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99-426: In c. 166 to 167, when Liu Biao was 17 (by East Asian reckoning), he became a student of Wang Chang (grandfather of Wang Can ). At the time, Wang Chang was Administrator of Nanyang (南阳太守). Liu Biao gained control of Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan ) in 190 CE, when Dong Zhuo appointed him to the position after the death of its previous governor (or inspector), Wang Rui. Liu Biao later started

198-475: A back ulcer. Liu Biao's successor, his younger son Liu Cong , chose to surrender instead of resisting Cao Cao's invasion. Liu Biao's elder son, Liu Qi , who had had some disagreement with Liu Cong, joined the fleeing Liu Bei, leading to the Battle of Red Cliffs . The aftermath of that battle split Liu Biao's former domain between the three resulting power blocs. Jing Province continued to be a flash point throughout

297-671: A brilliant political and military leader, Cao Cao is celebrated for his poems which were characteristic of the Jian'an style of Chinese poetry . Opinions of him have remained divided from as early as the Jin dynasty (265–420) that came immediately after the Three Kingdoms period. There were some who praised him for his achievements in poetry and his career, but there were also others who condemned him for his cruelty, cunning, and allegedly traitorous ways. In traditional Chinese culture, Cao Cao

396-462: A campaign to retake Xu Province from Liu Bei, defeated him, and captured his family. Liu Bei's general Guan Yu , who was guarding Xu Province's capital, Xiapi ( 下邳 ; present-day Pizhou , Jiangsu), surrendered and temporarily served Cao Cao. Liu Bei fled north to join Yuan Shao after his defeat. Some of Cao Cao's subordinates initially expressed worries that Yuan Shao might attack them while Cao Cao

495-669: A ceremonial axe and appointed him Manager of the Affairs of the Imperial Secretariat ( 錄尚書事 ) and Colonel-Director of Retainers ( 司隷校尉 ). As Luoyang was in bad shape, Dong Zhao and others advised Cao Cao to move the imperial capital to Xu ( 許 ; present-day Xuchang , Henan). So, in October or early November 196, Cao Cao and his forces escorted Emperor Xian to Xuchang, which became the new imperial capital. Cao Cao had himself appointed General-in-Chief ( 大將軍 ) and promoted from

594-614: A garrison in Henei Commandery ( 河內郡 ; around present-day Wuzhi County , Henan). Yuan Shao and Han Fu thought of installing Liu Yu , the Governor of You Province , on the throne to replace Emperor Xian. When they sought Cao Cao's opinion, Cao Cao refused to support them and reaffirmed his allegiance to Emperor Xian. Yuan Shao's plan turned out to be unsuccessful because Liu Yu himself did not want to be emperor. Yuan Shao once invited Cao Cao to sit beside him and showed him

693-459: A jade seal, indicating his imperial ambition, and a tacit request for Cao Cao's support. Finding this despicable, Cao Cao laughed at him. Between 191 and 192, Yuan Shao appointed Cao Cao Administrator of Dong Commandery ( 東郡 in Yan Province ; near present-day Puyang , Henan. This position allowed him to exact taxes and conscript soldiers. His first territorial command in that respect marks

792-443: A large army south to conquer Jing Province. With a decline in relations between Liu Biao and Liu Bei as a result of the meddling of Cai Mao 's family, Liu Biao's people faced much difficulty. To make matters worse, Sun Quan's army had defeated and killed Huang Zu at the Battle of Jiangxia and ultimately destroyed Liu Biao's defences to the east. Shortly after Cao Cao's main army began its offensive, Liu Biao died of illness, probably

891-415: A plot initiated by Dong Cheng and others to get rid of Cao Cao. After leaving Xuchang, Liu Bei headed to Xu Province, killed the provincial inspector Che Zhou ( 車冑 ), and seized control of Xu Province. Cao Cao sent Liu Dai ( 劉岱 ) and Wang Zhong to attack Liu Bei but they were defeated. In February 200, Cao Cao got wind of Dong Cheng's plot and had all the conspirators arrested and executed. He then led

990-593: A primary antagonist in the story, but also introduced, fictionalised, and exaggerated certain events to enhance Cao Cao's "villainous" image. The authoritative historical source on Cao Cao's life is his official biography in the Records of the Three Kingdoms written by Chen Shou in the third century. His sources for his work on the Wei portion of his book ( 魏志 ; Wei Zhi ) included the Dongguan Ji ( 東觀記 ; now lost),

1089-477: A rebellion led by Wei Feng against Cao Cao's government. Their deaths resulted in the termination of Wang Can's family line. However, Wang Ye ( 王業 ), a younger relative of Wang Can, was eventually designated as Wang Can's adopted son to continue his family line. Wang Ye inherited 10,000 of Wang Can's books and passed them on to his own sons, Wang Bi and Wang Hong ( 王宏 ). Wang Can was an established poet. Along with six other poets of his time, their poems formed

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1188-635: A relative of Empress Song . In 178, when Emperor Ling deposed Empress Song in the aftermath of a political scandal, the empress's family and relatives got into trouble as well. Because of his relationship with Song Qi, Cao Cao was implicated in the scandal and dismissed from office. However, he was pardoned later and recalled to Luoyang to serve as a Consultant ( 議郎 ) under the Minister of the Household because of his expertise in history. The general Dou Wu and senior minister Chen Fan plotted to get rid of

