "Congress of Vienna" was not meant to suggest a formal plenary session , but rather the creation of a diplomatic organizational framework bringing together stakeholders of all flocks to enable the expression of opinions, interests and sentiments and facilitate discussion of general issues among them. The Congress format had been developed by Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens von Metternich , assisted by Friedrich von Gentz , and
1342-468: A character evaluation from his parish priest to be considered. Financial administration in the Papal States under Pius IX was increasingly put in the hands of laymen. The budget and financial administration in the Papal States had long been subject to criticism even before Pius IX. In 1850, he created a government finance body ("congregation") consisting of four laymen with finance backgrounds for
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#17327647065351464-458: A constitutional government – to which he was sympathetic – but also the unification of Italy under his leadership and a war of liberation to free the northern Italian provinces from the rule of Catholic Austria. By early 1848, all of Western Europe began to be convulsed in various revolutionary movements . The Pope, claiming to be above national interests, refused to go to war with Austria, which reversed Pius' popularity in his native Italy. In
1586-409: A council ( consiglio ) with deliberative functions and a magistracy ( magistratura ) with executive functions. The functions of the magistracy had previously belonged to the higher authorities. The original members of the councils were selected by the delegates, but subsequently new councilors were co-opted . The magistracy was composed of elders ( anziani ) drawn from the council under the leadership of
1708-415: A criminal court ( tribunale criminale ) for crimes. Some of the delegations were subdivided into districts, each headed by a governor. The arrangement created by the motu proprio of 1816 looked like this: In 1820, the delegations and the comarca of Rome were grouped into 11 provinces ( province ). The delegations of Camerino, Benevento, Bologna and Ferrara were their own provinces under those names. Rieti
1830-588: A cumbersome process that required much in the way of time and transportation. The format set at the Congress of Vienna would serve as inspiration for the 1856 peace conference brokered by France (the Congress of Paris ) that settled the Crimean War . The Congress of Vienna settlement gave birth to the Concert of Europe , an international political doctrine that emphasized the maintaining of political boundaries,
1952-639: A large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls. Four great powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition , a covenant of nations allied in the war against France. On the verge of Napoleon's defeat they had outlined their common position in the Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814), and negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) with the Bourbons during their restoration : These parties had not been part of
2074-466: A majority of the votes in the early ballots but failed to achieve the required two-thirds majority. Gizzi was favoured by the French government but failed to get further support from the cardinals, and the conclave ended up ultimately as a contest between Lambruschini and Mastai Ferretti. In the meantime, Cardinal Tommaso Bernetti reportedly received information that Cardinal Karl Kajetan von Gaisruck ,
2196-735: A model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945. Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace. Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all
2318-414: A move that contradicted the general mood throughout Europe. On the evening of the second day of the conclave, 16 June 1846, Mastai Ferretti was elected pope. "He was a glamorous candidate, ardent, emotional with a gift for friendship and a track-record of generosity even towards anti-Clericals and Carbonari . He was a patriot, known to be critical of Gregory XVI." Because it was night, no formal announcement
2440-596: A new archaeological commission in 1853. The Papal States were a theocracy in which the Catholic Church and its members had far more rights than other religions. Pius IX's religious policies became increasingly reactionary over time. At the beginning of his pontificate, together with other liberal measures, Pius opened up the Jewish ghetto in Rome , freeing Jews to reside elsewhere. In 1850, after French troops defeated
2562-548: A new constitution for the Papal State. It was not enough to quell the revolution and he fled to take refuge in the Kingdom of Naples . In 1849, a Roman Republic was declared. It was crushed by a French army, and Pius returned to Rome on 12 April 1850. On 22 November 1850, Pius IX issued an edict grouping the 19 delegations into four new legations and a district ( circondario , circle or circumscription) around Rome. Each of
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#17327647065352684-585: A new constitution titled the " Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of the States of the Church ". The governmental structure of the Papal States reflected the dual spiritual-secular character of the papacy. The secular or laypersons were strongly in the majority with 6,850 persons versus 300 members of the clergy. Nevertheless, the clergy made key decisions and every job applicant had to present
2806-569: A secular ruler and the monarch of the Papal States , ruling over some 3 million subjects from 1846 to 1870, when the newly founded Kingdom of Italy seized the remaining areas of the Papal States by force of arms. Contention between Italy and the Papacy was only resolved legally by the 1929 Lateran Treaty ( Lateran Pacts or Lateran Accords ) between the Kingdom of Italy under Mussolini and
