The Niçard Vespers ( Italian : Vespri nizzardi [ˈvɛspri nitˈtsardi] ; French : Vêpres niçoises ) were three days of popular uprising of the inhabitants of Nice , in 1871, in support of the union of the County of Nice with the Kingdom of Italy .
131-727: After the Treaty of Turin was signed in 1860 between the Victor Emmanuel II and Napoleon III as a consequence of the Plombières Agreement , the county of Nice was ceded to France as a territorial reward for French assistance in the Second Italian War of Independence against Austria , which saw Lombardy united with the Kingdom of Sardinia . King Victor-Emmanuel II, on 1 April 1860, solemnly asked
262-632: A Constitution, which influenced the development of a similar movement in Italy. Inspired by the Spaniards, a regiment in the army of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies , commanded by Guglielmo Pepe , a Carbonaro (member of the secret republican organization), mutinied, conquering the peninsular part of Two Sicilies. The king, Ferdinand I , agreed to enact a new constitution. The revolutionaries, although, failed to court popular support and fell to Austrian troops of
393-574: A Piedmontese priest, had suggested a confederation of Italian states under the leadership of the pope in his 1842 book Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians . Pope Pius IX at first appeared interested but he turned reactionary and led the battle against liberalism and nationalism. Giuseppe Mazzini and Carlo Cattaneo wanted the unification of Italy under a federal republic , which proved too extreme for most nationalists. The middle position
524-746: A constitution to the Papal States, which was both unexpected and surprising considering the historical recalcitrance of the Papacy. On 23 February 1848, King Louis Philippe of France was forced to flee Paris , and the Second French Republic was proclaimed. By the time the revolution in Paris occurred, three states of Italy had constitutions—four if one considers Sicily to be a separate state. Meanwhile, in Lombardy, tensions increased until
655-440: A flag with the inscription INRI which meant "The Niçards will return Italians". While the crowd continued to shout: "Down with France! Long live Italy!", the gendarmes arrived and were unable to disperse it. The crowd shouting "Long live Italy" and "Long live Garibaldi" also tried to storm the prefecture whose windows were broken with stone throwing. Many arrests were made that same evening and the following morning. The publication of
786-461: A form of duty-free zone north of a line defined by Saint-Genix-sur-Guiers , Le Châtelard , Faverges and Ugine . The effect of that provision was that Savoy's northern frontier posts, now to become a part of the French frontier, would be located a significant distance away from the actual frontier with Switzerland. The Treaty of Turin restated the political neutrality of the strip of Savoy north of
917-598: A movement that closely resembled Freemasonry but with a commitment to Italian nationalism and no association with Napoleon and his government. The response came from middle-class professionals and businessmen and some intellectuals. The Carbonari disowned Napoleon but nevertheless were inspired by the principles of the French Revolution regarding liberty, equality and fraternity. They developed their own rituals and were strongly anticlerical. The Carbonari movement spread across Italy. Conservative governments feared
1048-534: A new political society called La Giovine Italia (Young Italy) , whose mottos were " Dio e Popolo " ('God and People') and " Unione, Forza e Libertà " ('Union, Strength and Freedom"), which sought the unification of Italy. Garibaldi, a native of Nice (then part of Piedmont ), participated in an uprising in Piedmont in 1834 and was sentenced to death. He escaped to South America, although, spending fourteen years in exile, taking part in several wars, and learning
1179-579: A political leader who would unite Italy "to free her from the barbarians ". The Italian Wars saw 65 years of French attacks on some of the Italian states, starting with Charles VIII's invasion of Naples in 1494. However, the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559) saw parts of Italy fall under the direct or indirect control of the Spanish Habsburgs . The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 formally ended
1310-826: A political rally held in the Apollo Theater, a young Roman priest, the Abbé Carlo Arduini , had made a speech in which he had declared that the Temporal power of the Holy See was a "historical lie, a political imposture, and a religious immorality". In early March 1849, Giuseppe Mazzini arrived in Rome and was appointed Chief Minister. In the Constitution of the Roman Republic, religious freedom
1441-475: A proclamation, of which the following is the most important portion: "CITIZENS, All uncertainty with reference to our future has ceased. By the Treaty of the 24th of March, the gallant King Victor Emmanuel has ceded to France Savoy and the arrondissement of Nice. The most powerful motives of political necessity, the exigencies of the future of Italy, the sentiment of gratitude toward his powerful ally, and, finally,
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#17327649681191572-589: A quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy was known as the Niçard exodus . The French government implemented a policy of Francization of society, language and culture. The toponyms of the communes of the ancient County were francized, with the obligation to use French in Nice, as well as certain surnames (for example the Italian surname "Bianchi" was francized into "Leblanc", and the Italian surname "Del Ponte"
1703-404: A reformer, but conflicts with the revolutionaries soured him on the idea of constitutional government. In November 1848, following the assassination of his Minister Pellegrino Rossi , Pius IX fled just before Giuseppe Garibaldi and other patriots arrived in Rome. In early 1849, elections were held for a Constituent Assembly, which proclaimed a Roman Republic on 9 February. On 2 February 1849, at
1834-554: A series of client republics were set up. In 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by the last Roman-German Emperor , Francis II , after its defeat by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz . French rule destroyed the old structures of feudalism in Italy and introduced modern ideas and efficient legal authority; it provided much of the intellectual force and social capital that fueled unification movements for decades after
1965-408: A short fight, the whole band was taken prisoner and escorted to Cosenza, where a number of Calabrians who had taken part in a previous rising were also under arrest. The Bandiera brothers and their nine companions were executed by firing squad; some accounts state they cried " Viva l'Italia! " ('Long live Italy!') as they fell. The moral effect was enormous throughout Italy, the action of the authorities
2096-399: A transfer to another power." In the short time that allowed of effort, thirteen thousand signatures were obtained to a protest against annexation. In view of these inconvenient facts, it was determined to postpone a ratification by Parliament until a popular vote, unanimous or nearly unanimous, had been secured. It seems to have been of no consequence that the treaty, according to which the vote