1287-500: A rival warlord, Sun Quan . Wang Can died of illness on the way back to Ye city (in present-day Handan , Hebei ) in the spring of 217 at the age of 41 (by East Asian age reckoning ). Cao Cao's heir apparent, Cao Pi , attended Wang Can's funeral and told the guests, "When he was still living, Wang Can loved the sounds of a donkey braying, so let's each make a braying sound as a farewell to him". Every guest did that. Wang Can had two sons, who were executed in 219 for participating in

1386-646: A stalemate for months and Cao Cao's supplies were gradually running out and his men were growing weary. During this time, Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei to contact a rebel chief, Liu Pi ( 劉辟 ), in Runan Commandery ( 汝南郡 ; near present-day Xinyang , Henan) and join Liu Pi in making a sneak attack on Cao Cao's base in Xuchang while Cao Cao was away at Guandu. However, Liu Bei and Liu Pi were defeated and driven back by Cao Cao's general Cao Ren . During this time, Sun Ce ,

1485-468: A village marquis to a county marquis under the title "Marquis of Wuping" ( 武平侯 ), later characterised as ten thousand households. Since Dong Zhuo moved the capital from Luoyang to Chang'an in 190, the imperial court had been in a state of disorder. However, after Cao Cao received Emperor Xian and established the new imperial capital in Xuchang, order was restored, although Cao Cao did have the emperor's confidante Zhao Yan ( 趙彥 ) killed for secretively keeping

1584-708: A war against the warlord Yuan Shu and his minor vassal, Sun Jian . During the Battle of Xiangyang , Sun Jian was put in command of an army on Yuan Shu's orders to assault Liu Biao in Jing Province. Liu Biao appointed Huang Zu to command the forces against Sun Jian. Huang Zu was outmaneuvered by Sun Jian, but the latter was hit by an arrow and killed, effectively ending the battle in favour of Liu Biao's forces. Years after, Sun Jian's two eldest sons, Sun Ce and Sun Quan , caused Liu Biao no end of trouble as they sought to avenge their father's death. However, they did not cause Liu Biao's demise as they targeted Huang Zu, who

1683-653: A work which Pei Songzhi denigrated in very strident terms. The official standard history of the Eastern Han dynasty , the Book of the Later Han by Fan Ye , was not available to Pei Songzhi. He and Fan Ye were contemporaries, but Fan Ye did not begin work on his history until a few years after Pei Songzhi completed his. The Book of the Later Han does not contain a full biography of Cao Cao, but records of him and his actions can be found scattered in disparate locations in

1782-414: Is a young man with the highest gifts, which I cannot match. I shall grant him all the books and essays in my home," said Cai Yong. The Records of the Three Kingdoms stated that Wang Can was widely read and had a most retentive memory, better than any of his contemporaries. If he glanced at a roadside monument as he passed, he remembered every word of the inscription. If he saw people playing weiqi and

1881-512: Is around present-day Weishan County, Shandong . He was born in a family of high-ranking officials as a son of Wang Qian ( 王謙 ), a Chief Clerk ( 長史 ) to the general He Jin , who was briefly a regent for Emperor Shao in 189. Wang Can's great-grandfather, Wang Gong ( 王龔 ), and grandfather, Wang Chang ( 王暢 ), held offices among the Three Ducal Ministers during the reigns of Emperor Shun and Emperor Ling respectively. When

1980-429: Is historically known as Emperor Shao. As Emperor Shao was still young, his mother Empress Dowager He and maternal uncle He Jin ruled as regents on his behalf. He Jin plotted with Yuan Shao and others to eliminate the eunuch faction , and shared their plan with his sister. When the empress dowager was reluctant to kill the eunuchs, He Jin thought of summoning generals stationed outside Luoyang to lead their troops into

2079-404: Is negative. Cao Man zhuan has been characterised as "hostile propaganda", and certain contents as "slanderous". Such a work cannot be considered a reliable source, but informs an exaggerated perspective contraposed to the glowing portrait painted by his own dynasty's official history. For much of his career, Cao Cao hosted and controlled the final Han emperor, whose doings and correspondence it

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2178-409: Is recounted that when he was yet a youth, Cai Yong , then a high-ranking official, once saw him and was in awe. Later, Wang Can went to visit Cai Yong; although many guests of exalted rank were present, the host hastened to welcome the newcomer with the greatest deference, even wearing his shoes the wrong way in his haste. The others were astonished and asked why he was so respectful to a mere youth. "He

2277-475: Is stereotypically portrayed as a sly, power-hungry, and treacherous tyrant who serves as a nemesis to Liu Bei, often depicted in contraposition as a hero trying to revive the declining Han dynasty. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), when Luo Guanzhong wrote the epic novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms which dramatises the historical events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. He not only cast Cao Cao as

2376-649: The Book of Wei , and possibly other records. Chen Shou worked in the history bureau and had access to a variety of sources, but followed the traditional method of incorporating information into a single synthesis without citing his sources, so it is not clear how broad a pool of documentation he drew upon. In the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the Sanguozhi by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal commentary, as well as commentary from other historians. One of

2475-552: The Ten Attendants , a eunuch faction— their plan failed and they lost their lives. Cao Cao wrote a memorial to Emperor Ling to defend Dou Wu and Chen Fan, and point out that the imperial court was full of corrupt officials and that advice from loyal officials had been ignored. Emperor Ling did not listen to him. Emperor Ling later issued a decree, ordering the Three Ducal Ministers to report and dismiss commandery and county officials who performed badly in office. However,