2928-587: A significant role in European wars for several hundred years: the Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently. During the wars, Portugal had lost its town of Olivenza to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivenza decreed in Article CV of the General Treaty of
3050-589: A treaty on 3 January 1815 , among only the three of them, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition. When the Tsar heard of the treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw as a "Kingdom of Poland" – called Congress Poland , with
3172-417: Is going to Vienna." Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 afrancesados – Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to Joseph Bonaparte , nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain. The most complex topic at
3294-577: The Battle of Waterloo ). Its provisions included: Representatives of Austria, France, Portugal , Prussia, Russia, Sweden-Norway , and Britain signed the Final Act. Spain did not sign, but ratified the outcome in 1817. Subsequently, Ferdinand IV , the Bourbon King of Sicily, regained control of the Kingdom of Naples after Joachim Murat , the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in
3416-573: The Chaumont agreement , but had joined the Treaty of Paris (1814) : Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress. In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding
3538-604: The Duchy of Parma ). The Papal States were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of Genoa . In Southern Italy, Napoleon's brother-in-law, Joachim Murat , was originally allowed to retain his Kingdom of Naples , but his support of Napoleon in the Hundred Days led to the restoration of the Bourbon Ferdinand IV to
3660-492: The Holy See ever accepted this title. Ignaz von Döllinger , a fervent critic of Pius' infallibility dogma, considered the political regime of the pope in the Papal States "wise, well-intentioned, mild-natured, frugal and open for innovations". Yet there was controversy. In the period before the 1848 revolutions , Pius was a most ardent reformer advised by such innovative thinkers as Antonio Rosmini (1797–1855), who reconciled
3782-687: The Holy See , the latter receiving financial compensation for the loss of the Papal States and recognition of the Vatican City State as the sovereign independent territory of the Holy See. Though he was well aware upon his accession of the political pressures within the Papal States , Pius IX's first act was a general amnesty for political prisoners , despite the potential consequences. The freed revolutionaries resumed their previous political activities, and his concessions only provoked greater demands as patriotic Italian groups sought not only
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3904-431: The Hundred Days and started the 1815 Neapolitan War by attacking Austria. The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795 and 1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris , were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw ) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and
4026-527: The Kingdom of Saxony , and the western part of the former Duchy of Warsaw . Austria gained much of northern Italy . Russia added the central and eastern parts of the Duchy of Warsaw. All agreed upon ratifying the creation of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands , which had been created just months before from the former Dutch Seven Provinces together with formerly Austrian territory, and was meant to serve as
4148-554: The Law of Guarantees (13 May 1871) which gave the Pope the use of the Vatican but denied him sovereignty over this territory, nevertheless granting him the right to send and receive ambassadors and a budget of 3.25 million lira annually. Pius IX officially rejected this offer (encyclical Ubi nos , 15 May 1871), since it was a unilateral decision which did not grant the papacy international recognition and could be changed at any time by
4270-505: The Martyrs of Japan (8 June 1862), Josaphat Kuntsevych (29 June 1867), and Nicholas Pieck (29 June 1867). Pius IX further beatified 222 individuals throughout his papacy, including the likes of Benedict Joseph Labre , Peter Claver , and his two predecessors Pope Eugene III and Pope Urban V . Pius IX named three new Doctors of the Church : Hilary of Poitiers (13 May 1851, naming him " Doctor divinitatem Christi " or "Doctor of
4392-703: The Ottoman Empire ) and other stakeholders. The Congress was chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich , and was held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars through negotiation. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to resize
4514-539: The Quirinal Palace inside Rome to the Vatican, where popes have lived ever since. After defeating the Papal army on 18 September 1860 at the Battle of Castelfidardo , and on 30 September at Ancona , Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia took all the Papal territories except Latium with Rome and took the title King of Italy . Rome itself was invaded on 20 September 1870 after a few-hours siege. Italy instituted
4636-541: The Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition , and the Treaty of Kiel that covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia . The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress" should be held in Vienna and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war". The opening was scheduled for July 1814. The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however,