2227-625: A treaty to that effect, and have named as their Plenipotentiaries: His Majesty the Emperor of the French, Baron de Talleyrand Périgord [...] and M. Benedetti [...]; and His Majesty the King of Sardinia, his Excellency Count Camille Benso de Cavour [...], and his Excellency the Chevalier Charles Louis Farini [...] who, having exchanged their full powers in due form, have agreed upon the following articles:– Art. 1. His Majesty
2358-506: A willingness to give the French whatever they wanted in return for essential military intervention. As a result of this France received Nice and Savoy in 1860. Secondly, the patriots realized that the pope was an enemy, and could never be the leader of a united Italy. Thirdly, they realized that republicanism was too weak a force. Unification had to be based on a strong monarchy, and in practice that meant reliance on Piedmont (the Kingdom of Sardinia ) under King Victor Emmanuel II (1820–1878) of
2489-425: Is devoted to Piedmont, or having a Swiss leaning, will be altogether out of place on such an occasion. We learn with pleasure that a great purgation has already taken place in the province of Chambéry , of mayors, either hostile or suspected. We ask all sincere friends of France to keep a sharp look-out upon their communal administration. We do not doubt that the governor of the province of Annecy will be ready, if such
2620-405: Is the case, to make use of the full powers with which he is clothed, to replace in each commune all the mayors who will not loyally co-operate in the great cause of our national regeneration." The military and civil machinery thus in order, the authorities now devoted themselves to the more immediate work of manufacturing the requisite majority. First of all, the public was informed not only that it
2751-599: Is the view presented at the Central Museum of the Risorgimento at Altare della Patria in Rome. Italy was unified by the Roman Republic in the latter part of the third century BC. For 700 years, it was a de facto territorial extension of the capital of the Roman Republic and Empire , and for a long time experienced a privileged status but was not converted into a province . Under Augustus ,
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#17327649681192882-623: Is to be found an explanation of the willingness of the Sardinian government to part with so considerable a portion of its territory. Reasons enough existed why the king and emperor were equally anxious that the people should vote for annexation. The fifth article of the Sardinian Constitution provided that treaties which should make any alteration in the territories of the State should not take effect until after they have obtained
3013-574: The County of Nice were annexed to France, ending the centuries-old Italian rule of the region. Emperor Napoleon III of France and the Count of Cavour , Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia , met in secret at Plombières-les-Bains on 21 July 1858. They agreed that France would support the unification of Italy by Sardinia, provided that the Pope should retain control of Rome . In return Sardinia
3144-810: The First French Empire collapsed in 1814. The French Republic spread republican principles, and the institutions of republican governments promoted citizenship over the rule of the Bourbons and Habsburgs and other dynasties. The reaction against any outside control challenged Napoleon Bonaparte 's choice of rulers. As Napoleon's reign began to fail, the rulers he had installed tried to keep their thrones (among them Eugène de Beauharnais , Viceroy of Italy , and Joachim Murat , King of Naples ) further feeding nationalistic sentiments. Beauharnais tried to get Austrian approval for his succession to Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy, and on 30 March 1815, Murat issued
3275-516: The Frankish Empire , the title of King of Italy merged with the office of Holy Roman Emperor ; however, the emperor was an absentee German -speaking foreigner who had little interest in governing Italy and indeed never controlled the entire peninsula. As a result, Italy gradually developed into a system of city-states . Southern Italy was governed by the long-lasting Kingdom of Sicily or Kingdom of Naples , which had been established by
3406-614: The Holy Alliance . Di Santarosa's troops were defeated, and the would-be Piedmontese revolutionary fled to Paris . In Milan , Silvio Pellico and Pietro Maroncelli organized several attempts to weaken the hold of the Austrian despotism by indirect educational means. In October 1820, Pellico and Maroncelli were arrested on the charge of carbonarism and imprisoned. Denis Mack Smith argues: Few people in 1830 believed that an Italian nation might exist. There were eight states in
3537-569: The Holy Alliance . Ferdinand abolished the constitution and began systematically persecuting known revolutionaries. Many supporters of revolution in Sicily , including the scholar Michele Amari , were forced into exile during the decades that followed. The leader of the 1821 revolutionary movement in Piedmont was Santorre di Santarosa , who wanted to remove the Austrians and unify Italy under
3668-559: The House of Savoy . Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour (1810–1861) provided critical leadership. He was a modernizer interested in agrarian improvements, banks, railways and free trade. He opened a newspaper as soon as censorship allowed it: Il Risorgimento called for the independence of Italy, a league of Italian princes, and moderate reforms. He had the ear of the king and in 1852 became prime minister. He ran an efficient active government, promoting rapid economic modernization while upgrading
3799-551: The House of Savoy . The Piedmont revolt started in Alessandria , where troops adopted the green, white, and red tricolore of the Cisalpine Republic . King Victor Emmanuel I abdicated in response, and the regent for the new king, Prince Charles Albert , approved a new constitution to appease the revolutionaries, but when King Charles Felix returned he disavowed the constitution and requested assistance from
3930-571: The Kingdom of Sardinia and a suitably crafted plebiscite (restricted to adult males, following the pattern already established in France by Napoleon III) was held in Nice on 15 and 16 April and in Savoy on 22 and 23 April to provide popular endorsement of the treaty. To deflect anticipated resistance from the north of Savoy, where the Swiss solution had its strongest appeal, the creation was confirmed of
4061-554: The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies . His small force landed on the island of Ponza . It overpowered guards and liberated hundreds of prisoners. In sharp contrast to his hypothetical expectations, there was no local uprising and the invaders were quickly overpowered. Pisacane was killed by angry locals who suspected he was leading a Romani band trying to steal their food. The Second War of Italian Independence began in April 1859 when
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4192-523: The Niçard exodus , or the emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy, and the Niçard Vespers . By the treaty of 24 March 1860, it was agreed between France and Sardinia that Savoy and Nice, after the population had been consulted, should be ceded to France, and that Tuscany and the Romagna should also, after a similar consultation, be annexed to Sardinia. By the terms of the treaty