2574-901: The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out, the Han central government commissioned Cao Cao as a Cavalry Commandant ( 騎都尉 ) and ordered him to lead imperial forces to attack the rebels in Yingchuan Commandery ( 潁川郡 ; around present-day Xuchang , Henan). He was later appointed as the Chancellor of Jinan State  [ zh ] ( 濟南郡 ; around present-day Jinan , Shandong), a principality in Qing Province which had over 10 counties under its jurisdiction. Many senior officials in Jinan State had connections with

2673-522: The remaining years of the Han dynasty and well into the Three Kingdoms period, due to its strategic position between all three warring factions, with multiple battles and campaigns being fought for control of the province. Liu Biao's first wife, Lady Chen ( 陳氏 ), bore him two sons: Liu Qi and Liu Cong . She died early, so Liu Biao took a second wife, Lady Cai ( 蔡氏 ) from the influential Cai family in Xiangyang . As Liu Cong married Lady Cai's niece,

2772-472: The 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms , Liu Pan later came to serve Liu Bei through Huang Zhong's recommendation. Liu Hu also participated in the Battle of Shaxian against Sun Ce under Huang Zu's leadership. Although many of Liu Biao's subordinates who fought in the battle were reportedly killed in action, it is not known whether Liu Hu was one of them. Liu Biao is featured as one of

2871-464: The Cai family favoured him and wanted him to succeed his father as the Governor of Jing Province even though Liu Qi, being the elder son, should be the rightful successor. A sibling rivalry developed between Liu Cong and Liu Qi. (Note: In the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms , Liu Qi and Liu Cong are half-brothers as Liu Cong's mother is Lady Cai, but historically they were born to

2970-793: The Governor of Yan Province. Cao Cao defeated the rebels in battle and received the surrender of over 300,000 rebels and hundreds of thousands of civilians (the rebels' family members). From among them, he recruited the more battle-hardened ones to form a new military unit known as the Qingzhou Corps ( 青州兵 ). Yuan Shu had disagreements with Yuan Shao so he contacted Gongsun Zan , Yuan Shao's rival in northern China, for help in dealing with Yuan Shao. Gongsun Zan instructed Liu Bei , Shan Jing ( 單經 ) and Tao Qian to garrison at Gaotang , Pingyuan and Fagan ( 發干 ; east of present-day Guan County, Shandong ) counties respectively to put pressure on Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao allied with Cao Cao and defeated all

3069-556: The Grand Commandant during the reign of Emperor Ling ( r.  168–189 ), buying his way into high government office for an exorbitant sum, and serving less than half a year. Cao Song was a foster son of Cao Teng , a eunuch who served as a Central Regular Attendant and the Empress's Chamberlain under Emperor Huan ( r.  146–168 ), and held the peerage of Marquis of Fei Village ( 費亭侯 ). In his youth, Cao Cao

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3168-547: The Han central government. He laid the foundation for the state of Cao Wei (220–265), established by his son and successor Cao Pi , who ended the Eastern Han dynasty and inaugurated the Three Kingdoms period (220–280). Beginning in his own lifetime, a corpus of legends developed around Cao Cao which built upon his talent, his cruelty, and his perceived eccentricities. Cao Cao began his career as an official under

3267-408: The Han government and held various appointments including that of a district security chief in the capital and the chancellor of a principality . He rose to prominence in the 190s during which he recruited his own followers, formed his own army, and set up a base in Yan Province (covering parts of present-day Henan and Shandong ). In 196, he received Emperor Xian , the figurehead Han sovereign who

3366-593: The Imperial Guards. His request was rejected and he was appointed as a Consultant ( 議郎 ) instead. He then claimed that he was ill and resigned and went home. He built a house outside the city and lived there, spending his time reading in spring and summer, and going on hunting excursions in autumn and winter. Wang Fen ( 王芬 ), the Inspector of Ji Province , along with Xu You , Zhou Jing ( 周旌 ) and others, plotted to overthrow Emperor Ling and replace him with

3465-512: The Inspector of Qing Province . On the other hand, Liu Qi, who was in Jiangxia Commandery, became an ally of Cao Cao's rivals Liu Bei and Sun Quan at the Battle of Red Cliffs in the winter of 208–209. After the battle, Liu Bei nominated Liu Qi to be the nominal Inspector of Jing Province, but Liu Qi died of illness later that year. Liu Biao had at least one more son, Liu Xiu ( 劉修 ), and a daughter. Liu Xiu followed Liu Cong when

3564-604: The Inspector of Yang Province, and Zhou Xin , the Administrator of Danyang Commandery ( 丹楊郡 ), gave him over 4,000 troops. On the way back, when they passed by Longkang County ( 龍亢縣 ; in present-day Huaiyuan County , Anhui), many soldiers started a mutiny and set fire to Cao Cao's tent at night, but he was able to escape. When Cao Cao reached Zhi ( 銍 ; west of present-day Suzhou, Anhui ) and Jianping ( 建平 ; southwest of present-day Xiayi County , Henan) counties later, he managed to regroup over 1,000 soldiers and lead them to

3663-718: The Marquis of Hefei ( 合肥侯 ). They contacted Cao Cao and asked him to join them but he refused. Wang Fen's plan ultimately failed. Cao Cao was appointed as Colonel Who Arranges the Army ( 典軍校尉 ) and summoned back to Luoyang to serve in the Army of the Western Garden when Bian Zhang , Han Sui and others started a rebellion in Liang Province . Emperor Ling died in 189 and was succeeded by his son, Liu Bian , who

3762-466: The Ministers protected the under-performing officials and accepted bribes, resulting in a situation where evildoers were not punished while the poor and weak were oppressed. Cao Cao felt frustrated when he saw this. When natural disasters occurred, Cao Cao was summoned to the imperial court to discuss the problems in the administration. During this time, he wrote another memorial to Emperor Ling, accusing