4758-575: The motu proprio "Sull'organizzazione del Consiglio e Senato di Roma e le sue attribuzioni", which extended to Rome the laws applicable in the other municipalities. Rome thus received a council of 100 men: 96 laymen chosen through the census to represent various professions and 4 clergy chosen by the Cardinal Vicar . The Senator was made gonfaloniere (mayor) and presided over an executive body (the magistracy) composed of eight conservators ( conservatori ). The Roman revolution of 1848 interrupted
4880-527: The 20 provinces. After joining the Latin Monetary Union in 1866, the old Roman scudo was replaced by the new Papal lira . Pius IX is credited with systematic efforts to improve manufacturing and trade by giving advantages and papal prizes to domestic producers of wool , silk and other materials destined for export. He improved the transportation system by building roads, viaducts, bridges and seaports . A series of new railway links connected
5002-516: The 20th century, however, historians and politicians looking backward came to praise the Congress as well, because they saw it did prevent another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914) and a significant step in the transition to a new international order in which peace was largely maintained through diplomatic dialogue. Among these is Henry Kissinger , who in 1954 wrote his doctoral dissertation , A World Restored , on it and Paul Schroeder. Historian and jurist Mark Jarrett argues that
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5124-514: The 35-year-old Mastai Ferretti Archbishop of Spoleto in 1827. In 1831, the abortive revolution that had begun in Parma and Modena spread to Spoleto ; the Archbishop obtained a general pardon after it was suppressed, gaining him a reputation for being liberal. During an earthquake, he made a reputation as an efficient organizer of relief and great charity. The following year he was moved to
5246-587: The Austrian Archbishop of Milan, was on his way to the conclave to veto the election of Mastai Ferretti on behalf of the Austrian Empire and Prince Metternich . According to historian Valérie Pirie, Bernetti realized that he had only a few hours in which to stop Lambruschini's election. Faced with a deadlock and urgently persuaded by Bernetti to reject Lambruschini, liberals and moderates decided to cast their votes for Mastai Ferretti, in
5368-621: The Church for a decade after the Franco-Prussian War . Pius IX celebrated several jubilees including the 300th anniversary of the Council of Trent . Pius celebrated the 1,800th anniversary of the martyrdom of the Apostle Peter and Apostle Paul on 29 June 1867 with 512 bishops, 20,000 priests and 140,000 lay persons in Rome. A large gathering was organized in 1871 to commemorate the 25th anniversary of his papacy. Though
5490-712: The Concert of Europe was built on came about through closed-doors dealing among the five Great Powers – Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia and France. The first four of the five dominant peacemakers held sway simply because they brought to the table "negotiating power" that came of hard-won victory in the Napoleonic Wars; France enjoyed her advantageous position largely through the brilliant diplomatic maneuvering by senior statesman Talleyrand . Lesser powers, like Spain, Sweden, and Portugal, were given few opportunities to advocate their interests and only occasionally partook in
5612-529: The Congress was the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would like to become king of Poland. Austria analysed, this could make Russia too powerful, a view which was supported by Britain. The result was a deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations signed
5734-470: The Congress's success. Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand
5856-473: The Divinity of Christ"), Alphonsus Liguori (23 March 1871, naming him " Doctor zelantissimus " or "Most Zealous Doctor"), and Francis de Sales (19 July 1877, naming him " Doctor caritatis " or "Doctor of Charity"). Pius IX was not only pope but, until 1870, also the last sovereign ruler of the Papal States . As a secular ruler he was occasionally referred to as "king", though it is unclear whether
5978-526: The Final Act, which stated that "The Powers, recognizing the justice of the claims of ... Portugal and the Brazils, upon the town of Olivenza, and the other territories ceded to Spain by the Treaty of Badajoz of 1801 ". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted
6100-543: The Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years. Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent some 30 years later . Some authors have suggested that the Congress of Vienna may provide a model for settling multiple interlocking conflicts in Eastern Europe that arose after
6222-670: The German Kingdoms of Hanover (which gained East Frisia from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and Bavaria (which gained the Rhenish Palatinate and territories in Franconia ). The Duchy of Lauenburg was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania . Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played
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#17327647065356344-663: The Ionian Islands . The Congress of Vienna has been criticized by 19th century and more recent historians and politicians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent. It was an integral part in what became known as the Conservative Order , in which democracy and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized. In
6466-545: The Italian government in 1870 outlawed many popular pilgrimages, the faithful of Bologna organized a nationwide "spiritual pilgrimage" to the pope and the tombs of the apostles in 1873. In 1875, Pius declared a Holy Year that was celebrated throughout the Catholic world. On the 50th anniversary of his episcopal consecration, people from all parts of the world came to see the old pontiff from 30 April 1877 to 15 June 1877. He