4323-604: The Republic of San Marco was proclaimed under Daniele Manin . While Radetzky consolidated control of Lombardy–Venetia and Charles Albert licked his wounds, matters took a more serious turn in other parts of Italy. The monarchs who had reluctantly agreed to constitutions in March came into conflict with their constitutional ministers. At first, the republics had the upper hand, forcing the monarchs to flee their capitals, including Pope Pius IX. Initially, Pius IX had been something of
4454-760: The Rimini Proclamation , which called on Italians to revolt against their Austrian occupiers. During the Napoleonic era , in 1797, the first official adoption of the Italian tricolour as a national flag by a sovereign Italian state, the Cispadane Republic , a Napoleonic sister republic of Revolutionary France , took place, on the basis of the events following the French Revolution (1789–1799) which, among its ideals, advocated
4585-518: The anniversary of the unification on 17 March (the date of proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy ). Some of the states that had been envisaged as part of the unification process ( terre irredente ) did not join the Kingdom until after Italy defeated Austria-Hungary in World War I , culminating in the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920. Some historians see the Risorgimento as continuing to that time, which
4716-551: The capture of Rome and its designation as the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. Individuals who played a major part in the struggle for unification and liberation from foreign domination included King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy , Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour , Giuseppe Garibaldi , and Giuseppe Mazzini . Borrowing from the old Latin title Pater Patriae of the Roman emperors , the Italians gave to King Victor Emmanuel II
4847-663: The Austrian troops. Menotti was executed, and the idea of a revolution centred in Modena faded. At the same time, other insurrections arose in the Papal Legations of Bologna , Ferrara , Ravenna , Forlì , Ancona and Perugia . These successful revolutions, which adopted the tricolore in place of the Papal flag , quickly spread to cover all the Papal Legations, and their newly installed local governments proclaimed
4978-547: The Austrians besieged Venice, which was defended by a volunteer army led by Daniele Manin and Guglielmo Pepe , who were forced to surrender on 24 August. Pro-independence fighters were hanged en masse in Belfiore , while the Austrians moved to restore order in central Italy, restoring the princes who had been expelled and re-establishing Papal control over the Legations. The revolutions were thus completely crushed. Morale
5109-528: The Austrians ten days later. There remained the Roman and Venetian Republics. In April, a French force under Charles Oudinot was sent to Rome. Apparently, the French first wished to mediate between the pope and his subjects, but soon the French were determined to restore the pope. After a two-month siege, Rome capitulated on 29 June 1849 and the pope was restored. Garibaldi and Mazzini once again fled into exile—in 1850 Garibaldi went to New York City . Meanwhile,
5240-518: The Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with its 8 million inhabitants, seemed aloof and indifferent: Sicily and Naples had once been ruled by Spain, and it had always been foreign to the rest of Italy. The common people in each region, and even the intellectual elite, spoke their mutually unintelligible dialects, and lacked the least vestiges of national consciousness. They wanted good government, not self-government, and had welcomed Napoleon and
5371-571: The Carbonari, imposing stiff penalties on men discovered to be members. Nevertheless, the movement survived and continued to be a source of political turmoil in Italy from 1820 until after unification. The Carbonari condemned Napoleon III (who, as a young man, had fought on their side) to death for failing to unite Italy, and the group almost succeeded in assassinating him in 1858, when Felice Orsini , Giovanni Andrea Pieri , Carlo Di Rudio and Andrea Gomez threw three bombs at him. Many leaders of
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5502-570: The Committee used these words: "We are convinced that the imperial government will recompense the people for the unanimity of their vote, and will proportion the reward according to the good disposition manifested by them. Without enumerating here the immense and incontestable advantages of every kind which our country would derive from its annexation to the great French Empire, we consider it our duty to address ourselves to all our friends and correspondents, not only to stimulate their zeal in favor of
5633-428: The Emperor of the French and of the King of Sardinia shall concert together as soon as possible on the best means of appreciating and taking note of ( constater ) the manifestations of those wishes. Art. 2. It is also understood that His Majesty the King of Sardinia cannot transfer the neutralized portions of Savoy except upon the conditions upon which he himself possesses them, and that it will appertain to His Majesty
5764-598: The Emperor of the French to come to an understanding on that subject as well with the Powers represented at the Congress of Vienna as with the Helvetic Confederation, and to give them the guarantees which result from the stipulations alluded to in the present article. Art. 3. A mixed commission will determine, in a spirit off equity, the frontiers of the two States, taking into account the configuration of
5895-566: The French as more equitable and efficient than their native dynasties, many of which had died out in the 18th century. After 1830, revolutionary sentiment in favour of a unified Italy began to experience a resurgence, and a series of insurrections laid the groundwork for the creation of one nation along the Italian peninsula. The Duke of Modena , Francis IV , was an ambitious man, and he hoped to become king of northern Italy by increasing his territory. In 1826, Francis made it clear that he would not act against those who subverted opposition toward
6026-536: The French flags was calculated to work an immense effect upon the ignorant and somewhat superstitious population. The authorization ran in this way: Italian unification Timeline The unification of Italy ( Italian : Unità d'Italia , Italian: [uniˈta ddiˈtaːlja] ), also known as the Risorgimento ( / r ɪ ˌ s ɔːr dʒ ɪ ˈ m ɛ n t oʊ / , Italian: [risordʒiˈmento] ; lit. ' Resurgence ' ),
6157-519: The King of Sardinia (who ruled Piedmont and Savoy ), urged by the Venetians and Milanese to aid their cause, decided this was the moment to unify Italy and declared war on Austria ( First Italian Independence War ). After initial successes at Goito and Peschiera , he was decisively defeated by Radetzky at the Battle of Custoza on 24 July. An armistice was agreed to, and Radetzky regained control of all of Lombardy–Venetia save Venice itself, where
6288-474: The King of Sardinia consents to the annexation ( réunion ) of Savoy and of the arrondissement of Nice ( circondario di Nizza ) to France, and renounces for himself and all his descendants and successors his rights and claims to the said territories. It is agreed between their Majesties that this réunion shall be effected without any constraint upon the wishes of the populations, and that the Governments of