3861-519: The Nine Provinces ( 九州春秋 ), also from the 3rd century. Later sources included works by the moralistic historian Sun Sheng , most saliently his Chronicles of the Clans of Wei ( 魏氏春秋 ), but also his more critical Yitong Ping ( 異同評 ; Commentary on Similarities and Differences ) and Yitong Zayu ( 異同雜語 ; Miscellaneous Words on Similarities and Differences ), which may have been parts of

3960-675: The Prince of Chengyang State ( 城陽國 ; around present-day Ju County , Shandong), felt that he had made great contributions to the Han Empire so he built temples in his principality for the people to worship him. Many other commanderies in Qing Province also followed this practice. In Jinan State alone, there were over 600 such temples. Wealthy merchants could even borrow the servants and personal carriages of officials for their own leisure activities. This resulted in greater inequality between

4059-580: The Three Ducal Ministers of siding with the nobles and elites, and helping them to cover up their misdeeds. Emperor Ling was stunned after reading the memorial. He admonished the Ministers for their conduct, reinstated the officials who had been wrongly dismissed, and appointed them as Consultants. However, corruption worsened over time and became rampant throughout all levels of the government. Cao Cao stopped speaking up when he realised that his efforts to restore order were futile. In 184, when

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4158-554: The abdication of Emperor Xian in November 220 and established the state of Cao Wei to replace the Eastern Han dynasty— an event commonly seen as a usurpation. This marked the transition from the Eastern Han dynasty to the Six Dynasties period. After taking the throne, Cao Pi granted his father the posthumous title " Emperor Wu " ("Martial Emperor") and the temple name " Taizu " ("Grand Ancestor"). Apart from being lauded as

4257-611: The age of 19. He was later appointed as the Commandant of the North District ( 北部尉 ) of the imperial capital Luoyang and put in charge of maintaining security in that area. Later that year, he was transferred to the position of Prefect of Dunqiu County ( 頓丘縣 ; near present-day Qingfeng County , Henan). This represented a horizontal career move to a position of greater authority in a smaller jurisdiction with less political importance. Cao Cao's cousin married Song Qi ( 宋奇 ),

4356-586: The amount of defensive assets tasked to defend farms and granaries, and increase the area and productivity of lands held directly by the state. In early 197, Cao Cao led his forces to Wancheng ( 宛城 ; present-day Wancheng District in Nanyang, Henan) to attack a rival warlord, Zhang Xiu . Zhang Xiu initially surrendered without a fight, but due to ill treatment changed his mind and attacked Cao Cao and caught him off guard. Cao Cao lost his eldest son Cao Ang , nephew Cao Anmin ( 曹安民 ) and close bodyguard Dian Wei in

4455-425: The appointment on the grounds of poor health, and resigned and went home. The Book of Wei recorded that around the time, corruption had deteriorated to the point where influential officials dominated the imperial court and blatantly abused their powers. Cao Cao was unable to stop them and feared that he might bring trouble to his family because he had been interfering with their activities, so he requested to serve in

4554-609: The autumn of 197, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shu in battle, captured several of his officers, and had them executed. By 199, some months after Lü Bu's defeat at the Battle of Xiapi , Yuan Shu, who was already in dire straits, wanted to abandon his lands in the Huainan region and head north to join Yuan Shao. Cao Cao sent Liu Bei and Zhu Ling to lead forces to intercept and block Yuan Shu in Xu Province . Yuan Shu died of illness while under siege by Liu Bei and Zhu Ling. While Cao Cao

4653-479: The available warlords that the player can choose from in Creative Assembly 's game Total War: Three Kingdoms . Ji Chenggong portrayed Liu Biao in the 2010 Chinese television series Three Kingdoms . Wang Can Wang Can (177 – 17 February 217), courtesy name Zhongxuan , was a Chinese politician and poet who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He contributed greatly to

4752-451: The backbone of what was to be known as the Jian'an style ( 建安風骨 ). They were collectively called the " Seven Scholars of Jian'an " ( 建安七子 ). "Jian'an" was the era name of Emperor Xian 's reign from 196 to 220. The civil strife towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty gave the Jian'an poems their characteristic solemn yet heart-stirring tone, while lament over the ephemerality of life

4851-1006: The battle. He returned to Xuchang after his defeat, but attacked Zhang Xiu again later that year and pacified Huyang ( 湖陽 ; southwest of present-day Tanghe County , Henan) and Wuyin ( 舞陰 ; southeast of present-day Sheqi County , Henan) counties. In early 198, he led another campaign against Zhang Xiu and besieged him in Rangcheng ( 穰城 ; present-day Dengzhou , Henan) but withdrew his forces about two months later. Before retreating back to Xuchang, he set up an ambush and defeated Zhang Xiu's pursuing forces. In late 199, acting on Jia Xu 's advice, Zhang Xiu voluntarily surrendered to Cao Cao, who accepted his surrender. In early 197, Yuan Shu declared himself emperor in Shouchun ( 壽春 ; present-day Shou County , Anhui) – an act regarded as treason against Emperor Xian . He soon came under attack by Cao Cao and various forces, including his former ally Lü Bu . In

4950-403: The battles against rival warlord Sun Ce under the command of Huang Zu , the Administrator of Jiangxia Commandery. He was defeated in battle by Taishi Ci , a general under Sun Ce. Later, after Liu Biao pacified Changsha Commandery (長沙郡; covering parts of present-day Hunan ), he put Liu Pan and Huang Zhong in charge of guarding the commandery. It is not known what happened to him after that. In