6588-456: The Papal States and throughout Italy, organized criminal gangs threatened commerce and travelers, engaging in robbery and murder at will. The Papal army in 1859 had 15,000 soldiers. A separate military body, the elite Swiss Guard , served as the Pope's personal bodyguard. The two papal universities in Rome and Bologna suffered much from revolutionary activities in 1848 but their standards in
6710-506: The Papal States to northern Italy. It soon became apparent that the Northern Italians were more adept at economically exploiting the modern means of communication than the inhabitants in central and Southern Italy. The justice system of the Papal States was subject to much criticism, not unlike the justice systems in the rest of Italy. Legal books were scarce, standards inconsistent, and judges were often accused of favoritism. In
6832-446: The Papal States. He also showed himself hostile to Austrian influences, delighting Italian patriots, who hailed him as the coming redeemer of Italy. "They want to make a Napoleon of me who am only a poor country parson", he once declared. In Pius' early years as pope, the government of the Papal States improved agricultural technology and productivity via farmer education in newly created scientific agricultural institutes. It abolished
6954-675: The Pope reorganize the Catholic Church of the new republic – named him auditor to assist the apostolic nuncio , Monsignore Giovanni Muzi, in the first mission to post-revolutionary South America. The mission had the objective to map out the role of the Catholic Church in Chile and its relationship with the state, but when it finally arrived in Santiago in March 1824, O'Higgins had been overthrown and replaced by General Ramón Freire , who
7076-442: The Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivenza and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and, to the present day, this issue remains unresolved. The United Kingdom received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon and the Cape Colony as well as Malta and Heligoland . Under the Treaty of Paris (1814) Article VIII France ceded to Britain
7198-429: The adoption of the dogmatic constitution Pastor aeternus on papal infallibility . Gregory and the Melkite bishops ultimately subscribed to it, but added the qualifying clause used at the Council of Florence : "except the rights and privileges of Eastern patriarchs." This earned Gregory the enmity of Pius IX; during his next visit to the pontiff , before leaving Rome, when Gregory was kneeling, Pius placed his knee on
7320-509: The areas of science, mathematics, philosophy and theology were considered adequate. Pius recognized that much had to be done and instituted a reform commission in 1851. During his tenure, Catholics and Protestants collaborated to found a school in Rome to study international law and train international mediators committed to conflict resolution. There was one newspaper, Giornale di Roma , and one periodical, La Civiltà Cattolica , run by Jesuits . Like most of his predecessors, Pius IX
7442-425: The balance of powers, and respecting spheres of influence and which guided foreign policy among the nations of Europe until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. To reach amiable consensus among the many different nations holding great interest in the settlement proceedings, informal, face-to-face deliberative sessions were held where opinions and proposed solutions could be inventoried. The policy work on which
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#17327647065357564-422: The battle for Italian independence. His later turn toward profound conservatism shocked and dismayed his original supporters, while surprising and delighting the conservative old guard. The conclave of 1846, following the death of Pope Gregory XVI (1831–1846), took place in an unsettled political climate within Italy. The conclave was steeped in a factional division between right and left. The conservatives on
7686-414: The break-up of the Soviet Union. 48°12′31″N 16°21′50″E / 48.2085°N 16.3638°E / 48.2085; 16.3638 Pius IX Pope Pius IX ( Italian : Pio IX , Pio Nono ; born Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti ; 13 May 1792 – 7 February 1878) was head of the Catholic Church from 1846 to 1878. His reign of nearly 32 years is the longest of any pope in history. He
7808-431: The cardinalate, but he died before the consistory took place. In 1866, Pius IX wanted to nominate a Barnabite to the College of Cardinals before he opened the First Vatican Council. While the pope originally decided on appointing Carlo Vercellone , a noted biblical scholar, Vercellone refused due to his precarious health, instead proposing that Pius IX instead nominate Luigi Bilio . In 1868, Pius IX nominated Andre Pila to
7930-430: The cardinalate, however, he died the day before he would have been elevated as the only person for elevation in that April consistory. Also in 1868, Pius IX offered the cardinalate to the Bishop of Concepción José Hipólito Salas whom he had met during the First Vatican Council, inviting him to join the Roman Curia. However, the bishop preferred to live in Chile and declined the offer, while Pius IX did not offer it again in
8052-421: The child legally a Christian convert, and Papal law forbade Christians from being raised by Jews, even their own parents. The incident provoked widespread outrage amongst liberals, both Catholic and non-Catholic, and contributed to the growing anti-papal sentiment in Europe. The boy was raised in the papal household , and was eventually ordained a priest at age 21. Pius IX was the last pope who also functioned as
8174-463: The church sought relief from a friendly government after the anti-clerical actions of Benito Juárez , who had suspended payment on foreign debt and seized ecclesial property. Pius blessed Maximilian and his wife Charlotte of Belgium before they set off for Mexico to begin their reign. But the friction between the Vatican and Mexico would continue with the new emperor when Maximilian insisted on freedom of religion, which Pius opposed. Relations with