6419-621: The Milanese and Venetians rose in revolt on 18 March 1848. The insurrection in Milan succeeded in expelling the Austrian garrison after five days of street fights—18–22 March ( Cinque giornate di Milano ). An Austrian army under Marshal Josef Radetzky besieged Milan, but due to the defection of many of his troops and the support of the Milanese for the revolt, they were forced to retreat to the Quadrilatero fortresses. Soon, Charles Albert ,
6550-554: The Napoleonic Italian Republic (1802–1805) and consistent supporter of the Italian unification ideals that would lead to the Italian Risorgimento shortly after his death. Meanwhile, artistic and literary sentiment also turned towards nationalism; Vittorio Alfieri , Francesco Lomonaco and Niccolò Tommaseo are generally considered three great literary precursors of Italian nationalism , but
6681-708: The Normans. Central Italy was governed by the pope as a temporal kingdom known as the Papal States . This situation persisted through the Renaissance but began to deteriorate with the rise of modern nation-states in the early modern period . Italy, including the Papal States, then became the site of proxy wars between the major powers, notably the Holy Roman Empire (including Austria ), Spain , and France . Harbingers of national unity appeared in
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#17327649681196812-440: The Sardinian Government, which, however, engages to terminate itself the works commenced for cutting a tunnel through the Alps (Mont Cénia). Art. 5. The French Government will take into account, as regards functionaries of the civil and military order belonging by their birth to the province of Savoy, or to the arrondissement of Nice, and who will become French subjects, the rights which they have acquired by services rendered to
6943-403: The Sardinian Government; they will especially enjoy the benefits of life appointments in the magistrature and of the guarantees assured to the army. Art. 6. Sardinian subjects originally of Savoy, or of the arrondissement of Nice, or domiciled actually in those provinces, who would wish to maintain the Sardinian nationality, will enjoy during the period of one year, dating from the exchange of
7074-425: The Sardinian Prime Minister Count Cavour found an ally in Napoleon III . Napoleon III signed a secret alliance and Cavour provoked Austria with military maneuvers and eventually led to the war in April 1859. Cavour called for volunteers to enlist in the Italian liberation. The Austrians planned to use their army to beat the Sardinians before the French could come to their aid. Austria had an army of 140,000 men, while
7205-401: The Sardinians had a mere 70,000 men by comparison. However, the Austrians' numerical strength was outweighed by an ineffectual leadership appointed by the Emperor on the basis of noble lineage, rather than military competency. Their army was slow to enter Piedmont, taking almost ten days to travel the 80 kilometres (50 mi) to Turin . By this time, the French had reinforced the Sardinians, so
7336-399: The administration of the army and the financial and legal systems. He sought out support from patriots across Italy. In 1855, the kingdom became an ally of Britain and France in the Crimean War , which gave Cavour's diplomacy legitimacy in the eyes of the great powers. In 1857, Carlo Pisacane , an aristocrat from Naples who had embraced Mazzini's ideas, decided to provoke a rising in
7467-420: The annexation of these respective territories was made no less advantageous to Victor Emmanuel than to Napoleon. With Austria vindictive and powerful, and in a threatening strategic position; with the pope outraged and desperate, and in control of an army which attached to itself a large share of the fanaticism of Europe, there was no hope for struggling Italy but in a firmer alliance with France. In this fact alone
7598-516: The arbitrariness of French power . The Italian separatists took risks in the squares and streets of Nice to assert their ideas, taking many risks in the riots and challenging the authorities. [...] After the Niçard Vespers of 1871, the irredentists who supported the Italian unification were expelled from Nice, completing the Niçard exodus. The most illustrious was Luciano Mereu, who was expelled from Nice with three other renowned Garibaldini from Nice: Adriano Gilli, Carlo Perino, and Alberto Cougnet. Even
7729-636: The art of guerrilla warfare before his return to Italy in 1848. Many of the key intellectual and political leaders operated from exile; most Risorgimento patriots lived and published their work abroad after successive failed revolutions. Exile became a central theme of the foundational legacy of the Risorgimento as the narrative of the Italian nation fighting for independence. The exiles were deeply immersed in European ideas, and often hammered away at what Europeans saw as Italian vices, especially effeminacy and indolence. These negative stereotypes emerged from Enlightenment notions of national character that stressed
7860-401: The author of the lyrics, or Fratelli d'Italia , from its opening line . On 5 January 1848, the revolutionary disturbances began with a civil disobedience strike in Lombardy , as citizens stopped smoking cigars and playing the lottery , which denied Austria the associated tax revenue. Shortly after this, revolts began on the island of Sicily and in Naples . In Sicily the revolt resulted in
7991-405: The closure of all the newspapers in Italian (such as the renowned La Voce di Nizza ) and with the complete Frenchization of the toponyms of the County of Nice. Treaty of Turin (1860) The Treaty of Turin ( Italian : Trattato di Torino ; French : Traité de Turin ) concluded between France and Piedmont-Sardinia on 24 March 1860 is the instrument by which the Duchy of Savoy and
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#17327649681198122-411: The common cause, and to engage them to use all their influence in order to insure the success of the vote in the French interest, but also that they may carefully watch and point out to us the steps that have been taken in a contrary interest by those in opposition, in order that the necessary measures may be taken to neutralize the influences which are hostile to the interests of the country. Will you have
8253-426: The consent of the Chamber . In view of this provision, it was manifestly the duty of the government to submit the treaty to the Chamber for ratification before the popular vote should be taken, inasmuch as it was only by virtue of the treaty that the people would be entitled to vote at all. But there were dangers in this method of procedure which the Sardinian government did not fail to foresee. The project of annexation
8384-537: The county of Nice, and 86% in Nice, partly due to pressure from the authorities. This was the result of a masterful operation of information control by the French and Piedmontese governments, in order to influence the outcome of the vote in relation to the decisions already taken. The irregularities in the referendum voting operations were evident. The case of Levens is emblematic: the same official sources recorded, faced with only 407 voters, 481 votes cast, naturally almost all in favor of joining France. The Italian language
8515-401: The creation of a united Italian nation. The revolts in Modena and the Papal Legations inspired similar activity in the Duchy of Parma , where the tricolore flag was adopted. The Parmese duchess Marie Louise left the city during the political upheaval. Insurrection provinces planned to unite as the Italian United Provinces , which prompted Pope Gregory XVI to ask for Austrian help against