5049-667: The beginning of his career as a warlord. During this time, he defeated the Heishan bandits , who were causing trouble in the region, and some Southern Xiongnu forces led by Yufuluo in Neihuang County . Around the time, remnants from the Yellow Turban Rebellion swarmed into Yan Province from Qing Province. Liu Dai , the Governor of Yan Province, was killed in a battle against the rebels. Bao Xin , Chen Gong and others invited Cao Cao to replace Liu Dai as

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5148-438: The board was suddenly disturbed, he could replace every piece in its correct place. Cao Cao Cao Cao ( pronunciation ; [tsʰǎʊ tsʰáʊ] ; Chinese : 曹操 ; c.  155  – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde , was a Chinese statesman, warlord, and poet who rose to power during the end of the Han dynasty ( c.  184–220 ), ultimately taking effective control of

5247-567: The book. Some of Cao Cao's own writing – both literary and in the form of government edicts – has been preserved in later collectanea. His commentary on The Art of War is extant, but offers little insight into his life. Cao Cao's ancestral home was in Qiao County ( 譙縣 ), Pei State , which is present-day Bozhou, Anhui . He was purportedly a descendant of Cao Shen , a statesman of the early Western Han dynasty (206 BCE – 9 CE). His father, Cao Song , served as

5346-635: The capital to Chang'an. In Luoyang, Emperor Xian came under the protection of Dong Cheng , former bandit Yang Feng , and other petty strongmen who have been characterised as "ragtag gangsters". The emperor sought refuge under Yuan Shao, but was rebuffed. In February or March 196, acting on the advice of Xun Yu and Cheng Yu , Cao Cao sent Cao Hong west to fetch Emperor Xian but was blocked by Dong Cheng and Yuan Shu's subordinate Chang Nu ( 萇奴 ). Between March and April 196, Cao Cao defeated Yellow Turban remnants in Runan ( 汝南 ) and Yingchuan ( 潁川 ) commanderies and

5445-559: The central government. Later that year, Dong Zhuo deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with Liu Xie, who is historically known as Emperor Xian. The deposed Emperor Shao became the Prince of Hongnong. Dong Zhuo wanted to appoint Cao Cao as a Colonel of Valiant Cavalry ( 驍騎校尉 ) and recruit him as an adviser. However, Cao Cao adopted a fake identity, escaped from Luoyang, and returned to his home in Chenliu Commandery ( 陳留郡 ; near present-day Kaifeng ). He had two encounters along

5544-450: The civil service. Wang Can received several offers to serve in the government but he turned down all of them. In 194, Wang Can went to Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan ) to seek a position under the provincial governor, Liu Biao . However, Liu Biao did not favour Wang Can as the latter looked pallid and sickly. After Liu Biao died in 208, Wang Can persuaded his son and successor, Liu Cong , to surrender to Cao Cao ,

5643-451: The county when his supplies ran out due to natural disasters such as locust plagues and droughts. Grain supplies were so limited that Cao Cao strongly considered an offer to serve under Yuan Shao, but was persuaded against it and ceased recruitment instead. He sent his army to collect food, but his numerically inferior forces were able to turn back an attack by Lü Bu that summer using deceptive tactics. From 194 to late 195, Cao Cao attacked

5742-516: The difficulties Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu had faced in supplying their armies, as well as his own struggles with food supply in recent years, Cao Cao followed Zao Zhi and Han Hao 's suggestion to implement the tuntian system of agriculture to produce a sustainable supply of grain for his growing army. The tuntian agricultural colonies gave Cao Cao an advantage over his adversaries, allowing him to resettle internally displaced refugees, redevelop abandoned arable lands, shorten his supply lines, reduce

5841-586: The emperor updated on the great affairs of state. Cao Cao sent an imperial decree to Yuan Shao in Emperor Xian's name to appoint him as Grand Commandant ( 太尉 ). Yuan Shao was unhappy because Grand Commandant ranked below Cao Cao's position, General-in-Chief, so he rejected the appointment. When Cao Cao heard about it, he gave up his position as General-in-Chief and offered it to Yuan Shao. Emperor Xian reappointed Cao Cao as Minister of Works ( 司空 ) and acting General of Chariots and Cavalry ( 車騎將軍 ). Struck by

5940-483: The establishment of laws and standards during the founding days of the vassal kingdom of Wei – the forerunner of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period – under the warlord Cao Cao , who was the de facto head of the Han central government in the final years of the Eastern Han dynasty . For his literary achievements, Wang Can was ranked among the Seven Scholars of Jian'an . Wang Can

6039-434: The eunuchs got wind of He Jin's plot and assassinated him before the generals and their troops arrived. Yuan Shao and He Jin's followers led their forces to storm the imperial palace and slaughter the eunuchs in revenge. Emperor Shao and his younger half-brother, Liu Xie , escaped during the chaos. They were eventually found and brought back to the palace by Dong Zhuo , who took advantage of the power vacuum to seize control of

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6138-406: The famous commentator and character evaluator Xu Shao , Cao Cao was assessed as being "a treacherous villain in times of peace, and a hero in times of chaos". Another source recorded that Xu Shao told Cao Cao, "You will be a capable minister in times of peace, and a jianxiong in times of chaos." Cao Cao started his career as a civil service cadet after he was nominated as a xiaolian around