8296-409: The convert Henry Edward Manning ; and John McCloskey , the first American cardinal. According to Bishop Cipriano Calderón, the pope intended to make the Bishop of Michoacán , Juan Cayetano Gómez de Portugal y Solís , a cardinal in 1850 and even had Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli send a letter to him to express his intentions. He would have been the first Latin American cardinal had he not died before
8418-498: The countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression" as divided into seven parts: Lombardy–Venetia , Modena , Naples–Sicily , Parma , Piedmont–Sardinia , Tuscany , and the Papal States under the control of different powers. Poland remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created Kingdom of Poland , remaining under Russian control. The arrangements made by
8540-473: The delegate and approved by the Cardinal Prefect of the Sacra Consulta . Rome's council was reduced from 100 to 48. Congress of Vienna The Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte . Participants were representatives of all European powers (other than
8662-430: The diaries of the master of affairs Von Gentz that diplomatic tactics possibly included bribing. He notes that at the Congress he received £22,000 through Talleyrand from Louis XVIII , while Castlereagh gave him £600, accompanied by " les plus folles promesses " ("the wildest promises"); his diary is full of such entries. The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (nine days before
8784-509: The diplomatic congress format marked "the true beginning of our modern era". To his analyses the Congress organisation was deliberate conflict management and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready," Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution." Historian Paul Schroeder argues that
8906-538: The dogma of the Immaculate Conception , articulating a long-held Catholic belief that Mary, the Mother of God, was conceived without original sin . His 1864 Syllabus of Errors was a strong condemnation of liberalism, modernism , moral relativism , secularization , separation of church and state , and other Enlightenment ideas. Pius reaffirmed Catholic teaching in favor of making the Catholic faith
9028-455: The first class. Each delegate or legate was assisted by two assessors appointed by the pope, one for civil law matters and one for penal law matters, and by a locally selected Governmental Congregation ( Congregazione governativa ), the composition of which varied according to the class of the delegation: In each delegation, the administration of justice was devolved on a court of first instance ( tribunale di prima istanza ) for civil matters and
9150-512: The future. In 1875, Pius IX intended to nominate the papal almoner Xavier de Mérode to the Sacred College, however, he died just eight months before the consistory was to be held. Pius IX also decided to nominate Augusto Negroni [ pl ] , a longtime Curial official, but he declined and instead joined the Society of Jesus in mid-1874. Pope Pius IX canonized 52 saints during his pontificate. He canonized notable saints such as
9272-575: The islands of " Tobago and Saint Lucia , and of the Isle of France and its dependencies, especially Rodrigues and Les Seychelles ", and under the Treaty between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands (signed in Paris on 5 November 1815), as one of the treaties signed during the Peace of Paris (1815) , Britain obtained a protectorate over the United States of
9394-524: The king of Denmark-Norway to the king of Sweden . This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Norway on 17 May 1814 and the subsequent personal Union with Sweden . Austria gained Lombardy–Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , the Duchy of Modena , and
9516-471: The legation of the Romagne. In 1859, the Kingdom of Sardinia invaded the Papal State and set up a military government, the United Provinces of Central Italy , that included the Romagne. Following a plebiscite, the Romagne were formally annexed to Sardinia in 1860. Between 1798 and 1800, and again between 1809 and 1814, the Papal State was occupied by French troops and the pope was in exile. After
9638-408: The main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace, being at the same time shepherds for the smaller powers. More generally, conservative leaders like Metternich also sought to restrain or eliminate republican , liberal , and revolutionary movements which, from their point of view, had upended the constitutional order of the European ancien régime . At the negotiation table,
9760-579: The meetings held between the great powers. However, because all representatives were gathered in one city it was relatively easy to communicate, to hear and spread news and gossip, and to present points of view for both powerful and less powerful nations. Also of great importance to the parties convened in Vienna were the opportunities presented at wine and dinner functions to establish formal relationships with one another and build-up diplomatic networks. The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by
9882-551: The mercy of Pius VII, who elevated him and supported his continued theological studies. Mastai was ordained a priest on 10 April 1819. The Pope had originally insisted that another priest should assist Mastai during Holy Mass, but rescinded the stipulation after the seizures became less frequent. He initially worked as the rector of the Tata Giovanni Institute in Rome. Shortly before his death, Pius VII – following Chilean leader Bernardo O'Higgins ' wish to have