8646-409: The duty-free zone with Switzerland. A similar public vote of support for French annexation had been achieved by plebiscite one week earlier in the County of Nice. Logically, it should have been necessary for the outcome of the plebiscite to be known before the treaty could be signed off by the respective monarchs. The fact that the treaty was actually signed off a month before the plebiscite took place,
8777-419: The efforts of the Italian people towards freedom and independence. The Italian tricolour waved for the first time in the history of the Risorgimento on 11 March 1821 in the Cittadella of Alessandria , during the revolutions of 1820s , after the oblivion caused by the restoration of the absolutist monarchical regimes. An important figure of this period was Francesco Melzi d'Eril , serving as vice-president of
8908-501: The electoral lists, while there were enrolled many French specially transferred, and the operations took place under the control of the French authorities and with the presence in the city of French troops. Anywhere the voting took place freely, the results did not give rise to doubts: for example, 119 sailors from Nice, stationed on the Savoyard ships in the various ports, who could vote freely, expressed themselves as follows: 114 to remain in Italy and 5 to pass to France. This event caused
9039-443: The epithet of Father of the Fatherland ( Italian : Padre della Patria ). Even after 1871, many ethnic Italian-speakers ( Trentino-Alto Adigan Italians, Savoyard Italians , Corfiot Italians , Niçard Italians , Swiss Italians , Corsican Italians , Maltese Italians , Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians ) remained outside the borders of the Kingdom of Italy, planting the seeds of Italian irredentism . Italy celebrates
9170-434: The exceptional circumstances of our country, have decided, although with regret, our beloved sovereign to separate the provinces which have been for so many centuries intimately bound up with his dynasty. But the fate of a people does not rest exclusively with the desire of princes. Therefore the magnanimous Emperor Napoleon the Third and the loyal Victor Emmanuel have desired that this Treaty of Cession should be strengthened by
9301-429: The expenses of the government on the day of voting. Drinking booths and cafés were erected especially for the purpose by the officials, and a tri-colored cockade or a voting ticket with " oui " upon it entitled the bearer to the gratuitous enjoyment of all their privileges. Another device which appealed to the religious zeal of the people was that of blessing the standards of the imperial party. This official blessing of
9432-432: The extent of the bloodshed involved and resolved to end the war. The fighting ended with the armistice of Villafranca on 12 July 1859. The armistice led to the Treaty of Zurich of 10 November 1859, which transferred Lombardy to Sardinia. Complete Italian unification was deferred, though as matters turned out, not for long. The late King Charles Albert of Sardinia (1798–1849) had been an active Italian nationalist. Among
9563-416: The famous writer and art critic Giuseppe Bres was exiled by the French for a few years because of his participation at Niçard Vespers. Subsequently and until the end of the century, in addition to the expulsion of various citizens of Nice who were moderately favorable to Italy and its unification, there was a further strong strengthening of the process of Frenchisation in all of the former County of Nice, with
9694-513: The fledgling revolutionary movement. In 1844, two brothers from Venice , Attilio and Emilio Bandiera , members of Young Italy , planned to make a raid on the Calabrian coast against the Kingdom of Two Sicilies in support of Italian unification. They assembled a band of about twenty men ready to sacrifice their lives and set sail on their venture on 12 June 1844. Four days later they landed near Crotone , intending to go to Cosenza , liberate
9825-493: The frontier posts but south of Switzerland, the neutrality of that land, along with that of Switzerland itself, having already been agreed in 1815 under the terms of the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna . The outcome of the plebiscite held in Savoy on 22 April was an overwhelming "Yes" to the question: "Does Savoy wish to be unified with France?" In northern Savoy, the accepted vote was "Yes and Zone", indicating acceptance of
9956-426: The goodness, M. ——— , to acknowledge the receipt of this, and to make known to us the spirit of your population, and that of the local authorities?" The "necessary measures" to which the committee alluded were amply provided for. A sum of money had been placed at their disposal by the French government; and of this it is stated on good authority that 3,000,000 francs were used in the direct work of bribery, exclusive of
10087-464: The head of the administration of each commune men devoted to the new order of things; It is decreed, 1. Monsieur ——— , present mayor of the commune of ———— , is dismissed from his functions. 2. The municipal counselor ——— is charged, until a new order, with the administration of said commune. 3. The above will be transmitted to Messieurs ——— and ——— , for their guidance. Annecy , April, 1860. In commenting upon this transfer of civil authority to
10218-469: The high degree of civilization to which you have raised yourselves. Hasten, therefore, to confirm by your suffrages the reunion of your country to France. In making ourselves the echo of the intentions of the King, let us unfurl the banner of that noble and great nation which has always excited our lively sympathies. Let us rally round the throne of the glorious Emperor Napoleon the Third. Let us surround it with
10349-611: The historian Giulio Vignoli. On February 13, 1871, the deputy Garibaldi was prevented from speaking before the National Assembly and presented his resignation. The story of the Niçard Vespers of 1871 was told by Enrico Sappia in his book Nizza contemporanea , published in London and banned in France. [...] Enrico Sappia will remember that among the immense crowd that sang and praised Italy, there were those who carried
10480-493: The influence of the environment and history on a people's moral predisposition. Italian exiles both challenged and embraced the stereotypes and typically presented gendered interpretations of Italy's political "degeneration". They called for a masculine response to feminine weaknesses as the basis of national regeneration and fashioned their image of the future Italian nation firmly in the standards of European nationalism. In 1820, liberal Spaniards successfully revolted , demanding
10611-568: The inhabitants of Nice to becoming French was indicated by the fact that the troops, on first entering the city, were received so roughly that they were obliged to resort to the use of the bayonet. The municipal junta sent a vote of thanks to those members of the British Parliament who had spoken in opposition to French annexation. The French Consul wrote to his government, that, if a French man-of-war did not come to Villa Franca, his own life and that of his family would not be secure. After
10742-473: The inhabitants of the two territories voted to approve the treaty and join France. France took formal possession of Nice and Savoy on 12 June 1860. The vote was deeply influenced by the previous agreement between the Savoy-Piedmontese authorities and France, even making the Savoy authorities an active part in promoting a favorable result for France; for various reasons, many Niçards were excluded from