6237-509: The founding figure of the dynasty under which the initial compilation was performed. As a counterpoint, another significant source for Cao Cao's life as cited by Pei Songzhi was the Cao Man zhuan ( 曹瞞傳 ), an anonymous collection of anecdotes said to have been compiled by a person from Eastern Wu , a rival kingdom to Cao Cao's own. This work is overall very hostile to Cao Cao, depicting him as cruel and untrustworthy, although not every anecdote

6336-424: The imperial capital to put pressure on the empress dowager. Cao Cao strongly objected to He Jin's idea as he believed that the best way to deal with the eunuchs was to eliminate their leaders. He also argued that summoning external forces into Luoyang would only increase the risk of their plan being leaked out. He Jin – the highest-ranking officer in the government – understandably ignored him. As Cao Cao predicted,

6435-482: The latter declared himself emperor in early 197. Throughout 197, Lü Bu joined Cao Cao and others in a campaign against Yuan Shu , who had become a public enemy because of his treasonous actions. However, in 198, Lü Bu sided with Yuan Shu again and attacked Liu Bei, who lost and fled to join Cao Cao. In the winter of 198, Cao Cao and Liu Bei combined forces to attack Lü Bu and defeated him at the Battle of Xiapi . Lü Bu

6534-408: The latter surrendered to Cao Cao and went to Qing Province to serve as the provincial Inspector. In 210, Liu Xiu was appointed as the Administrator of Dong'an Commandery. He composed a number of poems, rhapsodies and formal hymns. Liu Biao's daughter married Wang Can 's relative Wang Kai ( 王凱 ) and bore Wang Ye . Liu Biao had two nephews: Liu Pan ( 劉磐 ) and Liu Hu ( 劉虎 ). Liu Pan participated in

6633-418: The major sources for information on Cao Cao's life employed by Pei Songzhi was the official history of the Wei dynasty, the Book of Wei , largely composed during the Wei dynasty itself by Wang Chen , Xun Yi , and Ruan Ji . It was completed by Wang Chen and presented to the court during the opening years of the succeeding Western Jin dynasty. This work is understandably typically very favourable to Cao Cao as

6732-550: The meantime, he also received many honours from Emperor Xian. In 213, he was created Duke of Wei and granted a fief covering parts of present-day Hebei and Henan. In 216, he was elevated to the status of a vassal king under the title "King of Wei" and awarded numerous ceremonial privileges, of which some used to be reserved exclusively for emperors. Cao Cao died in Luoyang in March 220 and was succeeded by his son Cao Pi who accepted

6831-511: The murder of Cao Cao's father, Cao Song , in Xu Province, which occurred when Cao Song was en route to Qiao County ( 譙縣 ; present-day Bozhou , Anhui) after his retirement. Although Tao Qian's culpability in the murder was questionable, Cao Cao nonetheless held him responsible for his father's death. During the invasions, Cao Cao conquered several territories in Xu Province and massacred thousands of civilians. Cao Cao's assault on Xu Province

6930-530: The nobles and engaged in corrupt practices, so Cao Cao proposed to the imperial court to dismiss about 80 percent of them. As Cao Cao had a reputation for being a strict law enforcer, when news of his arrival reached these corrupt officials, they were so fearful that they fled to nearby commanderies. Cao Cao governed Jinan State well and maintained peace in the area. In the early days of the Western Han, nearly four hundred years previously, Liu Zhang ( 劉章 ),

7029-483: The only other warlords in a position to oppose the two powers. However, Liu Biao eventually decided to shelter Liu Bei , an enemy of Cao Cao and relative in deep lineage when Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao, where Liu Bei was previously sheltered after the events of 198 ( Battle of Xiapi ). This made Liu Biao a target of Cao Cao's wrath as Liu Bei rebelled against Cao Cao just before the war against Yuan Shao. After Cao Cao finalised his unification of northern China in 208, he led

7128-507: The opposing forces. In the spring of 193, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shu at the Battle of Fengqiu and returned to Dingtao County by summer. Between 193 and 194, Cao Cao came into conflict with Tao Qian , the Governor of Xu Province , and attacked Xu Province three times. The first attack took place in the autumn of 193, when Cao Cao attacked Tao Qian after the latter supported Que Xuan ( 闕宣 ), who had committed treason by declaring himself emperor. The second and third invasions were triggered by

7227-404: The other coalition members were making merry instead of thinking how to make progress. He presented his plan on how to continue the war against Dong Zhuo and chided them for their lacklustre attitudes towards their initial goals. They ignored him. As Cao Cao had few troops left with him after the Battle of Xingyang, he travelled to Yang Province with Xiahou Dun to recruit soldiers. Chen Wen ,

7326-446: The rich and poor. The senior officials did not dare to interfere. When Cao Cao assumed office in Jinan State, he destroyed all the temples and banned such idolatrous practices. He upheld the laws sternly and eliminated unorthodox customs and cult-like activities. After serving as chancellor for a brief time, Cao Cao was reassigned to be the Administrator of Dong Commandery ( 東郡 ; around present-day Puyang County , Henan), but he declined

7425-492: The rival warlord Lü Bu . Many commanderies and counties in Yan Province responded to Lü Bu's call and defected to his side except for a few. Cao Cao aborted his campaign in Xu Province and returned to attack Lü Bu. In one battle at Puyang County , he fell into an ambush and suffered some burns but managed to survive and escape. Cao Cao and Lü Bu were locked in a stalemate at Puyang County for over 100 days until Lü Bu left