10004-570: The more important Congress of Vienna. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades. Other partial settlements had already occurred at
10126-467: The more prestigious Diocese of Imola , was made a cardinal in pectore in 1839, and in 1840 was publicly announced as cardinal-priest of Santi Marcellino e Pietro al Laterano . As in Spoleto, his episcopal priorities were the formation of priests through improved education and charities. He became known for visiting prisoners in jail and for programs for street children. Cardinal Mastai Ferretti
10248-491: The new free-thinking concerning human rights with the classical natural law tradition of the church's political and economic teaching on social justice . After the revolution, however, his political reforms and constitutional improvements were minimal, remaining largely within the framework of the 1850 laws mentioned above. Pius IX's liberal policies initially made him very popular throughout Italy. He appointed an able and enlightened minister, Pellegrino Rossi , to administer
10370-537: The new higher-level legations was entrusted to a cardinal. Pius VII completely reformed the municipal administration. All municipal laws from before or during the Revolution were repealed and municipal government was made uniform across the Papal State. Local governments were divided into those of the first class ("di primo ordine"), which were the larger cities, and those of the second ("di secondo"), which were all other comuni (municipalities). Each municipality
10492-413: The new pope had little diplomatic experience and no curial experience at all. Pius IX was crowned on 21 June 1846. The election of the liberal Pius IX created much enthusiasm in Europe and elsewhere. "For the next twenty months after the election, Pius IX was the most popular man on the Italian peninsula, where the exclamation "Long life to Pius IX!" was often heard. English Protestants celebrated him as
10614-581: The next consistory. According to the Benedictine monk Guy-Marie Oury, a letter addressed by Prosper Guéranger to his Benedictine colleague Léandre Fonteinne on 6 March 1856 indicated that Guéranger had learned that Pius IX wanted to name him a cardinal in November 1855, but he refused the honor because he did not want to live in Rome. As a result, Pius IX made the Bishop of La Rochelle Clément Villecourt
10736-507: The northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Austria. Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the Treaty of Kiel , Norway had been ceded by
10858-535: The number of delegations to 19 the following year with his motu proprio "Luminose prove" of 1 February 1832. The new delegation, based on Velletri and carved out of that of Frosinone, was granted to the Dean of the College of Cardinals and thus constituted a new legation. Although boundaries would change, subsequent reforms would retain a legate at Velletri. In 1848, Pius IX , facing revolution in Rome , promulgated
10980-416: The old formulae for " balance of power " were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe , which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as
11102-554: The parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s . Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony, much of which became part of the new Province of Saxony from 1816 (the now-Prussian parts of Lower Lusatia and some other areas instead became part of the Province of Brandenburg , with Prussian Upper Lusatia becoming part of the Province of Silesia by 1825); the remainder of Saxony returned to King Frederick Augustus I as his Kingdom of Saxony . It can be learned from
11224-667: The patriarch's shoulder, just saying to him: Testa dura! ( You headstrong! ). In spite of this event, Gregory and the Melkite Greek Catholic Church remained committed to their union with the Holy See. The ecclesiastical policies of Pius IX were dominated by defence of the rights of the church and the free exercise of religion for Catholics in countries such as Russia and the Ottoman Empire . He also fought against what he perceived to be anti-Catholic philosophies in countries such as Italy , Germany , and France . The German Empire sought to restrict and weaken
11346-468: The position of France was weak in relation to that of Britain , Prussia , Austria , and Russia , partly due to the military strategy of its leader, Napoleon Bonaparte , over the previous two decades, and his recent defeat. In the settlement the parties did reach, France had to give up all recent conquests, while the other three main powers made major territorial gains around the world. Prussia added territory from smaller states: Swedish Pomerania , most of
11468-627: The procedure we have adopted and soundly [be]rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget." The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador. Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain. Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately,
11590-477: The reforming process that had begun with Rome the previous year, but in an edict of 24 November 1850, in implementation of Pius IX's motu prioprio of 12 September 1849, Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli defined the new competences of the council and magistracy. The councils would now: The magistracy would now: The municipalities were divided into five classes based on population, which determined how many councilors they would get: The councilors were to be selected by
11712-583: The republic later that year, Pius appointed a conservative government of three cardinals known as the Red Triumvirate to administer the Papal States until his return to Rome in April 1850. He visited the hospitals to comfort the wounded and sick, but he seemed to have lost both his liberal tastes and his confidence in the Romans, who had turned against him in 1848. Pius decided to move his residence from