10873-587: The liberal elites in francophone Savoy, the idea had grown up that the "House of Savoy" in Turin had little concern for their province beyond Mont Blanc . In practical terms, at a time when the extent of state activity was increasing across Europe, this was manifest in a perceived discrimination against French speakers when making government appointments. On 25 July 1859 about 30 leading citizens of Chambéry presented an address to Napoleon III, calling for Savoy to be annexed to France . Elsewhere in Savoy, especially in
11004-531: The most famous proto-nationalist work was Alessandro Manzoni 's I promessi sposi (The Betrothed) , widely read as thinly veiled allegorical criticism of Austrian rule. Published in 1827 and extensively revised in the following years, the 1840 version of I Promessi Sposi used a standardized version of the Tuscan dialect , a conscious effort by the author to provide a language and force people to learn it. Three ideals of unification appeared. Vincenzo Gioberti ,
11135-459: The most prominent being Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi . Mazzini's activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon after he joined. While in prison, he concluded that Italy could − and therefore should − be unified, and he formulated a program for establishing a free, independent, and republican nation with Rome as its capital. Following his release in 1831, he went to Marseille in France, where he organized
11266-418: The mountains and the necessity of defence. Art. 4. One or more mixed commissions will be charged to examine and to resolve, within a brief delay, the divers incidental questions to which the annexation will give rise,–such as the decision of the contribution of Savoy and of the arrondissement of Nice to the public debt of Sardinia, and the execution of the obligations resulting from contracts entered into with
11397-543: The name of the Most Holy and indivisible Trinity, His Majesty the Emperor of the French having explained the considerations which, in consequence of the changes made in the territorial relationships between France and Sardinia, made him desire the annexation ( réunion ) of Savoy and of the arrondissement of Nice ( circondario di Nizza ) to France, and His Majesty the King of Sardinia having shown himself disposed to accede thereunto, their said Majesties have decided to conclude
11528-637: The national self-determination . This event is celebrated by the Tricolour Day . The Italian national colours appeared for the first time on a tricolour cockade in 1789, anticipating by seven years the first green, white and red Italian military war flag , which was adopted by the Lombard Legion in 1796. After Napoleon fell (1814), the Congress of Vienna (1814–15) restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments. Italy
11659-541: The necessary legislative sanction has been given by the Parliament. Art. 8. The present treaty shall be ratified and the ratifications exchanged at Turin within the delay of ten days, or earlier if possible. In faith of which the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed it and affixed their seals thereunto. Done in duplicate at Turin the 24th day of the month of March of the year of grace 1860. TALLEYRAND. BENEDETTI. CAVOUR. FARINI. In March 1860, as Piedmont
11790-521: The newspaper Il Nizzardo published an indignant pamphlet, I Nizzardi e l'Italia , which stated that "the whole history of Nice is a protest against our separation from Italy, against our incorporation into France" and underlined the numerous manifestations of Italianness from Nice following the transfer. [...] In 1871, with the proclamation of the French Third Republic , in the legislative elections held on 8 February , Giuseppe Garibaldi
11921-453: The newspaper La Voce di Nizza which had taken the place of Il Diritto di Nizza , suppressed by the French authorities, was prohibited. On February 19, a new newspaper Il Pensiero di Nizza came out which took over the political legacy of the first two. The riots of 8, 9 and 10 February, the three bellicose days, provided valid arguments and solid reasons for those who advocated a return of Nice to Italy, because they had good game in supporting
12052-409: The north, opposition to the idea of French annexation began to mobilise. The formerly Savoyard province of Carouge , adjacent to Geneva , had been transferred to Switzerland in 1816 under an earlier Treaty of Turin , as part of the unbundling of Napoleon I 's First French Empire . Scenarios now under discussion included continuing with Savoy as a province of Sardinia, or joining more or even all of
12183-456: The occupation of the country by French troops, there was published an order transferring the civil government of the provinces to France. The French provisional governor, Lubonis, made haste to use the power thus placed in his hands for the advantage of his imperial master, and his example was speedily followed by Lachinal. Many of the mayors and local authorities were utterly opposed to the idea of French annexation, and without their co-operation it
12314-530: The peninsula, each with distinct laws and traditions. No one had had the desire or the resources to revive Napoleon's partial experiment in unification. The settlement of 1814–15 had merely restored regional divisions, with the added disadvantage that the decisive victory of Austria over France temporarily hindered Italians in playing off their former oppressors against each other. ... Italians who, like Ugo Foscolo and Gabriele Rossetti , harboured patriotic sentiments, were driven into exile. The largest Italian state,
12445-558: The political prisoners, and issue their proclamations. Tragically for the Bandiera brothers, they did not find the insurgent band they were told awaited them, so they moved towards La Sila . They were ultimately betrayed by one of their party, the Corsican Pietro Boccheciampe, and by some peasants who believed them to be Turkish pirates. A detachment of gendarmes and volunteers were sent against them, and after
12576-453: The popular adhesion... All opposition should fall powerless before the interests of the country and the sentiment of duty. Besides, it will find an insurmountable obstacle in the wishes themselves of Victor Emmanuel... Fellow-citizens, the mission which the King has confided to me is transitory but important. In order to fulfil my task at this extraordinary juncture, I count upon the support of your co-operation, upon your respect for law, and upon
12707-449: The population to accept the change of sovereignty, in the name of Italian unity, and the cession was ratified by a regional referendum . Italophile manifestations and the acclamation of an "Italian Nice" by the crowd were reported on this occasion. A referendum was voted on 15 April and 16 April 1860. The opponents of annexation called for abstention, hence the very high abstention rate. The "yes" vote won 83% of registered voters throughout
12838-750: The previous differences in municipal and political rights were abolished and Roman Italy was subdivided into administrative regions ruled directly by the Roman Senate. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , Italy remained united under the Ostrogothic Kingdom and after 568 was disputed between the Kingdom of the Lombards and the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire , losing its unity for centuries. Following conquest by