7524-399: The same mother.) Around mid-208, Liu Qi found an excuse to leave Xiangyang and serve as the Administrator of Jiangxia Commandery . After Liu Biao's death in late 208, Liu Cong became the new Governor of Jing Province with the support of the Cai family. Later that year, he surrendered to the warlord Cao Cao when the latter led his forces to attack Jing Province. Cao Cao then appointed him as

7623-589: The same work. Although Pei Songzhi sometimes pointed out flaws in Sun Sheng's methods, he often cites him as an authority. Other Jin dynasty historians he gave less credence to, while still including parallel passages from their work, such as Jiangbiao zhuan ( 江表傳 ), by Yu Pu  [ zh ] ( 虞溥 ), and Wei Jin Shiyu ( 魏晉世語 ; Tales of the Worlds of Wei and Jin ) by Guo Ban  [ zh ] ( 郭頒 ),

7722-647: The siege was lifted after about two months when Cao Cao personally led an army to relief Liu Yan. Guan Yu slew Yan Liang in the midst of battle. While Cao Cao and his troops were evacuating Boma's residents, Yuan Shao's forces led by Wen Chou and Liu Bei caught up with them at Yan Ford, but were defeated and Wen Chou was killed in battle. Cao Cao returned to his main camp at Guandu while Yuan Shao moved to Yangwu County ( 陽武縣 ; southwest of present-day Yuanyang County, Henan ). Around this time, Guan Yu left Cao Cao and returned to Liu Bei. In late 200, Yuan Shao led his forces to attack Cao Cao at Guandu. Both sides were locked in

7821-490: The southern bank of the Yellow River . In winter, he mobilised his forces and deployed them at Guandu ( 官渡 ; present-day Guandu Town, Zhongmu County , Henan). Around this time, Cheng Yu and Guo Jia had warned Cao Cao against allowing Liu Bei to leave Xuchang but it was too late because Cao Cao had already sent Liu Bei to intercept and block Yuan Shu. Earlier, when he was still in Xuchang, Liu Bei had secretly joined

7920-669: The territories in Yan Province and managed to retake them from Lü Bu. Lü Bu fled east to Xu Province and took refuge under Liu Bei , who had succeeded Tao Qian as the Governor of Xu Province earlier in 194. In the winter of 195, the central government officially designated Cao Cao as the Governor of Yan Province. In 196, Lü Bu turned against his host and seized control of Xu Province from Liu Bei, but still allowed Liu Bei to remain in Xiaopei ( 小沛 ; present-day Pei County , Jiangsu). Although he agreed to an alliance with Yuan Shu earlier, he broke his promise and severed ties with Yuan Shu when

8019-468: The warlord Dong Zhuo usurped power in 189, placing on the throne the puppet ruler Emperor Xian , Wang Can was merely 13 years old (by East Asian reckoning). A year later, Dong Zhuo moved the imperial capital from Luoyang to the more strategically secure Chang'an . Wang Can then headed to Chang'an, where he settled down for the next three years. In Chang'an, the prominent scholar and calligrapher Cai Yong recognised Wang Can's talent and recommended him to

8118-416: The warlord Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu in 200, Cao Cao launched a series of campaigns against Yuan Shao's sons and allies over the following seven years, defeated them, and unified much of northern China under his control. In 208, shortly after Emperor Xian appointed him as Imperial Chancellor , he embarked on an expedition to gain a foothold in southern China, but was defeated by the allied forces of

8217-527: The warlord who controlled the Han central government at the time. Wang Can's talents came to fruition during his service in Cao Cao's administration. In 213, after Emperor Xian enfeoffed Cao Cao as the Duke of Wei and granted him ten cities to form his dukedom, Cao Cao tasked Wang Can with establishing a new system of laws and standards to replace the old one, which had largely fallen into disuse. In late 216, Wang Can accompanied Cao Cao on his fourth campaign against

8316-496: The warlords Sun Quan , Liu Bei , and Liu Qi at the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs . His subsequent attempts over the following years to annex the lands south of the Yangtze River never proved successful. In 211, he defeated a coalition of northwestern warlords led by Ma Chao and Han Sui at the Battle of Tong Pass . Five years later, he seized Hanzhong from the warlord Zhang Lu , but lost it to Liu Bei by 219. In

8415-526: The way. The first was with the family of Lü Boshe , an old acquaintance. The second incident occurred when he passed by Zhongmu County , where a village chief suspected that he was a fugitive and arrested him. However, another official recognised Cao Cao and believed he could act as a positive influence, so he released Cao Cao. Dong Zhuo murdered the Prince of Hongnong and Empress Dowager He later. When Cao Cao returned to Chenliu Commandery, he spent his family fortune on raising an army to eliminate Dong Zhuo. In

8514-501: The winter of 189, Cao Cao assembled his forces in Jiwu County ( 己吾縣 ; southwest of present-day Ningling County , Henan) and declared war on Dong Zhuo. In early 190, several regional officials and warlords formed a coalition army numbering some tens of thousands, and launched a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo. They declared that their mission was to free Emperor Xian and the central government from Dong Zhuo's control. Yuan Shao

8613-466: Was a general under Liu Biao, instead of Liu Biao himself. While Cao Cao (in the north) was gaining strength, Liu Biao chose to neither help nor hinder his conquests, in part because he had been dealt a defeat against the forces of Sun Ce at the Battle of Shaxian (沙羡, in modern Wuhan, Hubei ). Around 200 CE, after Cao Cao 's total victory over his archrival warlord Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu , Liu Biao still remained neutral, despite being one of