11834-526: The requirements for Jews to attend Christian services and sermons and opened the papal charities to the needy amongst them. The new pope freed all political prisoners by giving amnesty to revolutionaries, which horrified the conservative monarchies in the Austrian Empire and elsewhere. "He was celebrated in New York City , London and Berlin as a model ruler." In 1848, Pius IX released
11956-428: The restoration of the Papal State by the Congress of Vienna, Pius VII set about reforming its administration, assisted by Cardinal Secretary of State Ercole Consalvi . The result was the motu prioprio of 6 July 1816 "on the organization of public administration". The existing 12 provinces were abandoned in favour of 17 delegations, although Rome and its hinterland formed a separate comarca . The new administration
12078-568: The revolutionary Roman Republic and returned him from exile, the Pope reversed the Republic's religious freedom laws and issued a series of anti-liberal measures, including re-instituting the Jewish ghetto. In a highly publicized case from 1858, the police of the Papal States seized a 6-year-old Jewish boy, Edgardo Mortara , from his parents. A Christian servant girl unrelated to the family claimed she had informally baptized him during an illness six years prior, fearing he would die. This had made
12200-461: The right favoured the hardline stances and papal absolutism of the previous pontificate, while liberals supported moderate reforms. The conservatives supported Luigi Lambruschini , the late pope's Cardinal Secretary of State . Liberals supported two candidates: Tommaso Pasquale Gizzi and the then 54-year-old Mastai Ferretti. During the first ballot, Mastai Ferretti received 15 votes, the rest going to Lambruschini and Gizzi. Lambruschini received
12322-412: The secular parliament. Pius IX refused to recognize the new Italian kingdom, which he denounced as an illegitimate creation of revolution. He excommunicated the nation's leaders, including King Victor Emmanuel II, whom he denounced as "forgetful of every religious principle, despising every right, trampling upon every law," whose reign over Italy was therefore "a sacrilegious usurpation." In response to
12444-517: The short-lived Roman Republic . After its suppression by the French army and his return in 1850, his policies and doctrinal pronouncements became increasingly conservative. He was responsible for the kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara , a six-year-old taken by force from his Jewish family who went on to become a Catholic priest in his own right and unsuccessfully attempted to convert his Jewish parents. In his 1849 encyclical Ubi primum , he emphasized Mary's role in salvation. In 1854, he promulgated
12566-421: The state religion where possible. His appeal for financial support revived global donations known as Peter's Pence . He strengthened the central power of the Holy See and Roman Curia over the worldwide Catholic Church, while also formalizing the pope's ultimate doctrinal authority (the dogma of papal infallibility defined in 1870). Pope John Paul II beatified him in 2000. Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti
12688-528: The throne. A large United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed for the Prince of Orange , including both the old United Provinces and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands, which gave way to the formation of a democratic state, formally headed by a constitutional monarch . Other, less important, territorial adjustments included significant territorial gains for
12810-457: The tsar as a king ruling it independently of Russia. However, the majority of Greater Poland and Kuyavia , as well as the Chełmno Land , were given to Prussia and mostly included within the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen ( Poznań ), while Kraków became a free city as a shared protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia. Furthermore, the tsar was forbidden from uniting his new realm with
12932-594: The upheavals faced by the Papal States during the 1848 revolutions, the Mexican government offered Pope Pius IX asylum, which the pope responded to by considering the creation of a Mexican cardinal and granting an award to President José Joaquín de Herrera . With French Emperor Napoleon III 's military intervention in Mexico and establishment of the Second Mexican Empire under Maximilian I in 1864,
13054-511: The young Count Mastai was engaged to the daughter of the (Protestant) Church of Ireland Bishop of Kilmore , William Foster . Certainly, if there was ever any such engagement, it did not proceed. In 1814, as a theology student in his hometown of Sinigaglia, he met Pope Pius VII , who had returned from French captivity. In 1815, he entered the Papal Noble Guard but was soon dismissed after an epileptic seizure. He threw himself on
13176-476: Was a bit shy, but he valued initiative within the church and created several new titles, rewards, and orders to elevate those who in his view deserved merit. Pius IX created 122 new cardinals, of whom 64 were alive at his death; at the time membership in the College of Cardinals was limited to 70. Noteworthy elevations included Vincenzo Pecci (his eventual successor Leo XIII ); Nicholas Wiseman of Westminster;
13298-582: Was a patron of the arts. He supported architecture, painting, sculpture, music, goldsmiths , coppersmiths , and more, and handed out numerous rewards to artists. Much of his efforts went to renovate and improve churches in Rome and the Papal States. He ordered the strengthening of the Colosseum , which was feared to be on the verge of collapse. Huge sums were spent in the excavation of the Christian Catacombs of Rome , for which Pius created