12969-726: The proclamation of the Kingdom of Sicily with Ruggero Settimo as chairman of the independent state until 1849, when the Bourbon army took back full control of the island on 15 May 1849 by force. In February 1848, there were revolts in Tuscany that were relatively nonviolent, after which Grand Duke Leopold II granted the Tuscans a constitution. A breakaway republican provisional government formed in Tuscany during February shortly after this concession. On 21 February, Pope Pius IX granted
13100-409: The ratifications, and in virtue of a previous declaration made to the competent authorities, the faculty of removing their domicile to Italy, and settling there, in which case their qualifications as Sardinian citizens will remain to them. They will be at liberty to keep their landed property situate on the territory annexed to France. Art. 7. For Sardinia the present treaty will become law as soon as
13231-513: The rebels. Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich warned Louis-Philippe that Austria had no intention of letting Italian matters be and that French intervention would not be tolerated. Louis-Philippe sent a naval expedition to Ancona, which restored Papal authority there and even arrested Italian patriots living in France. In early 1831, the Austrian army began its march across the Italian peninsula, slowly crushing resistance in each province that had revolted. This military action suppressed much of
13362-996: The rule of the Holy Roman Emperors in Italy. However, the Spanish branch of the House of Habsburg , which ruled the Spanish Empire , continued to rule southern Italy and the Duchy of Milan until the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14). Following this war the Austrian Habsburgs struggled for dominance with the Spanish Bourbons until the end of the War of the Austrian Succession . A sense of Italian national identity
13493-430: The said ship arrived, the editor of the newly established French organ, L'Avenir de Nice , was besieged in his house, and obliged to rush down to Villa Franca for refuge. Such were some of the indications of public sentiment at the time when the French garrisons were taking their places. It was evident that the people were not to be easily overawed. But the efforts of the government had only just begun. Immediately after
13624-547: The same fidelity, so especial to our country, which we have always preserved to this day to Victor Emmanuel. As for this august Prince, let us retain among us the worship of bygone memories, and let us raise earnest prayers for his new and brilliant destiny. To the great Napoleon the Third, whose powerful and firm will is to open a new era of prosperity for our country, our inflexible fidelity, as well as our respectful devotion, will now commence. Vive Ia France! Vive L'Empereur Napoleon III! A proclamation similar to this of Lubonis
13755-518: The size of the majority supporting the treaty and the wording of the question used for the plebiscite were some of the factors giving rise to subsequent doubts about the conduct of the "popular consultation", which was carried out under the control of French police, since the Piedmontese army and police had already been withdrawn after the signature of the treaty. Signed in Turin 24 March 1860 In
13886-411: The sole interests of the Emperor, the French journals gave evidence of abundant zeal. One of them, Le Bon Sens , remarked: "A very important thing for the success of the great votation to which Savoy is about to be called is to have at the head of each commune a mayor thoroughly devoted to the French annexation, for it is he who should give the impulse and preside at the electoral operations. A mayor who
14017-508: The territory with Switzerland, an outcome favored by Great Britain . There was very little support for the idea of a totally autonomous Savoy, the vulnerability of small quasi-autonomous territories having been vividly demonstrated within living memory by Napoleon I. Faced with the uncertainties implicit in the conflicting scenarios and unwilling to countenance any further expansion of Switzerland , French and Sardinian diplomats swung into action. The 1860 Treaty of Turin, signed on 24 March 1860,
14148-542: The town hall and with the cry of Viva Nizza, Viva Garibaldi, crossed the Ponte Nuovo, stopped in Piazza Massena, took Via Gioffredo, and stayed for a while in front of the Italian consulate and, retracing her steps, stood under the windows of the candidates who harangued the people, and were enthusiastically applauded. Around half past midnight the multitude, drunk with joy and enthusiasm for the victory obtained,
14279-643: The treaty of the Italic League , in 1454, and the 15th century foreign policy of Cosimo de' Medici and Lorenzo de' Medici . Leading Renaissance Italian writers Dante , Petrarch , Boccaccio , Machiavelli and Guicciardini expressed opposition to foreign domination. Petrarch stated that the "ancient valour in Italian hearts is not yet dead" in Italia Mia . Machiavelli later quoted four verses from Italia Mia in The Prince , which looked forward to
14410-404: The unification movement were at one time or other members of this organization. The chief purpose was to defeat tyranny and to establish constitutional government. Although contributing some service to the cause of Italian unity, historians such as Cornelia Shiver doubt that their achievements were proportional to their pretensions. Many leading Carbonari revolutionaries wanted a republic, two of
14541-890: The unification of Italy. Encouraged by the declaration, revolutionaries in the region began to organize. During the July Revolution of 1830 in France, revolutionaries forced King Charles X to abdicate and created the July Monarchy with encouragement from the new French king, Louis-Philippe I . Louis-Philippe had promised revolutionaries such as Ciro Menotti that he would intervene if Austria tried to interfere in Italy with troops. Fearing he would lose his throne, Louis-Philippe did not, however, intervene in Menotti's planned uprising. The Duke of Modena abandoned his Carbonari supporters, arrested Menotti and other conspirators in 1831, and once again conquered his duchy with help from
14672-463: The war with Austria. He was quickly defeated by Radetzky at Novara on 23 March 1849. Charles Albert abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel II , and Piedmontese ambitions to unite Italy or conquer Lombardy were, for the moment, brought to an end. The war ended with a treaty signed on 9 August. A popular revolt broke out in Brescia on the same day as the defeat at Novara, but was suppressed by
14803-485: Was again controlled largely by the Austrian Empire , as they directly controlled the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia and indirectly the duchies of Parma , Modena and Tuscany . With the fall of Napoleon and the restoration of the absolutist monarchical regimes , the Italian tricolour went underground, becoming the symbol of the patriotic ferments that began to spread in Italy and the symbol which united all
14934-485: Was asked to cede the Duchy of Savoy to France along with, more contentiously, the predominantly Italian speaking County of Nice . In April 1859, Austria , complaining that Sardinia had been supplying arms to Lombard separatists, declared war on Sardinia . The Franco-Sardinian forces defeated the Austrians in several battles: Palestro , Montebello , Magenta , and Solferino . But Napoleon III, who had taken personal command of his army, professed himself horrified by