8712-529: Was also a central theme of works from this period. In the history of Chinese literature, the Jian'an poems were a transition from the early folk songs into scholarly poetry. One of the representative works by Wang Can is the Poem of Seven Sorrows ( 七哀诗 ), a five-character poem lamenting the suffering of the people during the years of war. Wang Can also wrote a history book called Records of Heroes ( 英雄記 ). Many anecdotes and stories related to Wang Can exist. It

8811-403: Was also renowned for his eidetic memory . The historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms described an incident where Wang Can was watching a game of weiqi . Someone accidentally knocked into the board and scattered the pieces. Wang Can then placed the pieces back to their original positions based on memory. Wang Can was from Gaoping County ( 高平縣 ), Shanyang Commandery ( 山陽郡 ), which

8910-465: Was appointed General Who Establishes Virtue ( 建德將軍 ). In July or August 196, Cao Cao was promoted to General Who Garrisons the East ( 鎮東將軍 ) and enfeoffed as the Marquis of Fei Village ( 費亭侯 ) – the peerage previously held by his adoptive grandfather Cao Teng . Sometime between August and September 196, Cao Cao led his forces to the ruins of Luoyang and received Emperor Xian. The emperor granted Cao Cao

9009-602: Was away in Xu Province, but, as Cao Cao accurately predicted, Yuan Shao did not make any advances throughout this period of time, possibly due to Cao Cao's general Yu Jin 's raiding in the south of Yuan Shao's territory. From early to mid 200, the forces of Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed in two separate engagements at Boma ( 白馬 ; present-day Hua County , Henan) and Yan Ford ( 延津 ; near present-day Yanjin County , Henan). At Boma, Yuan Shao sent Guo Tu , Chunyu Qiong and Yan Liang to besiege Cao Cao's general Liu Yan ( 劉延 ), but

9108-537: Was captured and executed after his defeat. Cao Cao also pacified the eastern parts of Xu and Qing provinces along the coast. Emperor Xian had been held hostage in Chang'an by Li Jue , Guo Si and other former followers of Dong Zhuo. Around 195, when internal conflict broke out between Li Jue and Guo Si, Emperor Xian escaped from Chang'an and after a harrowing journey returned to the ruins of Luoyang, which Dong Zhuo had ordered to be destroyed by fire in 190 when moving

9207-424: Was elected as the coalition chief while Cao Cao served as acting General of Uplifting Martial Might ( 奮武將軍 ). The coalition scored some initial victories against Dong Zhuo's forces and reached Luoyang within months. Dong Zhuo, alarmed by his losses, ordered his troops to forcefully relocate Luoyang's residents to Chang'an and burn down the imperial capital, leaving behind nothing for the coalition. While Dong Zhuo

9306-505: Was known to be perceptive and manipulative. He liked to hunt, idle, roam about freely, and play vigilante so he was not as highly regarded compared to his more studious peers. From the time Cao Cao was fifteen until he turned thirty, widespread epidemic diseases ravaged China on average one out of every three years. Despite Cao Cao's loafing ways and unimpressive behaviour, there were two persons – Qiao Xuan and He Yong – who recognised his potential and extraordinary talents. Upon visiting

9405-515: Was previously held hostage by other warlords such as Dong Zhuo , Li Jue , and Guo Si . After he established the new imperial capital in Xuchang , Emperor Xian and the central government came under his direct control, but he still paid nominal allegiance to the emperor. Throughout the 190s, Cao Cao actively waged wars in central China against rival warlords such as Lü Bu , Yuan Shu , and Zhang Xiu , eliminating all of them. Following his triumph over

9504-540: Was retreating to Chang'an, Cao Cao led his own army to pursue the enemy, but was defeated by Xu Rong , a general under Dong Zhuo, at the Battle of Xingyang . This was the first military action Cao Cao commanded, and he barely escaped alive, with help from his cousin Cao Hong . He returned to the coalition base in Suanzao County ( 酸棗縣 ; southwest of present-day Yanjin County, Henan ) and was disgusted to see that

9603-442: Was so brutal that after one massacre the corpses of his victims stoppered up the nearby Si river ( 泗水 ). His army tore down villages in its wake, ensuring refugees could not return, and ate all the chickens and dogs. Cao Cao only turned back when he received news that his base in Yan Province had fallen to Lü Bu . In 194, Cao Cao's subordinates Zhang Miao , Chen Gong and others rebelled against him in Yan Province and defected to

9702-669: Was standard to record. Especially useful for noting things like official appointments, three titles of this type were used by Pei Songzhi to add detail to Chen Shou's account: Xiandi Ji ( 獻帝記 ; Records of Emperor Xian ) compiled by Liu Ai ( 劉艾 ), Xiandi Qiju zhu ( 獻帝起居注 ; Notes on Emperor Xian's Daily Life ), and Shanyang Gong zaiji ( 山陽公載記 ; Records of the Duke of Shanyang [Emperor Xian's post-usurpation title]) by Yue Zi ( 樂資 ). Other early sources for Pei Songzhi included Yu Huan 's privately composed histories Dianlüe ( 典略 ; Authoritative Account ) and Weilüe , written prior to Chen Shou's own work; and Sima Biao 's Annals of

9801-558: Was waging wars throughout central China in the 190s, Yuan Shao defeated his rival Gongsun Zan at the Battle of Yijing in 199, after which he controlled four provinces in northern China ( Ji , Bing , Qing and You ) and gained command of thousands of troops. A power struggle between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao became inevitable by early 199. In the autumn of 199, Cao Cao dispatched troops to Liyang County ( 黎陽縣 ; present-day Xun County , Henan) and sent Zang Ba and others to capture some territories in Qing Province while leaving Yu Jin to guard

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