13420-646: Was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it, once again abandoning his allies. The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on the protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquess of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on 30 September 1814. Congress Secretary Friedrich von Gentz reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against
13542-610: Was born on 13 May 1792 in Senigallia . He was the ninth child born into the noble family of Girolamo dei Conti Ferretti (1750–1833) and Caterina Antonia Maddalena Solazzei di Fano (1764–1842). He was baptized on the day of his birth with the names Giovanni Maria Battista Pietro Pellegrino Isidoro. He was educated at the Piarist College in Volterra and in Rome. An unreliable account published many years later suggests that
13664-492: Was considered a liberal during his episcopate in Spoleto and Imola because he supported administrative changes in the Papal States and sympathized with the nationalist movement in Italy. Cardinal Mastai Ferretti entered the papacy in 1846, amidst widespread expectations that he would be a champion of reform and modernization in the Papal States, which he ruled directly, and in the entire Catholic Church. Admirers wanted him to lead
13786-607: Was considered a milestone not only in his pontificate but also in ecclesiastical history through its defining of the dogma of papal infallibility . After the First Vatican Council concluded, an emissary of the Roman Curia was dispatched to secure the signatures of Patriarch Gregory II Youssef and the rest of the Melkite delegation who had voted non placet at the general congregation and left Rome prior to
13908-502: Was given, just the signal of white smoke. On the following morning, the Cardinal protodeacon , Tommaso Riario Sforza , announced the election of Mastai Ferretti before a crowd of faithful Catholics. When Mastai Ferretti appeared on the balcony, the mood became joyous. Mastai Ferretti chose the name of Pius IX in honour of Pope Pius VII (1800–1823), who had encouraged his vocation to the priesthood despite his childhood epilepsy. However,
14030-633: Was governed by a mayor called a governor ( governatore ) appointed by the pope through the secretary of state. Governors of the first class were appointed by papal brief , while those of the second class merely by letters patent . Governors were not necessarily ecclesiastics, and they had to be neither native to nor resident in their municipalities. They were under the authority of the apostolic delegates. The governors held judicial authority in cases involving less than 100 scudi , in property disputes and in some other cases. They were charged with policing fairs and festivals. Pius VII introduced into each comune
14152-505: Was its own province, called Sabina, and Urbino e Pesaro was synonymous with the province called Urbino. Rome was joined with Frosinone to form the province of Marittima e Campagna. Viterbo and Civitavecchia were joined to form the province of Patrimonio; Perugia and Spoleto the province of Umbria; Ancona, Ascoli, Fermo and Macerata the province of the Marche; and Forlì and Ravenna the province of Romagna. Leo XII , successor of Pius VII, issued
14274-590: Was less well-disposed toward the Church and had already taken hostile measures such as the seizure of Church property. Having ended in failure, the mission returned to Europe. Nevertheless, Mastai had been the first future pope ever to have been in the Americas. Upon his return to Rome, the successor of Pius VII, Pope Leo XII , appointed him head of the hospital of San Michele a Ripa in Rome (1825–1827) and canon of Santa Maria in Via Lata . Pope Leo XII appointed
14396-413: Was modelled on that introduced by the French. The new delegations were grouped into three classes. At the head of each delegation was a delegate ( delegato ) who was appointed by the pope through an act of the secretary of state and who was invariably a prelate . Only in case the prelate was a cardinal did he assume the title of legate ( legato ), and cardinals could only be appointed to the delegations of
14518-542: Was notable for convoking the First Vatican Council in 1868 and for permanently losing control of the Papal States in 1870 to the Kingdom of Italy . Thereafter, he refused to leave Vatican City , declaring himself a " prisoner in the Vatican ". At the time of his election, some considered him liberal, but no longer after the Revolutions of 1848 . Upon the assassination of his prime minister , Pellegrino Rossi , Pius fled Rome and excommunicated all participants in
14640-420: Was signed nine days before Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Some historians have criticised the outcomes of the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of national, democratic, and liberal movements, and it has been seen as a reactionary settlement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. Others have praised the Congress for protecting Europe from large and widespread wars for almost
14762-439: Was the end of the Papal States , which lay in the middle of the "Italian boot" around the central area of Rome . In contrast, he led the worldwide Church toward an ever-increasing centralization and consolidation of power in Rome and the papacy. More than his predecessors, Pius used the papal pulpit to address the bishops of the world. The First Vatican Council (1869–1870), which he convened to consolidate papal authority further,
14884-402: Was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives and other stakeholders came together in one city at the same time to discuss and formulate the conditions and provisions of treaties. Before the Congress of Vienna the common method of diplomacy involved the exchange of notes sent back and forth among the several capitals and separate talks in different places,
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