15065-536: Was elected to the National Assembly at Bordeaux , together with Luigi Piccon and Costantino Bergondi from Nice, with the specific mandate to abrogate the Treaty of Turin of 1860 with which the County of Nice had been ceded to Napoleon III. In the political elections, the pro-Italian lists received 26,534 votes out of 29,428 votes cast. [...] As soon as the result of the vote was known, an immense crowd left
15196-412: Was felt that a vote of the people in favor of the measure could not be insured. Accordingly, the following circular, filled out as might in each case be required, was issued: Considering that Monsieur ——— , mayor of the commune of ——— , seems not to have accepted favorably the consequences of the Treaty of the 24th of March last; considering that it is important, under the present circumstances, to have at
15327-494: Was francized into "Dupont"). The part of the Niçard Italians who decided to stay was subjected to a strong attempt at Francization - rejected in those years by the Niçard Italians - which caused much resentment against the French. The Italian irredentists in Nice made themselves the spokesman for this rejection through their leader, Giuseppe Garibaldi from Nice. [...] The professor Angelo Fenochio, former editor of
15458-620: Was guaranteed by article 7, the independence of the pope as head of the Catholic Church was guaranteed by article 8 of the Principi fondamentali , while the death penalty was abolished by article 5, and free public education was provided by article 8 of the Titolo I . Before the powers could respond to the founding of the Roman Republic, Charles Albert, whose army had been trained by the exiled Polish general Albert Chrzanowski , renewed
15589-415: Was in the process of annexing Emilia and Tuscany , Napoleon III agreed to sanction Piedmont's Italian acquisitions in exchange for Nice and Savoy. France annexed the provinces by the provisions of the Treaty of Turin, signed on 24 March 1860. There followed a deeply flawed plebiscite in Nice on 15 and 16 April and in Savoy on 22 and 23 April, in which "apparently and without any doubt" the vast majority of
15720-537: Was issued by Malaussena, Mayor of Nice; and finally, as if to crown all, the Bishop came forward in the same interest, appealing to all loyal members of the Church to vote for annexation. Nor, indeed, was this all. The French Committee sent to all the officials a circular bearing the government seal, and appealing for support to all the authorities in town and country. Referring to the advantages to be derived from annexation,
15851-408: Was not popular in Parliament and was likely to fail. Giuseppe Garibaldi did not hesitate to raise his voice, in season and out of season, against it; and, what was of the greatest importance, as showing the untrammelled desires of the people most affected, "every one of the delegates from Nice and Savoy to Parliament had been elected with the express understanding that they were to protest against such
15982-428: Was of course badly weakened, but the dream of Risorgimento did not die. Instead, the Italian patriots learned some lessons that made them much more effective at the next opportunity in 1860. Military weakness was glaring, as the small Italian states were completely outmatched by France and Austria. France was a potential ally, and the patriots realized they had to focus all their attention on expelling Austria first, with
16113-431: Was prohibited to hold any meetings to discuss the affairs of Nice, but also that no canvassing on the part of those opposed to French annexation would be permitted, and that no placards or circulars would be allowed to be issued by the Italian party. At the same time, documents of various kinds were issued by the officers in authority, appealing to their subordinates and to the people. The provisional governor, Lubonis, issued
16244-469: Was proposed by Cesare Balbo (1789–1853) as a confederation of separate Italian states led by Piedmont . One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the Carbonari , a secret political discussion group formed in southern Italy early in the 19th century. After 1815, Freemasonry in Italy was repressed and discredited due to its French connections. A void was left that the Carbonari filled with
16375-544: Was reflected in Gian Rinaldo Carli 's Della Patria degli Italiani , written in 1764. It told how a stranger entered a café in Milan and puzzled its occupants by saying that he was neither a foreigner nor a Milanese. " 'Then what are you?' they asked. 'I am an Italian', he explained." The Habsburg rule in Italy came to an end with the campaigns of the French Revolutionaries in 1792–97 when
16506-511: Was still walking the streets. [...] In response, the French Republican government sent an army of 10,000 soldiers to Nice. They shut down the pro-Italian newspaper Il Diritto di Nizza and jailed many Italian irredentists in Nice. Immediately the population of Nice reacted and from 8 to 10 February they rose up, but had the worst against the French army which appeased the revolt in blood. Many were imprisoned and wounded, according to
16637-579: Was the 19th century political and social movement that in 1861 ended in the annexation of various states of the Italian Peninsula and its outlying isles to the Kingdom of Sardinia , resulting in the creation of the Kingdom of Italy . Inspired by the rebellions in the 1820s and 1830s against the outcome of the Congress of Vienna , the unification process was precipitated by the Revolutions of 1848 , and reached completion in 1871 after
16768-583: Was the official language of the County, used by the Church, the town hall, taught in schools, used in theaters and at the Opera; though it was immediately abolished and replaced by French. Discontent over annexation to France led to the emigration of a large part of the Italophile population, also accelerated by Italian unification after 1861. A quarter of the population of Nice, around 11,000 people from Nice, decided to voluntarily exile to Italy. The emigration of
16899-478: Was the outcome. Savoy and Nice found themselves annexed to France as discussed at Plombières in 1858 but subject to certain conditions. Article 1 of the finalized document also stated, in deliberately vague terms, that the annexation would take place after the populations of Nice and Savoy had consented to the arrangement. Sardinian troops evacuated Savoy during March 1860. On 1 April the King of Sardinia released his Savoyard subjects from their oaths of loyalty to
17030-483: Was to be taken, really had no existence until it was ratified by the Chamber; it was determined, to proceed as though it had been ratified, and then to use the advantage gained by this procedure to secure its ratification. Accordingly, measures were instituted to secure such a popular vote as was desired. First of all, the Sardinian troops were withdrawn, and their places were filled by French garrisons. The opposition of
17161-451: Was universally condemned, and the martyrdom of the Bandiera brothers bore fruit in the subsequent revolutions. In this context, in 1847, the first public performance of the song Il Canto degli Italiani , the Italian national anthem since 1946, took place. Il Canto degli Italiani , written by Goffredo Mameli set to music by Michele Novaro , is also known as the Inno di Mameli , after
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